Handout - Training the Trainer

8/4/2019 Handout - Training the Trainer

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Training for Trainers

L. R. Associates Pvt. Ltd.Management Educators & Organisation Consultants

Bldg. G/17A, 2nd Floor, Nootan Nagar,Guru Nanak Road, Bandra (W),Mumbai - 400050.

26442116 / 26451731 Email :[email protected]

Website : www.lrconsultants.com

People transform Organisations, We transform People.
mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]://www.lrconsultants.com/


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ContentsPage No.

The mediocre trainer tells. The good trainer explains. Thesuperior trainer demonstrates. The great trainer inspires...................................................................................... 3Role of Training and Development ................................... 3Areas of Training - Knowledge, Skill and Attitude ............. 5Principles of Learning .................................................. 5Identifying Training Needs - Training Need Analysis ......... 8

Designing a Training Program ........................................ 10Factors to be considered in the Selection of TrainingMethods ....................................................................... 12Methods and Techniques of Training .............................. 20Use of Audio Visual Aids ................................................ 28Evaluation of Training .................................................. 29Conclusion .................................................................... 35

People Transform Organisations, We Transform People.

L. R. Associates Pvt. Ltd.2


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The mediocre trainer tells. The good trainer explains. The superiortrainer demonstrates. The great trainer inspires

William Arthur Ward

Role of Training and Development

Training is concerned with the acquisition or development of knowledge,skills, techniques, attitudes and experiences which enable an individual tomake his most effective contribution to the combined efforts of the team ofwhich he is a member. The objective of training is to prepare the individualto carry out his present job satisfactorily, or to prepare him for greaterresponsibility.

The fundamental aim of training is to help the organisation achieve itspurpose by adding value to its key resource - the people it employs. Trainingmeans investing in people to enable them to perform better and to empowerthem to make the best use of their natural abilities. The particular objectives

of training are to: Develop the competences of employees and improve their performance; Enable people to grow within the organisation in order that, as far as

possible, its future needs for human resources can be met from within; Reduce the learning time for employees starting in new jobs, transfers or

promotions, and ensure that they become fully competent as quickly andeconomically as possible.

Benefits of TrainingEffective training can: Improve individual, team and corporate performance in terms of output,

quality, speed and overall productivity; Attract high-quality employees by offering them learning and

development opportunities; Increase employees levels of competence and enhance their skills thus

enabling them to obtain more job satisfaction, gain higher rewards andprogress within the organisation;

Increase the commitment of employees by encouraging them to identifywith the mission and objectives of the organisation;

Help to manage transformation by understanding the basis of change andprovide people with the knowledge and skills they need, to adjust to newsituations;

Facilitate to develop a positive culture in the organisation, one, forexample, that is orientated towards performance improvement;

Provide higher levels of service to customers.

Management Development. Management development on the other handis a systematic process of growth and development by which the managersdevelop their abilities to manage. So it is the result of not only participationin formal courses of instruction but also of actual job experience. It is




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concerned with improving the performance of the managers by giving themopportunities for growth and development.

Management development in an organisation contributes to businesssuccess by enabling the managers to meet its present and future needs. Itimproves their performance, gives them development opportunities, and

provides for management succession. Professional development processesmay be anticipatory (so that managers can contribute to long-termobjectives), reactive (intended to resolve or pre-empt performancedifficulties) or motivational (geared to individual career aspirations).

Objectives of Management Development Ensures that managers understand what is expected of them. Agrees with the objectives against which their performance will be

measured and the level of competence required in their roles. Identifies managers with potential, encourages them to prepare and

implement personal development plans.

Makes certain that they receive the required development, training andexperience to be equipped to face more demanding responsibilities withintheir own locations and elsewhere in the organization.

Provides for management succession, creating a system to keep thisunder review.

Improves the performance of the managers. Increases morale of members of the management group. Enhances versatility of the management group. Keeps executives abreast with the changes and developments in their

respective fields. Creates successors who can take over in case of contingencies.

Improves thought process and analytical ability. Broadens the outlook of the executive regarding his role, position and

responsibilities. Understands the conceptual issues relating to economic, social, and

technical areas. Understands the problems of human relations and improves human

relation skills. Stimulates creative thinking.

Role of the Organisation. The role of the company in managementdevelopment is to establish the program and the development opportunities

for its present and potential managers. Just exposing the employees tolectures, case studies, readings, job rotation, assignments and the like doesnot guarantee that they will learn. What is more important is the effort ofthe individuals. Each individual has to contribute to his development, asothers can only create opportunities. The saying We can take the horse tothe water but we cannot make it drink cannot be forgotten here.

The role of the company is to provide conditions that accelerate the growth.And these conditions should be part of the organisational climate itself, in




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order to be away from the unrealistic expectation that we can create anddevelop managers only in classroom.

Areas of Training - Knowledge, Skill and Attitude

Knowledge can be imparted. Trainees are helped to learn, to understand

and to remember facts, information and principles.Skill is a physical act or action. Examples are shorthand writing, operatingan adding machine, playing a trumpet.Attitudes can be changed to some extent, however not all attitudes can bealtered. It has to be decided whether the attitude is based upon superstition,fear, prejudice, ignorance or whether it is the product of the social group towhich the individual belongs. If undesirable attitudes based uponignorance need to be changed then there is a reasonable hope of achievingthis in an industrial training situation. In case of attitudes based upon theother elements outlined above, the situation is much more complex.Technique usually involves application in a dynamic situation of both

knowledge and skill. It is a way of behaviour or thinking. Driving a car,commanding troops in battle, salesmanship, are examples of techniques.

Experience differs from the four previous items that is it cannot be taught ina classroom. It is the result of practicing use of knowledge, skills andtechniques over a period of time and often in a number of differentsituations. One of the training officers many tasks is to arrange theexperience of trainees on an organised basis. Frequently this is achieved bymeans of job rotation and sometimes by exchanges between companies.

Relationship between Knowledge and Skill. When the training material

is being put in the order in which it will be presented to the trainees, accountmust be taken of the relationship between knowledge and skill. The traineeis given knowledge to enable him to do his job. As soon as possible after heacquires the necessary knowledge he should have the opportunity to put itto practical use. Practicing the job skill will help him to remember what hehas learned. Thus, a manager learning the skill of selection interviewingneeds to practice as soon as he has acquired sufficient knowledge. This willreinforce what he has learned.

Principles of Learning

Learning has been described as a relatively permanent change in behaviourthat occurs as result of insight, practice or experience. Learning may besimply an addition (new information); it may be a subtraction (unlearning abad habit); or it may be a modification (adjusting new knowledge to old).Learning as change may be for the better or for the worse: we learn badhabits as well as good ones. Learning is a complicated process. It takesplace more readily in some circumstances than in others, and it can to agreat extent be influenced. It is a life-long activity; we are never too old tolearn, but we are frequently resistant to change. People often talk about




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problems as if they safeguarded their position, e.g., There are so manyproblems I cannot change. What they mean is, do not remove the problemsor I might have to change. Learning is change.

The learner is a partner with the instructor in the learning process. They arecapable of taking responsibility for their own learning and they gain through

two way communication. Learning is reflected on their and othersexperience. Adults learn what they perceive to be useful in their lifesituations. Their attention spans are a function of their interest in theexperience. They are most receptive to instruction that is clearly related toproblems they face daily. Learning is best when they are treated withrespect. However, adults do not typically see themselves as learners. Theylearn better in a climate that is informal and personal. Adult learners applylearning that they have been influential in planning. They learn when theyfeel supported in experimenting with new ideas and skills. Adults are likely tohave somewhat fixed points of view that make them closed to new ways ofthinking and behaving. They learn to react to the differential status of

members of the group. Adults are internally motivated to develop increasedeffectiveness. They filter their learning through their value systems.

Training and Development programs are more likely to be effective whenthey incorporate the following principles of learning:

Motivation to learn is the basic requisite to make training and developmentprograms effective. It comes from the awareness that training fetches somerise in status and pay.

Motivation alone is not enough. The individual must also have the ability to

learn. Ability varies from individual to individual and these differences mustbe considered while organizing the training programs.

Regardless of individual differences and whether the trainee is learning anew skill or acquiring knowledge of a given topic, he should be given theopportunity to practice what is being taught. Practice is a must after theindividual has been successfully trained.

Reinforcement may be understood as either, increase in the strength ofresponse or induced repetitions of the behaviour that preceded thereinforcement. Distinction may be made between positive reinforcement

and negative reinforcement. Positive reinforcement strengthens andincreases behaviour by the presentation of desirable consequences. Forexample, if an employee does something well and is complimented for it bythe boss, the probability is that the behaviour will be repeated andstrengthened. In negative reinforcement, the individual exhibits the desiredbehaviour to avoid something unpleasant. For example if an employee whohad the habit of coming late to work, the employee might begin to come ontime to avoid criticism/ reprimand from his boss.




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Knowledge of Results is a necessary condition for learning. Feedbackabout the performance will enable the learner to know where he or shestands and to initiate corrective action if any deviation from the expectedgoal has taken place. There are certain tasks for which such feedback isvirtually mandatory for learning.

Goal Setting

can also accelerate learning, particularly when it isaccompanied by knowledge of results. Individuals generally perform betterand learn more quickly when they have goals, particularly if they are specificand reasonably difficult. Goals that are too difficult or too easy have littlemotivational value. Further, goals will have better motivational value if theemployee has scope for participation in the goal-setting process.

Probably one of the most well established principles of learning is thatdistributed or spaced learning is superior to continuous learning. Schedulesof learning involve (i) duration of practice sessions, (ii) duration of restsessions, and (iii) positioning of rest pauses. All the three must be carefully

planned and executed.

A definite relationship has been established between learning andmeaningfulness of the subject learnt. The learning process is better &faster when the material is more meaningful.

Transfer of Learning What is learnt in training must be transferredto the job. Transfer enables to maximize the identical elements between thetraining situation and the actual job. This may be possible for training skillssuch as maintaining a cash register, but not for training leadership orconceptual skills. Often what is learnt in a training session faces resistance

back at the job. Techniques for overcoming resistance include creatingpositive expectations, opportunities to implement new behaviour on the job,and ensuring that the behaviour is reinforced when it occurs, by the traineessupervisor. Commitment from top management towards the trainingprogram also helps in overcoming resistance to change.

Ten Simple Rules of Learning1. The capacities of learners are important in determining what can be

learned and how long it will take.2. The order of presentation of materials to be learned is very important.3. Showing errors in how to do something can lead to increase in

learning.4. The rate of forgetting tends to be very rapid immediately after

learning.5. Repetition of identical materials is often as effective in getting things

remembered as repeating the same story but with variations.6. Knowledge of results leads to increases in learning.7. Learning is aided by active practice rather than passive reception.8. A message is more easily learned and accepted if it does not interfere

with earlier habits.




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9. The mere repetition of a situation does not necessarily lead to learning.Two things are necessary - belongingness and satisfaction.

10. Learning something new can interfere with the remembering ofsomething learned earlier.

Identifying Training Needs - Training Need Analysis

Identification of training needs is the first element and a critical one in thetraining activity. Success of the training function depends greatly on thecorrect identification of needs. Major sources for identifying Training &Development needs of individuals are:

Performance appraisal

Career plans and

System introduction / improvement.

Performance Appraisal: In the performance appraisal system there isscope to identify the difference between the organisations expectations andthe individuals performance. Areas relating to knowledge, skill, attitude and

behaviour on the job, which need change, can be specifically assessed in thesystem. The identification comes from the employee himself or out of adiscussion between the employee and his superior who prepares theappraisal.

Career Plans (Job enrichment/enlargement, transfer, promotion):Based on the advance information made available about changes incontent/context of the job of an individual, the training manager organisessuitable inputs to prepare the individual for the change. The details of inputsto be given to an individual emerge from discussions between the TrainingManager, the concerned employees and his superiors.

System Introduction: New systems and procedures, when introduced, callfor intervention from the Training & Development function. Implementationof new systems becomes much easier, if all individuals/groups concerned areexplained in advance about the change and how to make the best use of thesame.

There are eleven possible techniques for determining training needs. Theyare:(a) Observations (f) Questionnaire Surveys(b) Management requests (g) Tests of examinations(c) Interviews (h) Merit or performance ratings(d) Group Conferences (i) Personnel records(e) Job or activity analysis (j) Business and production reports

(k) Long-range organisationalplanning

Some people believe that indications of training needs can often be obtainedfrom a study of the sort of things people say at the exit interviews. Suchinterviews should continue but we must be very careful about accepting allthat is said by employees at an exit interview at its face value. The




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information which is given at an exit interview is usually highly subjective,often so incomplete as to be worthless and sometimes untrue.Questionnaires are sometimes used to help in the determination of trainingneeds. Questionnaires and opinion surveys can be extremely unreliable andmisleading. People often really do not know what they think or believe andthere is much evidence to show that even if they know it, they will not

always tell you. The reasons are many and complicated. If you want to usequestionnaires you are strongly recommended to do some study of theliterature available.

Tests of various types are often used for this purpose. This is a highlyspecialized field. Test must be valid, reliable, objective and standardized. Itis sad, but true, that many tests are used which fail to meet one or more ofthese basic requirements. Those who have not been trained in theadministration of tests and the interpretation of test results and who cannotget professional advice from someone who has, would be well advised not touse them.

Identification of Training Needs

Identification ofTraining Needs

Develop TrainingObjectives

Measure DesignTraining TrainingResults Curriculum

Conduct Design/SelectTraining TrainingPrograms Methods

Design TrainingEvaluationsMethodology




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Designing a Training Program

Steps involved in designing a training program:The first step is to use the training strategy (or, usually, a combination of

strategies) that the organisation and system have settled on together forroughing out an overall design.The second step is to break the general training objectives into constituentparts. The first rough breakdown is into component knowledge,understanding and skill.The third step is to use specifications of different training methods in orderto arrive at the total time and facilities required for meeting an objective.The fourth step is to decide on different packages in which this programcould be offered and to ask the organisation to select one.The fifth step in designing a training program is to dovetail detailed trainingevents into training sequences and, finally, into the shape of the total

program package.

Setting Training Objectives. In formal procedures of instruction,experiences are organized to accomplish specific learning (changes) within arestricted period of time. In this situation it is essential that a teacher clarifyprecisely what learning and unlearning he wants to facilitate and let theseobjectives serve as a clear focus for his whole training program. Specificallyenumerated objectives (in knowledge, skills and attitudes) should indicatewhat material must be taught and will also affect the choice of trainingmethod. The trainee himself may learn more effectively when he has clearlydefined goals toward which to work. A training program should set forth

goals or objectives in terms of: The job to be performed;

The conditions under which it is to be performed;

The level of proficiency required.

The more a trainer can arrange the learning situation so as to utilise theseprinciples of learning, the more likely the learner is to learn. Thus, a trainingprogram will be judged adequate to the degree that it appears likely to:

Provide for the learners active participation;

Provide the trainee with knowledge of results about his attempts to

improve; Promote a meaningful integration of learning experiences that the

trainee can transfer from training to the job;

Provide some means for the trainee to be reinforced for appropriatebehaviour;

Provide for practice and repetition when needed;

Motivate the trainee to improve his own performance;

Assist the trainee in his willingness to change.




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When identifying the knowledge element of a job it is important to take intoaccount the attitude of the employee when he comes to apply thatknowledge. For example a program on safety may provide full knowledgeof the work hazards and the rules to be observed but if it leaves traineeswith the attitude that It will never happen to me, than the program willhave failed.

Content of the Training Program. A statement of objectives, includingthe state at which the trainee is to be tested and the standard to beattained. A statement of the material to be learned (the syllabus), brokendown into stages, in the order in which it is to be presented to trainees andindicating the skills and knowledge (including attitude) to be learned.

Statement of Objectives. The objectives of the program must be clearlyset down. This will help ensure that only those items are included which helpthe trainee to achieve the learning or the standard required. The statementshould include the following:

For whom the program is written (Training Specification); What the trainee is expected to be able to do at significant stages of

the program; The standard of performance to be achieved (e.g. fully experienced

worker); How this standard will be tested (e.g. formal written test, on-the-job

performance); The situation in which these standard will be tested (e.g. in classroom

or at place of work).

Practical Considerations Affecting the Design of Training Programs.Once the objectives have been set the training program must be designed tomeet those objectives. It is sometimes possible to provide the necessaryfacilities to run the desired training program. Where limitations exist theprogram should first be written to the highest possible standard and thenadjusted to meet the practical situation.

The most common practical considerations which may limit the trainingprogram are cost, urgency, availability of space, availability of instructorsand availability of training material.

Ordering the Material to be Learned. The material to be learned hasbeen identified during the preliminary analysis and preparation of thesyllabus. The next step is to look at the breakdown of skills (what the traineemust be able to do) and knowledge (what the trainee needs to know to beable to do his job) to see in what order they should be arranged to best meetthe needs of the trainee (i.e. the logical learning order). The logical learningorder means that each item of the program makes sense to the traineebecause of what has previously been learned.




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Factors to be considered in the Selection of TrainingMethods

Human Factors. The Trainer: The trainers knowledge, managerial andtraining experience, and personality are all factors of primary importance.

The trainer has to have a clear and significant message to pass, and hispersonality has to be acceptable to the students or trainees so that effectivecommunication links can be established quickly and easily. If theseconditions are fulfilled, a well-chosen and properly used method is likely toease and stimulate learning, if they are not fulfilled, unfortunately themethod may become an end in itself.

Trainers are advised on training methods by senior colleagues, in specialtraining methods courses, through manuals, etc. But eventually eachtrainer has to assume personal responsibility for choosing the best methodsfor his particular training assignment. He ought to be able, therefore, to

make a rational appraisal of his abilities and to try to employ methods likelyto enhance - not reduce - the impact he hopes to make. Role playing, forexample, is an exercise requiring some knowledge of psychology, a lot ofexperience with various types of human problems in management and theability to react quickly in discussions. That is why a trainer who does notpossess these qualities, but has an analytical mind and experience in solvingbusiness problems, might give preference to the case study method.

The Participants and Environment from which they come. Methods oftraining must respect:

The intellectual level and educational background of the participants;

The participants age and practical experience; and

The social and cultural environment.

For example, in training programs intended for supervisors, middlemanagers or small entrepreneurs who have had only a basic education andwho have been away from school for a long time, lectures should be replacedby short talks using visual aids extensively; concrete examples should begiven and no high level theories presented; simplified case studies should beused instead of long and complex cases; simple programmed books shouldbe recommended instead of the usual textbooks.

In regard to the participants practical experience, a distinction must bemade between young people with little or no management experience, whofirst learn about management in a university or other type of school, andparticipants with practical experience, either from managerial functions orfrom specialist work in various functional departments.In the former case, much of the information is new to the students, and it isdifficult to link the training process with any previous experience. However,these students are open-minded and often more receptive to new ideas thanthe latter group. In training people with experience, only additional




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knowledge has to be imparted; and it is not only possible but absolutelyessential to make an appeal to the participants experience by relating thetraining to it. However, in this group some of the participants with practicalexperience may take the attitude of knowing better in advance; if so, thetrainers main problem may be how to change their air of self-complacencyand make them aware of what they need to learn to do their jobs better. In

such cases it is rarely sufficient for the trainers to talk about new methodsand techniques of management. Practical assignments, case studydiscussions or simulation exercises are more likely to help the participantsrealize that they have gaps in knowledge and skills and that training may bethe answer.

Objectives of Training. Training needs and objectives of educationaltraining program in management are defined in terms of changes to beeffected in knowledge, attitudes and skills - which should afterwards lead toimproved managerial action. Various training situations will be concernedwith various types and levels of knowledge, attitudes and skills. A

preliminary analysis of needs will help to identify what objectives a particularprogram ought to have. Methods will then be selected with regard to theirability to impart new knowledge, influence attitudes and develop practicalskills.

If training is intended to improve multiple skills (which is usually the case), acombination of training methods must be used. To determine which methodsare most likely to affect the managers attitudes or impact a specific kind ofknowledge.

Let us take the example of using specialist knowledge and experience in the

preparation of management decisions on complex business matters. It is oflittle use to lecture about the value of specialists to manager whooverestimates his own individual judgment and is not willing or perhaps ableto use the specialist services which are available to him. Team work insyndicates, participation in business games or practical projects might makesuch a manager aware of his drawbacks so that he will begin to change hisattitudes towards team work and the importance of specialists. His interestin new knowledge and skill will undoubtedly be awakened.

On his leadership style, communication abilities, and behaviour in general, amanger may get more direct and stronger feedback from other participants

in sensitivity training or as a member of a team working on a group projectthan in years of work in a managerial position.

Knowledge, skills and attitudes are inter-related and this must not beoverlooked when setting the objectives of training and choosing trainingmethods. Furthermore, they are related to certain specific managementfunctions or subject areas or, in many cases, to multi-functional situationsand inter-disciplinary problems.




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Subject Area. Various subject areas (finance, personnel, operationsresearch, general management, etc.) have their own specific features, forexample, operations research techniques are based on the extensive use ofmathematics and statistics. It is usually taught through a combination oflectures (using audio-visual aids) and exercises during which the technique ispracticed. This may be supported by reading assignments. In certain cases

lectures may be replaced or supplemented with programmed books.However, the main thing from the management point of view is not to knowthe technique itself, but to know when and how it can be used. This abilitycan be developed through practical projects, simulation exercises, businessgames, case studies, etc.

In programs concentrating on the behavioural aspects of management,communication, leadership and motivation, training methods may beselected and combined in ways which give the participants numerousopportunities to analyse human behaviour, and at the same time directlyinfluence the attitudes and behaviour of the participants themselves. These

programs use case studies dealing with the human side of the enterprise,business games emphasizing communication and relations betweenparticipants, role playing, sensitivity training and various other forms ofgroup discussions, assignments and exercises.

It should be noted that it is often possible to choose from several methods, ifwe want to deal with a particular subject or problem. Thus, the analysis of abalance sheet can be taught through the case study method, a combinationof case study with role playing, a lecture, as a classroom exercise or byreading a text or a programmed book on the subject. This is possiblebecause the principal methods are versatile enough to be used in training for

a number of different subjects. Lecture, discussion and case studies areused in virtually all subject areas.

However, in management education and training the principal problem is nothow to deal with specific subject areas and functions. It is much moreimportant to:

Explain the relationship between various sides and functions of theenterprise and show the highly complex character of the managementprocess;

Help the participants to avoid a one-sided and oversimplified approachto multi-dimensional situations;

Promote general management skills, which essentially lie in an inter-disciplinary approach to management, and to combine and co-ordinatethe various functions of management.

Time and Material Factors. Decisions about the choice of trainingmethods are not independent of time, financial resources and other factors.Preparation time (which affects the cost of the training material as well)varies for the different training methods. As a rule, complex case studies




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and business games require long and costly preparation, which includestesting with experimental groups, and making necessary revisions.

The length of the course predetermines the kinds of methods which can beused. The longer the course, the better are the chances that the trainer willbe able to use business games, complex cases and practical projects. The

time of day, during training is more important. For example, in the post-lunch period (14.00-16.00) it is more desirable to have enjoyable andattractive sessions which require active involvement.

The training facilities may be a limiting factor in some institutes, or incourses given outside the institute, e.g. in small towns. Factors such as thenumber of rooms available for group discussions or syndicates or theaccessibility of audio-visual aids should be anticipated and the methodsaltered in advance.

A Systems Concept of Training. The training literature frequently refers

to a particular model which is commonly used in training. This model is thetraditional model composed of the phases assessment, objective setting,design, implementation and evaluation.

The training model is view as an interdependent and interrelated process inwhich the five phases form sub-processes which are highly interrelated andinterdependent on all other sub-processes as well as on the total process.

The conception of the training model as an interrelated process leads to aset of consequences quite different from those of the traditional conception.The consequences which result from using it as a process are in general (1)

the results of each sub-processes do not become final statements but arecontinually reworked and reconceived, resulting in (2) increasingly specificquestions, answers, and actions in each sub-process which results in (3) afunctional utility in terms of training results.

The Need for a Pattern. It is important that the subjects covered by theprogram are developed to a pattern which helps the trainee to learn.Broadly, there are three ways of structuring a training program; the whole ofthe material to be learned is first covered in broad outline and then eachitem or subject is dealt with in depth. This is the most common pattern. It isused when there are no special considerations which make an alternative

pattern more appropriate. The whole of the material to be learned may becovered several times over, each time at increased depth. (This isappropriate when each complete part is so large or complex that therelationship of one part to another may be lost if each part is dealt withseparately in depth). Each item or subject may be presented separately andthe parts brought into a whole at the end of the program. (This issuitable only when each item or subject is in itself a complete piece oflearning. It is used when it is important for the trainee to discover forhimself the relationship between the different items or subjects, e.g.




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supervisory training). This understanding of the structure will help them tolearn and remember what they have learned.

The place where the training is to be carried out. Depending on thetype of job for which the trainee is being prepared, there will be elements ofthe training which are best done off-the-job (either in-company or externally)and some which are best done on-the-job (either supernumerary or as part ofthe normal labour force). The mixture will depend on the nature of the job,the in-company facilities and the availability of external courses. The choiceof where each part of the training is best carried out must be made from thefollowing:

In-company, on-the-job ( part of the normal labour force)

In-company, supernumerary,

In-company, off-the-job,

External courses.

In-Company, On-The-Job. On-the-job training may be applicable to more

complex jobs which can be broken down into a series of simple steps but it isusually difficult in the production situation to keep the steps in logicallearning order.

In-Company, Supernumerary. This training is suitable when off-the-jobtraining (in-company or external) is to be followed by a period during whichthe trainee will develop skill at the place of work.

Supernumerary training is also suitable when the trainee needs broadexperience of several types of work. For example, a management traineewill need knowledge of a number of jobs and the environment in which they

are performed.

In-Company, Off-The-Job. Off-the-job training is used:

To establish the self-confidence of the trainee before he is introducedto the production situation;

When tasks which the trainee will face in his job do not occur in anycoherent order

(i.e. when there is no logical learning order possible at the place ofwork); When the trainee needs a lot of knowledge to be able to do the job ( it

is hard to put over information at the place of production)

External Courses.The training facilities of external bodies are used when: The skills and knowledge learned internally need to be supplemented

by external courses;

The company has no comparable facilities internally to give thetraining required;

The company does not have suitable lectures or instructors available;

There are too few trainees to warrant the setting-up of an in-companycourse;




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There is an advantage to be gained by the trainees in mixing with theemployees of other companies.

A point of difficulty with external course is that they will generally cater for awide range of trainees from different companies and cannot, therefore, betailor-made to meet the exact requirement of an individual company.

Fitting Together In-Company and External Training. When the trainingprogram involves a mixture of in-company and external training it isimportant that the in-company part is first put on a systematic basis and thatthe external part is then fitted to the in-company part.

Timing The Program.Timing must be realistic and flexible.Realistic because: The trainee needs sufficient time in which to learn andtime costs money.Flexible because: Trainees vary in the speed at which they learn; Instructorsvary in the speed at which they promote the learning and conditions underwhich learning takes place vary from day to day ( e.g. temperature, noise

level, the mood of instructors and trainees).

A Simple procedure. The following simple procedure will help to achievetiming which is both realistic and flexible:

The time needed by an average trainee is estimated for each item orsubject of the program.

These estimated times are built into four-day units.

Each four-day unit is made the target for a five-day week.

The four-day units are then spread over the five-day week in the waywhich best suits the subject matter and the trainees.

Pace of the Program. The trainees level of ability will to some extentdetermine the general pace at which skill and knowledge can be fed to thembut there are other considerations:The length of time elapsed since the trainees were in a last formal trainingsituation. This may mean a slow start to acclimatize the trainees.The stages at which the rate of learning slows down.

The Level of Instruction. A training program which covers the right itemsor subjects may fail to achieve its objectives because it is pitched at thewrong level. The level of instruction must be matched to the traineesabilities.

When the material to be learned is at a very high level - the average traineewill be unable to learn. The above-average trainee may be able tounderstand the subject matter. He will not suffer a sense of failure, but hewill find the job demands less of him than he was led to expect from thetraining program. He may either suffer a feeling of frustration or expand hisresponsibility beyond that expected by management.




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When the material to be learned is at a very low level - trainees often rejectthe whole of the program even when some parts are at the right level.

The Need For Feedback. To complete even a short training programbefore checking whether the trainees have acquired the necessary level ofknowledge or skill would create a position where any false learning or

omissions could not be rectified within the time allocated to the program. Atfrequent intervals during the program both the trainer and trainee need toknow how they are progressing.

The trainer needs to know whether: The items to be learned are being learned; There are gaps in his instruction or in the program; Special attention is required to some slow trainees;

There are quicker trainees who need extra work to keep theminterested.

The trainee needs to know whether: He has correctly understood the information he has been given

( knowledge); He can use the information on a job of work (Skill).

How to Provide for Feedback. The training sessions which providemost knowledge of progress are those which simulate the work situation e.g.,role play, syndicate and group exercises, business games, projects.Whatever the form of the test it must be carefully devised with the followingpoints in mind:

The objective of the part of the program being tested;

The standard expected of the trainees; The type of trainee;

The place at which the test is to be set;

The ease with which the test can be marked or judged.

Choice of a Training Technique. The choice of training techniques isimportant to a successful training program. A program which envisages allknowledge being put across in the form of telling and all practice of skillbeing done at the place of work will not be as successful as one whichemploys the different available training techniques to advantage. The choice

of techniques should be made with the following points in mind: The end result to be achieved The person who is to give the particular session

The type of trainee

The time of day

The technique used for other items of the program

Tips of Lesson Preparation and Presentation




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Consider your overall objective. What is the objective of this particularlesson in relation to the total course? What do you want the group to dobetter or to do differently, or what do you want them to know or understandas a result of your instruction? In other words, what do you want theirterminal behaviour to be?

Consider the group. How much do they already know about the subject?What is their general attitude toward the subject likely to be? What is theirintellectual level? How fast will they be able to work? Is the grouphomogenous from this point of view? Does the group have any particularlearning difficulties that must be taken into account? What is the size of thegroup?Consider the Time Available. How much time do you have to prepare?What is the total time available for the lesson (including time for out-of-classreading and/or problem-solving)? What time of the day or evening is thelesson to be given?

Consider the Resources Available. Is the necessary equipment available for any special demonstrations?

Is there time to obtain it and set it up?

Is time available for the class to do preparatory reading? Is a guest speaker, resource person, special film or any other

assistance required for the lesson? Have prior arrangements beenmade to have any of these available?

Plan and Schedule the Subject Matter. Most instructors have at theirdisposal only a limited time in which to give their lesson, therefore it isalways advisable to grade the subject matter carefully so as to ensure that

the more essential ingredients of the lesson are put over and understoodwithin the time allocated for instruction.

Develop the Lesson Material. Prepare suitable exercises, demonstrations,sample problems or illustrations (including visual aid displays) asappropriate, to reinforce the lesson. Review films or other supplementarymaterial for suitability. Prepare discussion questions and test questions ifnecessary. Prepare handouts, plan chalkboard notes. etc.

Prepare a Lesson Plan. See that the order of presentation is logical fromthe groups point of view. Proceed from the known to the unknown, from the

simple to the complex and from the particular to the general. Note down inthe plan where you will use prepared exercises or special demonstration(including visual aids) or a discussion or question period. Estimate the lengthof time to be used for each section of the lesson.

Classroom Arrangements. Arrive in advance to check the physicalarrangements in the classroom




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Introduction. Start the lesson punctually. Put the group at ease. Announcethe subject of the lesson briefly and concisely. Relate the lesson to previousinstruction and to the program as a whole. Try to get the interest of thegroup, and motivate them to do what they want to learn. A handout is amust, if the trainer wants the participants to remember what he said.

Body of the Lesson. Use your lesson plan throughout. Follow a logicalsequence. Use questions and answers to check understanding. Keep track ofthe time; leave time for note-taking or other administrative matters.

Recapitulation. Review briefly the ground you have covered; memory ishelped by repetition. Use questions reveal misunderstanding and clear themup. Deal tactfully with incorrect answers.

Test. Make sure that questions, problems or exercises selected for testingpurposes adequately cover the material which has been taught. Make surethat questions are not ambiguous. Go over the areas of weakness revealed

by the test. The trainees should have a reasonable chance of answering thequestions or completing the task in the time available.

Methods and Techniques of Training

Training techniques represent the medium of imparting skills and knowledgeto employees. They are the means applied in training methods. Among themost commonly used techniques are lectures, films, audio cassettes, case

studies, role plays and simulations. Important techniques of training viz.lectures, audio-visuals, on-the-job training, programmed instruction,computer-aided instruction, simulation and sensitivity training have beenelaborated below. On-the-job methods refer to methods that are applied atthe work place, while the employee is actually working. Off-the-job methodsare used away from the work place.

Lecture Method: A verbal presentation of information by an instructor to alarge audience is commonly known as a lecture. The lecturer is presumed topossess a considerable depth of knowledge of the subject at hand. A virtueof this method is that it can be used for very large groups, and hence the

cost per trainee is low.

Audio-Visuals:Television slides, overheads, video-tapes and films comprisethe audio - visuals. These can be used to provide wide range of realisticexamples of job conditions and situations in a condensed period of time.

On-the-Job Training (OJT): Majority of industrial training is of the OJT type.OJT is conducted at the work site and in the context of the job. Often, it isinformal, as when an experienced worker shows a trainee how to perform




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the job tasks. OJT is the most effective method as the trainee learns byexperience and becomes more competent. Further, this method is leastexpensive since no formal training is organised.

Programmed Instruction: This is a technique where training is offeredwithout the intervention of a trainer. Information is provided to the trainee

in blocks, either in book form or through a training machine. After readingeach block of material, the learner must answer a question about it.Feedback in the form of correct answers is provided after each response.

Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI): This is an extension ofprogrammed instruction. The speed, memory and data manipulationcapabilities of the computer permit greater utilization of basic programmedinstruction concepts.

Simulation: A simulator is any kind of equipment or technique thatduplicates as nearly as possible the actual conditions encountered on the

job. Simulation is an attempt to create a realistic decision-makingenvironment for the trainee. Simulations present likely problem situationsand decision alternatives to the trainee. The results of those decisions arereported back to the trainee with an explanation of what would havehappened had they actually been made in the workplace. The trainee learnsfrom this feedback and improves his subsequent simulation and workplacedecisions.

Case Studyis a written description of an actual situation in business whichprovokes the reader to decide what is going on, what the situation really is orwhat the problems are and what can and should be done. Taken from the

actual experiences of organisations, these cases represent attempts todescribe, as accurately as possible, real problems that managers have faced.Trainees study the cases to determine problems, analyse causes, developalternative solutions, select the best one, and implement it. Case study canprovide simulating discussions among participants, as well as excellentopportunities for individuals to defend their analytical and judgmentalabilities.

Role Playing generally focuses on emotional (mainly human relations)issues rather than actual ones. The essence of role playing is to create a

realistic situation, as in the case study, and then have the trainees assumethe parts of specific personalities in the situation. Role playing helps promoteinterpersonal relations. Attitude change is another result of role playing.Case study and role playing are used in management developmentprograms.

Sensitivity Training: This type of training includes a small number oftrainees, usually fewer than 12 in a group. They meet with a passive trainerand gain insight into their own and others behaviour. Meeting have no




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agenda, are held away from workplaces and questions deal with the hereand now of the group process. Discussions focus on why participantsbehave as they do, how they perceive one another, and the feelings andemotions generated in the interaction process.

The objectives of sensitivity training are to provide the participants with

increased awareness of their own behaviour and how others perceive them;greater sensitivity to the behaviour of others, and increased understandingof group processes. Specific results sought include increased ability toempathise with others, improved listening skills, greater openness, andincreased tolerance of individual differences accompanied by better conflictresolution skills. Sensitivity training can go by a variety of names - laboratorytraining, encounter groups, or T-group (training groups).

The Lecture Method, The Case Study Method, Role Playing and Games beingthe most common have been elaborated below.

The Lecture Method.The use of lecturing depends on the subject matter, the training philosophyof the instructor or training centre, and the over-all learning situation.Formal lecturing has been used largely to build up basic theoreticalknowledge which must be gained before practice or participative trainingsessions will not be of any use. If there are large numbers of people to betrained, scarce training resources, or few hours available for instruction,lecturing may be the only alternative. A certain amount of informal lecturingis inherent in the conduct of any course, to set out the course objectives,motivate trainees, provide explanation and analysis relevant to studyexercises.

Nevertheless, the lecture method has its limitations. Since it does notdemand the active involvement of participants, it is largely unsuited to thetraining of skills, which require practice. It is also of limited value inpromoting behavioural or attitudinal changes, which is a large part ofmanagement development. It is very difficult to convince anyone by merelytalking at them; attitudes are changed best when people convincethemselves. Participative methods are better for such purposes.

Apart from the fact that sixty minutes of unrelieved talking is not easilyassimilated or remembered, the major disadvantage of the lecture comes

from the fact that it is a one-way communication. The listeners remainpassive, for the most part. Unless the speaker is sensitive to his audience,he has no way of knowing whether or not they are taking in what he issaying. He has little opportunity to clarify meanings, to check on whether ornot the trainees really understand what is being presented, or to handle thewide diversity of abilities and attitudes which they represent.




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Basic steps in improving the instructional value of the lecture.Planning the Lecture. Before starting to prepare your lecture, you must beable to answer four basic questions:

Who is your audience? - Who

What is the purpose of your talk? - Why

What is the time available? - How Long

What is the subject matter? - What

The Audience. Is their attitude likely to be friendly? Curious? Indifferent?Hostile (or skeptical)? Know the characteristics of your audience: theirbackground, likes, dislikes, cultural features, level and nature of education.Are they used to listening to lectures? How fast will they be able to take inwhat you say? This may also involve their knowledge of languages.

What does your audience know about the subject? What can you assumethat they know before you start the lecture? It may be helpful to start with ageneral discussion or ask questions to get opinions. This approach will giveyou some idea about the knowledge of the group and allow you to makesome last minute adjustments if necessary.

Purpose of Talk. What do you want the audience to do or understandbetter as a result of your talk? Your approach will certainly vary dependingon whether you wish to:

Give general information on, or an appreciation of, a subject Gain acceptance for a new point of view Change basic attitudes Give detailed information Train a particular skill

With a clearly-defined purpose in mind, it will be easier to select appropriatematerial and to decide on the most effective way to present it.

Time Available. What is the total time available? How much of it will betaken up by formalities? How much time will you leave for questions anddiscussion?

A good instructor respects the clock by narrowing down or adjusting hislecture to suit the time available. A sag-point in the audiences interestoccurs after about twenty minutes. A trainer should thus plan his talk anddeliver so that interest is reawakened and passive listeners are reactivatedfrom time to time, by the use of interesting examples, humor, rhetoricalquestions, and audience participation through discussion or question period.etc.




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Subject Matter. Poor choice of subject or lack of sufficient knowledgeabout it may mean death for a lecture. It is important to speak from yourown knowledge and experience, but at the same time your topic andapproach must be relevant to the needs and interests of the audience.

Preparing The Lecture. Prepare the notes from which you will speak.

Whatever type you use - cards, paper sheets - they should be easily readableand sequentially numbered to avoid possible confusion.

Plan and prepare visual aids. Various training aids may be employed tomake the lecture more interesting and more easily assimilated by thelisteners by engaging their sense of sight. The fact of having to make themoften forces the lecturer to clarify and organize his thoughts.Rehearse. Rehearsing the lecture is an essential step, even for mostexperienced lecturers. The speaker has an opportunity to check his speedand his delivery of it. This may reveal points at which he is unintentionallyunclear, transitions that are made too abruptly for his listeners to follow, and

other errors that can creep into even the best planned lecture.

Try out your visual aids; finalize plans for their arrangement, ensuring thatthey are readable and clearly visible in the training room. The chief value ofthe rehearsal is in familiarizing the speaker with his speech. Evenexperienced lecturers suffer from stage fright on occasions. One or two dryruns through a lecture can build a speakers confidence.

Deliver the Lecture. Make sure that you arrive at the appointed place afew minutes ahead of time so that you can check the physical arrangementswhich have been made. Such as layout of the chairs and tables, lectern,

training aids, provision of chalk and eraser.

Covering the Material. Start punctually and speak from your notes ifnecessary. Read a phrase, pause and look at the audience. Do not read allyour lecture or you will have no audience left by the time you finish.

Posture. If you have a choice, speak from a position that is comfortable foryou but appropriate to the situation. Position should also be convenient tomanipulate most visual aids. Some speakers prefer to use a lectern becauseit holds notes at standing height.

Appearance. Speakers should make sure that there is nothing about theirpersonal appearance which is out of harmony with the occasion or which islikely to irritate the audience or distract their attention. Clothes should beneat and suitable for the occasion. One should look confident and friendly(even if nervous) as audiences are very susceptible to first impressions.

Manner. Any kind of leadership - talking before a group, organizing adiscussion - requires a certain confidence and dignity to gain and hold theattention of the group. Be courteous. Careless choice of language or humor




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or a thoughtless gesture may create barriers to communication which will bedifficult to overcome later.

Be Sincere. Audience is quick to judge speakers - they are not misled bycleverness and they dont like insincerity. Say what you mean and say it asif you meant it. Be yourself - dont try to imitate anyone else. Be

enthusiastic, let your talk reveal and convince the audience of your owninterest in the subject.Gesture. Any actions and gestures must be natural and spontaneous; ifthey are forced then it is best to do without them. Gestures must bepurposeful and not just flapping of the hands. Mannerisms - jiggling coins,playing with the chalk, walking about the platform for no apparent reason -should be avoided, as they are distracting and sometimes extremelyannoying. Try to avoid leaning on the table or the lectern or putting yourhands in your pockets. Avoid smoking before your lecture.

Voice. The tone of the voice can be altered to convey confidence, emotion,emphasis and indignation. Pace and volume should be varied occasionally toavoid monotony. Rehearsal helps; it takes away some of the strangenessand novelty of the actual lecture.

Vocabulary. It is best to use everyday language, avoiding slang, whichcould be misunderstood, preferring short, familiar words and keepingsentences short. Be very careful with funny stories - especially if you arenot a born story teller, or if the audience is unknown to you. Choose storiesthat are relevant to the point you are trying to make.

The Case Study Method. One of the fundamental tasks of a manager is tomake and to implement decisions. These decisions are, for the most part,based on analysis of such facts and other information as may be available.Rarely, however, can the manager have access to unlimited information andhe often has to make decisions on incomplete information and underconditions of uncertainty. One of the foremost tasks of any effectivemanagement education, therefore, must be to improve the ability tomangers and next in line managers to take wise decisions and make plansfor their successful implementation.

In essence, the case method in management education aims at developing

skills in discovering and defining the vital questions that need to beanswered and then to learn how to set about finding the answers. Almostinevitably the businessman is compelled to decide on a course of actionbefore he can obtain all the facts he would like to have. The case studytechnique is based on the belief that the trainee can best attain managerialunderstanding and competence through the study, contemplation anddiscussion of actual situations. The rigorous analysis required, especially inthe longer cases, is said to develop habits of logical thinking and searchingfor as complete information as possible before reaching conclusions.




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Experience in arguing a viewpoint before ones peers also develops ability tocommunicate clearly.

Role Playing. Role playing is a training technique in which participantsassume an identity other than their own, to cope with real or hypotheticalproblems in human relations and other areas. In playing their roles,

participants undertake to act out behaviour patterns they believe arecharacteristic of those roles in specific social situations. For example, twotrainees might act out an interview, one taking the role of manager, theother of a subordinate, in which the manager is responsible for evaluatingthe job performance of the subordinate. Major variables, thus, include therole itself; the role requirements, that is the specific behaviour patterns theplayer builds into the role; the social situation presented to the personplaying the role; and the participants own personality.

Major Aims. Role playing allows a player to practice reacting in conflict andother stressful situations. Simulation of reality, in this way, eliminates many

of the risks and accountability inherent in real life while retaining may otheraspects of the interaction. In other words, role playing permitsexperimentation with different ways of behaving in a given situation.

Roles can be selected which are in contrast to the real-life situations of theplayer so as to provide vicarious experience and widen the insight of thetrainee into the real meaning and possible implication of the behaviour ofother persons with whom he comes into contact. The social situations whichare presented to the participant playing a given role can be varied, to exploita wide range of reactions which the trainee may believe to be appropriate tothe role. Since the role-playing exercise permits practice in reaching to

conflict situations without the risks normally inherent in real organisationallife, mistakes can be tolerated.

Design and Methodology. Either of two approaches is generally used:Structured Role Playing: A leader selects both the situation and the role tobe enacted, and specifies the goals of the activity. This type of pre-plannedrole playing provides, in some cases, very elaborate written materials thatdescribe the roles and situation, and elicit complex responses from theobservers. In more simple cases, if, for example, the goal for the group is tostudy different leadership patterns, the trainer might assume the role of theleader in the role-play, and orally assign the other roles.

A variation of this approach consists of having the role playing planned inadvance by members of the group itself rather than by the leader. Thiswould be appropriate when trying to communicate information, setting andstudying a social problem, or interpreting a report. The simulated situation ispresented to the group first, followed by the enactment. The leader or groupplanning the exercise may determine the degree of spontaneity desired andadjust how much the players should or should not be told in advance.




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Spontaneous Role Playing: This approach relies on the problem situationarising from a group discussion, without advance planning by the group orleader. In this instance, the enactment itself serves as the briefing to thegroup on the problem and situation.

Both structured and spontaneous role playing relate to learning through (a)

doing, (b) imitation, (c) observation and feedback, and (d) analysis. Roleplaying represents a form of experiential learning. It is a training techniquein which participants, grouped into teams, consider a sequence of problemsand organize themselves to make decisions. It is a form of simulation, whichmay be defined as a sequential decision-making exercise structured arounda hypothetical model of an organisations operations, in which participantsassume roles in managing the simulated operations. Its most crucial aspectis the attempt to reproduce the social psychological and economic dynamicsof organisational behaviour in an artificial setting.

Using a set of relationships built into a skeletal model of an organisation, the

decisions which are made by the participants are processed to produce aseries of hypothetical actions in the form of performance reports.

Games. Games can be incorporated into training courses in many ways.They can be used at the beginning of training courses as an orientationdevice. They can be used more than once, perhaps before and after aparticular management principle or technique has been discussed. However,for greater effectiveness, games should be used only with a clearunderstanding of the objectives to be attained.

Major Aims. The purpose of management games is to increase a persons

understanding of:(1) Specific organisational problems (marketing, production, etc); (2) theinter-relatedness of the functions and parts of an organisation and itsrelation to its environment; (3) the problems of organisation policy anddecision making; (4) the problems of working in a team.

Design and Methodology. Games may be extremely simple or complexand of considerable depth.Most games, notably at the functional and sub-functional levels, aredesigned for each participant to represent an individual decision-makingunit. In other games, group decision making is the rule. The number of

teams in a game is largely predetermined by its purpose. Manual games aregenerally restricted to a dozen teams or less. The maximum number ofmembers per team depends largely on the complexity of the game and thetime available for an effective organisation effort and intra-teamcommunication in decision making. Four to seven members is the usual sizeof teams though some games have teams as large as fifteen members.

The number of decision activities in a game run should be great enough topermit the teams to establish a working organisation, to become involved in




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planning and to see the results. The time available for making decisionswithin each period of play during a game run is normally related to thecomplexity of the game. In practice, one finds in use periods ranging from afew minutes to two hours or more.

At other times, the games are played to provide quite deliberately too little

time for participants to analyse the situation and to assess the informationavailable to them before reaching the next decision. This can produce asituation of strain and tension between members of the group which not onlyadds to the general excitement of the session, but produces what in somequarters is regarded as an approximation of the actual strain which isinvolved in the real world in making administrative decisions. Post-playevaluation sessions are important, and continuous review of decisions isusually a component of the game. In addition, provision may be made forperiodic review sessions involving comparison with other teams as a part ofthe game.

Use of Audio Visual Aids

Research and experience have shown that audio-visual techniques cansignificantly increase and reinforce learning. Not only do they add interest toa presentation, but by engaging more than one of the senses, they alsofacilitate listening and remembering. In the teaching of abstract concepts orunfamiliar subjects, visualization can be essential to understanding.

Visual aids will not automatically increase training effectiveness however;they must be carefully designed to support a lesson and to suit a particularaudience and situation. The planning and preparation of such aids requires

time, thought and imagination, in: Selecting the points to be visualized;

Translating ideas into suitably visual forms;

Choosing the most appropriate medium;

Designing layout and choosing colour;

Making the aid;

Evaluating its effectiveness and revising for future use.

Deciding which device to use. Proper use of visual aids requires aconsiderable investment of time and thought. It is better not to use any

device unless you are prepared to give the time and attention that isrequired in designing your talk and the visuals which are to be used, andadequate rehearsal and other preparation required to use the visualsproperly. No one device is the best answer to all visual aid situations. Inchoosing the best device for use in a particular presentation, the followingare among the factors which must be considered:

Circumstances

Subject

Cost




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Availability

Devices Available.

Chalkboard

Flip Chart or Newsprint Pad Plastic Writing Board or White board

Magnetic Board Flannel Board

Overhead Projector

Designing the Visuals. Designing visuals is a good thing because manytalks are too complex or are organized in a confusing way, and the processof developing visuals will improve many talks.

To start designing visuals go through your talk sentence by sentence, idea

by idea, and decide what needs to be visualized and what can be visualized,and then start thinking of ways and means. The things that can bevisualized include ideas, concepts, relationships, processes. Visuals can beused:

To bring out a series of facts and the conclusion to which they lead;

To bring out points which need to be emphasized;

To attract attention through unusual devices or colour; To present complex processes (industrial, material, chemicals);

To introduce new and unfamiliar objects and concepts; To show relationships which exist among facts or objects;

To show in outline form the growth of a complex idea, or the treatmentof a subject so as to enable people to see readily which are the majorand which are the subordinate points.

Methodology.

Use pictures wherever possible - supplemented as necessary by wordsand figures.

Use words (singly or in phrases) as a second choice.

Use the image area as a graph: to present statistics and statisticalprocesses; to present mathematics.

Use the image area as a form: to present accounting reports, statistical

tabulations, and similar matters. Use unusual devices: lines, arrows, elastic, movable ribbons, multiple-

layer images. Use colour as often as possible (see section below on uses of colour)

for coding, stressing key facts, etc.

Use your imagination!

Evaluation of Training




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The last stage in the training and development process is the evaluation ofresults. Training and development requires a huge economical investmentthus it is necessary to judge how far the program has been useful.Evaluation helps to determine the results of the training and developmentprogram.

Need for Evaluation. The main objective of evaluating the trainingprogram is to determine if it has corrected performance deficiencies. Asecond reason of evaluation is to ensure that any changes in the traineescapability are due to the training program and not due to any other reason.Training programs should be evaluated to determine their cost effectiveness.Evaluation also is useful to provide explanation incase of program failure.Finally, credibility of training and development is greatly enhanced when it isproved that the organisation has benefited tangibly from it.

Principles of Evaluation. Evaluation of the training program must bebased on the following principles:

Evaluation specialist must be clear about the goals and purposes ofevaluation.

It must be continuous and specific.

Evaluation must provide the means and focus for trainers to be able to

appraise themselves, their practices, and their products. It must be based on objective methods and standards.

Realistic target dates must be set for each phase of the evaluationprocess. A sense of urgency must be developed but deadlines that areunreasonably high will result in poor evaluation.

Why Evaluate? Evaluation has two purposes. First, it can be used forassessing training effectiveness. Secondly, it can itself be used as a trainingaid.

The primary purpose of evaluation is to improve training by discoveringwhich training processes are successful in achieving their objectives (to sortout the good training from the bad). Many trainers hope to obtaincompletely objective information on the results of training. In practice, thisis usually impossible, since any evaluation exercise affects the nature of thesituation studies. For example, if we ask trainees for information about theirreactions to training, we change the nature of their reactions. If we settrainees with an examination at the end of a course, we affect the nature oftheir learning.




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This leads us to the second purpose of evaluation. Since evaluation affectslearning, it can be put to use as a training aid (an aid to learning). Its effectsare likely to be beneficial, since it is a primary principle of the psychology oflearning that knowledge of results facilitates good learning. Evaluation canhelp trainees to learn more effectively.

Techniques of Evaluation. Several techniques of evaluation are used inorganisations. One approach towards evaluation is to use experimental andcontrol groups. Each group is randomly selected; one to receive training(experimental) and the other not to receive training (control), randomselection helps to assure the formation of groups quite similar to each other.Measures are taken of the relevant indicators of success (e.g. words typedper minute, quality pieces produced per hour) before and after training forboth groups. If the gains demonstrated by the experimental group arebetter than those of the control group, the training program is labeled assuccessful.

Another method of evaluation is to pass out a questionnaire to the traineesafter the completion of the program to obtain their opinions about theprograms worth. Their opinions could also be obtained through interviews.A variation of this method is to measure the knowledge/skills that employeespossess at the commencement and completion of training. If themeasurement reveals that the results after training are satisfactory, then thetraining may be taken as successful.

Levels of EvaluationThe process which occurs as a result of a successful training program can bedivided into four levels. Evaluation can be carried out at any of these levels.

1. The Reaction level. Trainees react to the training (form opinions andattitudes about the trainer, the method of presentation, the usefulnessand interest of the subject matter, their own enjoyment and involvement,etc.)

2. The Learning Level. Trainees learn (acquire knowledge, skills andattitudes about the subject matter of the training, which they are capableof translating into behaviour within the training situation).

3. The Job Behaviour Level. Trainees apply this learning in the form ofchanged behaviour back on the job.

4. The Functioning Level (Efficiency and Costs). This changed jobbehaviour affects the functioning of the firm (or the behaviour of

individuals other than the trainees). These changes can be measured bya variety of indices, many of which can be expressed in terms of costs.

Evaluation at the reactions level provides:

A short-term subjective assessment of the trainees reactions to thecourse;

An indication of those parts of the course which need immediatealterations;




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Evaluation at learning level obtains information on the amount of learningthat trainees acquire during the training program - measures increasedknowledge. Sometimes referred to as the level of immediate outcomes.

How: usually through examination or testing systems. Benefits: enables trainer to establish base data; provides trainee with

knowledge of results which helps him to identify his own area of need.

Drawbacks: measurement of increased knowledge alone is unsuitable -does not indicate managers ability to use or apply it to his work.

Evaluation at job behaviour level discovers whether or not trainees haveapplied their learning in the form of changed behaviour on the job -measures effectiveness of training programs in terms of on-the-jobbehaviour. Sometimes referred to as the level of intermediate outcomes.

How: depending on complexity of job - systematic appraisal on abefore-and-after basis, trainers observations through involvement injob situation.

Benefits: indicates whether or not training program was effective; getstop and senior management involved.

Drawbacks: more difficult to evaluate than reactions and learninglevels; time-consuming for the trainer.

Evaluation at functioning level measures the effects of the trainees jobbehaviour on the productivity of efficiency of the trainees department or onthe morale of his subordinates. Sometimes referred to as the level of long-term or ultimate outcomes.

How: reduce turnover, reduce costs, reduction in grievances, increasein quality and quantity of production.

Benefits: evaluates training program directly in terms of resultsdesired.

Drawbacks: difficult to know how much of the improvement can bedirectly attributed to a specific training program - depends partly onhow specific the objectives of the training are.

These four levels can be seen as a chain of cause and effect. The chain canbe broken at any of its links: a trainee may react correctly but fail to learn; orhe may learn, but fail to apply his learning on the job; or he may change hisjob behaviour, but this may have no effect on the functioning of the firms. Thus, ideally we should evaluate at every level. If we ignore the moredistant levels, we will only discover the more superficial change. If we ignorethe immediate levels (reactions and learning), we are in danger of being

unable to explain any changes that we discover, because we have notfollowed through every link in the chain. (For instance, we might discover thetrainees job behaviour had deteriorated after the training; but unless we hadevaluated at the reactions and learning levels, we would not know why thishad happened and so would not be able to improve the training).

In many cases, however, it may be impractical or undesirable to evaluate atevery level, e.g. For simple forms of training with clearly defined objectives (e.g. training an

operator to work a machine, where the skill components of the job have been




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precisely defined) it is possible to evaluate directly at the job behaviour andfunctioning levels.

For very complex form of training, with wide or ill-defined objectives (e.g.many forms of supervisory and management training) it may be impossibleto evaluate at the more distant levels. For instance, we may be trainingsupervisors to improve their communication with their subordinates (JobBehaviour Level) but we may have no idea how to measure the effect ofthese changes on the functioning of the firm. Or we may know too littleabout the trainees job content to be able to evaluate job behaviour, and wemay therefore have to concentrate on the Reactions and Learning Levels,and to set objectives at these levels only.

Objective Setting and Evaluation. The choice of evaluation criteriadepends on the objectives of the training. Therefore, post-training evaluationis intimately connected with the pre-training investigation of training needsand the establishment of training objectives. The more precise theobjectives, the more precisely can training be evaluated. The level at whichtraining is evaluated should be the level at which the objectives of training

are set.

When to Evaluate? Evaluation data (at any - the four levels) can beobtained during training, immediately after training, or at a specified time (ortimes) after the end of training. In each case, it should if possible becompared with information on the before-training situation.

Quantified or Un-quantified? Evaluation data can be either quantified(measured, systematic, numerical) or un-quantified (descriptive,unsystematic, verbal). The two types of data have complementaryadvantages and disadvantages. Because of its narrowness and specificity,

quantified data should never be taken at its face value, but should beinterpreted in the light of un-quantified data.

Techniques of Evaluation.There is a wide range of possible techniques ateach level of evaluation. The selection of the correct technique (orcombination of techniques) for a particular situation depends on the natureof the training objectives; the design of training and the training methods;the relationship between trainers, trainees and their superiors; the financeavailable; and other factors. Evaluation should be tailor-made to fit theneeds of the situation. All evaluation techniques (with the exception of someat the functioning level) are variations on the two themes of watching and

asking (observation and questionnaire/interview).

What makes a successful instructor? The following bullets simply pointout what are considered the basic minimum requirements for a successfulinstructor. Some instructors can meet all these requirements and manymore. On the other hand, it is doubtful whether a man can performsuccessfully as an instructor unless and until he can meet the minimumspecification set out below. He must:

Want to instruct.




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Know how to instruct.

Know how people learn.

Have the right personality.

Be able to communicate.

Be flexible.




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Conclusion The trainer can make his training programs effective and successful bykeeping the following in mind:

Specific training objectives should be outlined on the basis of the type ofperformance required to achieve organizational goals and objectives.

Attempt should be made to determine if the trainee has the intelligence,maturity, and motivation to successfully complete the training program.

The trainee should be motivated to see the need for training by makinghim aware of the personal benefits he

Documents

Handout - Training the Trainer