Handbook of Climate Change Adaptation || Guiding Regional Climate Adaptation in Coastal Areas

Guiding Regional Climate Adaptation in Coastal Areas

Helge Bormanna*, Rob van der Krogtb, Leo Adriaansec, Frank Ahlhornd, Ruben Akkermanse, Yvonne Andersson-Sköldf, Chris Gerrardg, Nelie Houtekamerh, Ger de Langei, Anders Norrbyj, Niels van Oostromi and Renaat De SutterkaDepartment of Civil Engineering, University of Siegen, Siegen, GermanybTNO, Utrecht, The NetherlandscRijkswaterstaat, Middelburg, The NetherlandsdK€uste & Raum, Varel, GermanyeProvince of Zeeland, Middelburg, The NetherlandsfCOWI, Göteborg, SwedengAnglian Water, Huntingdon, UKhHoutekamer & Van Kleef, Veere, The NetherlandsiDeltares, Utrecht, The NetherlandsjArvika Kommun, Arvika, SwedenkGent University, Gent, Belgium

Abstract

Global climate change will have significant impacts on natural systems and human societiesthroughout the world. Therefore, climate adaptation strategies need to be developed at multiplescales. The Interreg IVB project “Climate Proof Areas” (CPA) has focused on climate adaptation ata regional scale in twelve pilot areas across four North Sea countries. It showed that the regionalscale provides challenging opportunities of cross-sectoral climate adaptation. This paper gives anoverview of experiences from the CPA pilot studies and embeds these in a generic approach forregional climate adaptation. Attention is paid to typical issues of coastal regions: water management,coastal protection, freshwater supply, land use, and spatial planning. Based on typical challenges ofclimate adaptation such as low sense of urgency, high degree of uncertainty regarding futuredevelopment, and decision-making on a long term, a number of illustrative components arediscussed which can contribute to the guidance of regional climate adaptation. These componentscover different themes including communication issues, physical solutions, knowledge, andprocess-oriented approaches and result in a so-called adaptation toolkit. Finally we draw conclu-sions and derive recommendations about how certain approaches and policies at different levels cancontribute to successful regional climate adaptation in coastal areas.

Keywords

Climate change adaptation; Regional scale; Pilot studies; Adaptation toolkit; Policyrecommendations

*Email: [email protected]

Handbook of Climate Change AdaptationDOI 10.1007/978-3-642-40455-9_118-1# Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2014

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Introduction

Climate change is one of the key challenges in recent environmental and societal research andstudies on sustainable development. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) hasstated that global warming has accelerated significantly in the second half of the twentieth centuryand that humans have caused the dominant part of global warming (IPCC 2013). The envelopes ofreasonable climate scenarios project further global warming until the end of the twenty-first century.Even if greenhouse gas concentrations will not increase from the level reached in year 2000, globalmean temperature will continue to rise by approximately 0.1 �C per decade during the twenty-firstcentury due to delayed response of slow components in the climate system (van den Hurk and Jacob2009). For the North Sea region, in addition to rising temperatures and sea levels, an increasingrainfall variability is expected which is likely to cause droughts as well as flood events in the future(IPCC 2013; Verhofstede et al. 2011). Therefore proactive strategies are required to react to futureclimate change.

Based on these commonly accepted facts, science and society are debating on how to react toclimate change. Two main complementary strategies are basically agreed on: (1) to mitigate futureclimate change, e.g., by reducing the emission of greenhouse gases and (2) to adapt to those changeswhich cannot be mitigated. While mitigation needs to be implemented on a global scale, adaptationto climate change is a local to regional scale issue (F€ussel 2007). Independently of the effectivenessof future mitigation, adaptation to climate change is necessary if such climate change exceedscurrent climate variability. Adaptation to climate change, therefore, has raised public interest inrecent years, mainly driven by climate-related disasters (F€ussel 2007; Krysanova et al. 2010). Asa consequence, preliminary national frameworks have been established towards the development ofnational adaptation strategies (e.g., for Germany: Bundesregierung 2008).

Due to the increasing relevance of adaptation to climate change, the scientific community as wellas the government has paid more attention to this issue in recent years. General concepts andapproaches for adaptive planning were introduced (e.g., F€ussel 2007) and analyzed with regard toregional possibilities for and limitations of climate change adaptation (e.g., Kabat et al. 2005; deBruin et al. 2009). Adaptation strategies were compared among different regions and river basins(e.g., Krysanova et al. 2010) as well as their recent status in adaptation planning (e.g., Huntjenset al. 2010). Most studies agreed that adaptation needs to be at a regional scale (e.g., Wesselinket al. 2009) and consider different issues (de Bruin et al. 2009; Veraart et al. 2010) such as natureprotection, agriculture, economic development, and water management. Water management is ofparticular importance in coastal environments (Woltjer and Al 2007; Wesselink et al. 2009; Veraartet al. 2010).

Nevertheless the question remains still open how to organize such an adaptation process at theregional scale. Considering the importance of water management in coastal environments, climateadaptation is required to be in accordance with the EuropeanWater Framework Directive (EC 2000),an Integrated Coastal Zone Management (EC 2002, 2013), and the European Flood Risk Manage-ment Directive (EC 2007). These EC documents emphasize an intense involvement of stakeholdersin terms of participation and collaborative planning of management plans. Guiding principles arerequired to efficiently organize the regional adaptation process based on practical experience. Atpresent, a gap between the mostly well-figured out adaptation plans at a national level and theimplementation in the regional and local development plans can be observed in the North Seacountries. In addition, current regional and local development plans often do not consider theeffectiveness of planned measures with respect to climate change (adaptation). Such experienceshave been collected in the framework of the Interreg IVB North Sea Region Program project


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“Climate Proof Areas” (CPA) which focused on climate adaptation on a regional level in a number ofpilot areas in four North Sea countries (Germany, the Netherlands, Sweden, the UK). Based on theexperiences from twelve pilot studies, an adaptation toolkit has been developed as well asa collection of recommendations and guiding principles for regional adaptation, based on goodpractice examples. Such guiding principles consider typical challenges of climate adaptation such aslow sense of urgency, high degree of uncertainty regarding future development, and decision-making on a long term.

While it is not feasible to develop a “cookbook” for regional climate change adaptation, theadaptation toolkit, recommendations, and guiding principles consider the limiting factors of adap-tation processes and aim at achieving consensus of as many actors as possible on the basis of the bestavailable knowledge and experience.

This chapter is structured in order to (1) briefly introduce the pilot studies, (2) characterizeregional climate adaptation along coastlines, (3) highlight some adaptation-specific lessons learnedfrom the pilot studies, (4) introduce the main elements of the adaptation toolkit, and (5) finally deriverecommendations and draw conclusions about how certain approaches and policies at differentlevels can contribute to successful climate adaptation in coastal regions.

Pilot Studies

Within the CPA project a number of pilot studies provided information and experience relevant forregional climate adaptation (Adriaanse et al. 2011). The case areas were located in four countries:Germany, the Netherlands, Sweden, and the UK (Fig. 1).

Case Area in GermanyThe German case area within the CPA project was the Wesermarsch County in the north of thecountry, near the North Sea. A regional analysis of climate change-induced hydrological impactsserved as basis for participatory problem analysis and the development of adaptation options(Bormann et al. 2009, 2012). Pilot studies and activities within this area concentrated on bothrural and urban areas. Within the rural areas, attention was paid to climate change issues concerning

Fig. 1 Location of the pilot areas across the North Sea region


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the water management system, salt intrusion, and the drainage function for the low-lying hinterland,taking into account the consequences for agriculture, safety against flooding, and nature protection.Another important issue was coastal defense, because of the long dikes which surround the area andthe possible consequences of sea level rise and higher flooding of the Weser River. For the urbanareas of the county, different focus issues were identified. There, the connection was made withspatial planning solutions and possible investments in waterworks. Solutions for increasing waterstorage in urban areas were identified as well as interactions between the urban areas and ruralhinterlands (Ahlhorn et al. 2011). Regarding both urban and rural areas, attention was also paid tothe possible consequences of higher precipitation in the future and possible technical and planningsolutions for increasing water storage capacity.

Case Areas in the NetherlandsSchouwen-Duiveland: The island of Schouwen-Duiveland is completely surrounded by dikes anddunes and connected to some of the main Dutch Deltaworks. It was used to study and demonstratedifferent potential solutions for climate adaptation in practice. A broad regional climate impactanalysis provided the basis for a number of follow-up studies and projects within the area. Particularattention was paid to the adaptation of local agriculture to saltwater intrusion and changingfreshwater supplies, new approaches for spatial planning and flood safety management, and newcombinations of coastal defense, urban development, and cultural heritage.

Oosterschelde (Eastern Scheldt): Since the creation of the Oosterschelde storm surge barrier forcoastal defense purpose, the ecological balance of most of the inhabited areas surrounding theestuary has been disturbed. Due to the altered tidal characteristics, the current area of sand flatswithin the estuary is becoming gradually smaller year by year. Climate change will accelerate thisprocess due to sea level rise. As a result the unique ecological features of the Oosterschelde estuarywill disappear until the end of the twenty-first century. To impede this process a number ofexperiments and pilot projects were executed within the area, such as sand nourishment and thecreation of shellfish reefs.

Case Area in SwedenThe Swedish case area within the CPA project was located in the municipality of Arvika, locatednear Lake Glasfjorden. The area and its surroundings have been identified as an area particularly atrisk to flooding as a result of climate change. The water level adjacent to Arvika is partly dependenton the water level of the lake and the water flow of the river Byälven. In Arvika there have beendamaging floods (e.g., year 2000). Scenario-based impact studies revealed that climate change willhave an impact on the long-term behavior of inflow patterns into the lake, impacting flood risk.Climate change is expected to result in more frequent and severe events, unless proactive steps aretaken. The CPA project has analyzed the possible impacts of climate change and identified theconsequences for the local infrastructure and storm water drainage systems (Olsson et al. 2013). Tocope with future events, a number of physical adaptation solutions have been designed, andimplementation has been guided within the CPA project.

Case Areas in the UKWicken Fen: Wicken Fen is one of the most important low-lying wetlands in Europe. Below sealevel, it is also one of only a few surviving unimproved wetland fens in the East of England. TheCPA project has contributed to create a vital green lung and a recreational resource for the nearbyhighly urbanized growth area of Cambridge. The innovative activities at Wicken Fen not onlyprepare this vitally important natural site for climate change, but it also makes the area more


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attractive for tourism and recreation. CPA activities contributed to four major challenges: creatingnew wetland mosaic habitats, developing water management plans, gaining a clear understanding ofthe potential of topography and re-wetting peat soils to reduce carbon loss from soil oxidation.

Titchwell Marsh: This pilot project dealt with raising awareness of the need for innovative formsof flood defense as part of adaptation to the impacts of climate change. By raising public awarenessand understanding of the issues surrounding climate change and its impacts on coastlines, the CPAproject supported the Titchwell Marsh Coastal Change Project. CPA has contributed to educate thepublic and stakeholders about the necessity of innovative flood management techniques. The mainfocus has been on communication issues and the construction of an innovative visitor hide,providing a fantastic opportunity for the reserves 80,000 visitors a year to see a managed realign-ment scheme at first hand and experience how the habitat develops over time. The Coastal ChangeProject plans to move parts of the present sea defenses, improving it in other areas, allowing the seato reclaim some land, while protecting the freshwater habitats.

Great Fen: This project created an opportunity to reconnect and buffer two National NatureReserves, providing a solution to flood risk problems to protect surrounding farmland and property,stop the loss of carbon to the atmosphere, and sequester carbon from it. With regard to these issues,this project anticipated effects of climate change and ensures that the wider area as a whole is climateproof on the long term. The pilot studies and activities concentrated on understanding flood risks,sustainable water resource management, and conservation of the heritage and natural resources.Attention was also paid to a planning framework that supports tourism and the economy.

More detailed information on the pilot projects with CPA is available at www.climateproofareas.eu.

Characteristics of Regional Climate Adaptation

The CPA project was connected to a cross section of a wide variety of projects, initiatives, studies,and stakeholder processes aiming at climate adaptation in a region or area (Adriaanse et al. 2011).Based on the outcomes and experiences of these activities, a number of specific issues can besummarized that are characteristic for regional climate adaptation in general and specific for coastalenvironments.

“Typical” Climate Impacts in Coastal RegionsIn coastal regions the most relevant impacts of climate change are related to the following issues:

• Coastal defense and flood safety structures are primary elements to protect coastal areas againstfloods, in particular with regard to built-up and inhabited areas, but also rural. Increasing floodrisks caused by climate change is related to the expected sea level rise, higher precipitation, higherriver discharges, and in some areas ground subsidence. Already today waterlogging is a bigproblem in built-up and rural areas due to increasing precipitation, heavy peak showers, andgroundwater flow, making enhanced drainage infrastructure necessary.

• Natural areas and ecological balance of coastal areas are of high value. Large protected areas havebeen established, aiming at the conservation of wetlands, tidal areas, and estuaries. A complexityof changes within climate, water management, and land use will cause increasing hazards fornature conservation areas and valuable ecological systems.

• Smart water management is essential for agriculture. Coastal soils are very productive at tidalcoasts; therefore, agriculture is of high societal importance. Due to climate change and current


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http://www.climateproofareas.eu

http://www.climateproofareas.eu

water management, there is an increasing probability of droughts and ongoing salt intrusion inregional surface and groundwater systems. Increased effort will be required to maintain freshwa-ter supplies for agriculture and, in some cases, drinking water as well (Faneca Sanchezet al. 2012).

• From the perspective of the tourism industry, coastal regions are highly attractive. Climate changewill bring threats and opportunities for leisure and tourism. Expected rising temperatures andchanging precipitation patterns will influence leisure and tourism. Investment programs in coastaldefenses and improvement of nature reserves can offer new opportunities.

Although climate change studies often refer also to increasing heat stress in cities, this has notbeen identified as a relevant issue within the CPA case areas, probably because of the absence oflarger towns within these cases and the proximity of nearby “cooling” seashores.

Many climate change impacts deal with water issues that have an influence on local and regionalland use (e.g., Woltjer and Al 2007; Veraart et al. 2010). Therefore, in most coastal regions climatechange has serious consequences for current water management strategies and spatial planning ona local and regional scale. Combinations of land use and water management, or multiple land useoptions, require additional attention, e.g., combinations of coastal defense with urban developmentor water storage in combination with improving ecological balance, nature conservation, andsupporting tourism.

Decision-Making on a (Very) Long TermClimate change will happen very gradually during the twenty-first century. As a result, climateproofing is a process that will continue in the long term. This must be remembered when takingmeasures for current problems at hand. It is vital that decisions made in the short term do not reduceadaptive capacity in the long term.

Interaction Between Different ScalesClimate adaptation must accommodate interactions between local, regional, national, and interna-tional scales. First of all, climate change is a worldwide challenge, but the impacts (and how theseare perceived) are different for different countries, regions, or local areas (Verhofstede et al. 2011). Itis also perceived that the coordination of climate (change) adaptation strategies between differentpolicy levels is often inadequate, including a lack of bottom-up and upscaling mechanisms.Measures, solutions, and regulations on the international and national scales may affect the regionalscale and vice versa. Additionally, measures taken in one area can affect another area. Therefore,more detailed site-specific information and data is required than what is actually available on globaland national scale.

Uncertainties Due to (the Sum of) Incremental DeviationsAn almost inherent aspect of climate adaptation is the uncertainty that comes with the predictionsand scenarios for the future. This is not only the case for climate scenarios but also for thesocioeconomic development and the (un)foreseeable changes in the views of the involved parties.What may be a problem today, doesn’t necessarily have to be a problem in 2050 or even 2100.Especially on the regional and local scale, there is often a lack of relevant scenarios regardingclimate change impacts as well as future socioeconomic development.

In order to be able to deal with the uncertainties on the long term, the Dutch Delta program hasintroduced the principle of adaptive delta management. Key elements in adaptive delta managementare (http://deltacommissaris.nl/english/topics/adaptive_deltamanagement):


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http://deltacommissaris.nl/english/topics/adaptive_deltamanagement

• Linking short-term decisions to long-term issues in the fields of water safety and the freshwatersupply

• Adopting a flexible approach in the possible solutions• Working with several strategies and allowing for switches (adaptation tracks)• Interlinking various investment agendas

Weak Commitment and Low Sense of UrgencyClimate change is a slow process. Therefore in many cases the sense of urgency is still low,especially at the regional and local level. Consequently, climate adaptation is often perceived asan abstract challenge resulting in little commitment from parties to actively participate in the processof climate proofing. The initially unstructured, multilevel, and multi-sectoral character of climateadaptation makes it difficult to identify which parties or stakeholders should be committed orresponsible and to set widely agreed deadlines on decision-making. The necessity to develop andmaintain consistent strategies and to implement disputable measures also requires commitment fromdecision makers on higher levels within organizations.

Process Rather than a Number of ProjectsClimate adaptation policy has to cover the gap between long-term effects and short-term decision-making. Therefore, and because of the often unstructured, multi-sectoral, and multilevel character andthe possible involvement of many different stakeholders, climate proofing has to be considered asa process rather than a sequence of projects. In most cases the different phases of this climate proofingprocess are aligned with a “traditional” problem-solving cycle (problem definition, problem specifi-cation, generation of solutions, choice, implementation, evaluation, and back again to problemdefinition; Fig. 2) that is often referred to form the perspective of policy processes. While climateproofing does not tend to follow straight paths through the different phases of this cycle, the distinctphases can very well serve as a framework to describe the process and practices connected to it.

Lessons Learned from Pilot Studies

Emerging from the pilot cases and studies within the CPA project (Adriaanse et al. 2011), a numberof practices and measures were identified as being potentially successful in contributing to regional

Fig. 2 Elements of the problem-solving cycle (Changed after Bots 1997; Simon 1977)


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climate adaptation. These can be tools, methods, physical measures, or any kind of practices thatdeal with one or more of the characteristics of regional climate proofing as part of the problem-solving cycle. They served as good practice examples for the development of the “adaptation toolkitfor the North Sea Region in a changing climate” (van Oostrom et al. 2011) developed in theframework of CPA.

Physical Measures and (Physical) Planning SolutionsThe CPA project paid attention to a large variety of possible concrete physical and planningsolutions, connected to the “typical” climate impacts as presented in the previous section. Althoughnot every solution is already implemented, the following examples illustrate the character of thedifferent contributions to climate change adaptation. They are structured with regard to some of themain climate adaptation-related challenges on coastal regions: (1) coastal defense and flood safety,(2) water management, (3) nature protection, (4) agriculture, and (5) tourism.

With regard to coastal defense and flood safety, the different pilot studies suggested a widespectrum of measures including removable storm surge barriers (Arvika); realignments of coastaldefenses connected to habitat development (Titchwell Marsh); sand nourishment; creation ofshellfish reefs and “hanging beaches,” also connected to habitat development (Oosterschelde formerestuary); multifunctional sea defenses combining flood safety with urban reconstruction, culturalheritage, and nature conservation (Schouwen-Duiveland); regional strategies for so-called multi-layer safety where land use characteristics and infrastructure become part of regional flood safetyand related emergency facilities (Schouwen-Duiveland); and strengthening of the existing canalsystem and secondary embankments near and within urban areas (Wesermarsch). Some of thesemeasures follow the current code of practice, but some are innovative and contribute to severaltargets of regional development.

With regard to water retention and management, suggested measures were to promote “green”roofs for temporary water storage in urban areas (Wesermarsch), temporary water storage in areascharacterized by low damage potential in urban areas (e.g., ponds, parking areas, public parks) andpolders in the rural surroundings (Wesermarsch), and the climate proof development of publicsewage and drainage systems as well as private pipelines (Arvika).

With regard to ecological balance and nature conservation, a number of measures were suggestedin combination with structures designed for coastal defense and flood safety (Oosterschelde; seeabove). Alternative solutions were creating new wetland mosaic habitats, developing water man-agement plans, and re-wetting peat soils to reduce carbon loss from soil oxidation (Wicken Fen,Great Fen).

With regard to agriculture and water supply, measures included adapting agricultural land use tochanging hydrological conditions and water management targets (Wesermarsch). Additionally,a study was conducted to adapt crops to increasing salinity, e.g., salt-tolerant potatoes (Schouwen-Duiveland). Two pilot studies aimed to improve water management by enlarging freshwater lensesabove saline groundwater (Schouwen-Duiveland, Wesermarsch) and one by the exchange of watersupplies between individual farms and areas with different water system characteristics (Schouwen-Duiveland).

Selected pilots suggested measures with regard to leisure and tourism. Synergies of natureprotection and nature watching could be generated by the construction of recreational resourcesand a unique visitors’ hide near attractive natural sites that are prepared for climate adaptation(Wicken Fen, Titchwell Marsh, Great Fen). In Schouwen-Duiveland, designs for sea defenses, incombination with urban redevelopment, new leisure zones and the reconstruction of culturalheritage were developed.


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Knowledge-Oriented PracticesThe measures mentioned above serve as good practice examples but cannot be implementedadequately without regional scale information on climate change impacts. Therefore, every CPApilot area undertook a regional climate impact analysis, consisting of the following components:

• Translation of existing international or national climate scenarios to regional climate scenarios bydynamic or statistical downscaling techniques

• Model- and fact-based quantitative analyses of climate change impacts on physical (e.g., hydrol-ogy) and biological processes (e.g., ecology)

• Translation of expected regional climate change impacts on different economic sectors and landuses

For a more realistic assessment of the possible impacts of long-term climate change, analysesshould also consider views on long-term socioeconomic development. Since such information oftenis not available on regional scale, available information from international (e.g., European Union) ornational scenarios can be downscaled to the regional level. Another approach is to use the regionalclimate impact assessment as a starting point for developing regional long-term visions. Thesevisions can partly be guided by conditioning national and European programs, policies, andregulations. Relevant examples are the Dutch national Delta Program (regarding flood safety andwater supply), the EU Water Framework Directive, EU Floods Directive, and EU Bird and HabitatDirectives.

In order to boost the regional climate adaptation process, an inventory of relevant national andEuropean programs, policies, and regulations is recommended.

Process-Oriented Practices and ApproachesFor a proper implementation of adaptation measures, in addition to physical- and knowledge-oriented practices, process-oriented practices and approaches are required. Such measures aim toinvolve communities and relevant stakeholders from the region. Practices and approaches arerequired in order to organize the adaptation process and to maximize the acceptance of the measuresamong those affected.

Participation is one of the main issues for successful climate adaptation. Involving differentstakeholders such as decision makers, entrepreneurs, and the public is necessary to raise awareness,to achieve consensus, and to retrieve information to accelerate the implementation as well as toincrease the acceptance of solutions. Based on the experience of the CPA pilots, the following goodpractice activities can be recommended in the field of process organization:

• A communications plan should be developed early on in order to inform all relevant participants.Within the Titchwell Marsh and Schouwen-Duiveland cases, communication strategies wereestablished and successfully implemented. A communication plan provides for a structuredprocess, ensuring that all relevant stakeholders have the opportunity to engage with the project.It clarifies key messages for each audience. This involves, for example, newsletters, presscontacts, participation in events, targeted meetings, posters, brochures, maps, reports, and evenmuseum expositions.

• Organizing stakeholder involvement is essential for the development of a joint vision and raisingacceptance of the adaptation process. This was achieved in the CPA pilot projects througha variety of forms, e.g., regional fora and focus groups (Wesermarsch), public drop-in sessions(UK), and bilateral and multilateral meetings, workshops, and events. Special attention should be


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dedicated to the involvement of the private sector to better utilize local and regional knowledgeand their innovative capacity for the climate adaptation process.

• School projects can help increase awareness of climate change issues. The involvement ofscholars and students in the development of adaptation options in the Schouwen-Duivelandpilot project proved to be successful for creating awareness. Scholars themselves are futurestakeholders in their region, and they spread awareness through their networks and parents aswell as other stakeholders involved. As part of the pilot project, they developed innovativesolution based on new and unexpected views.

• A tool which can contribute to active participation of stakeholders is a matrix-based decisionsupport tool. Such a tool has been developed in Sweden and provides a checklist for monitoringcomplex integrated processes and a methodology to stimulate discussion among stakeholdersabout crucial items (Andersson-Sköld et al. 2011). It facilitates the identification of potentialmeasures and land use consequences from short- as well as long-term perspectives. It contributesto a more transparent decision-making process, allowing different stakeholders to give weights tovarious consequences and actions. Alternatively, a participatory integrative assessment can beapplied following Ahlhorn (2009).

• As mentioned above, climate adaptation can be characterized by a long-term perspective anda low sense of urgency. To overcome this obstacle and accelerate the process, climate adaptationcan be connected to local problems and initiatives. One of the strongest approaches to achievecommitment for climate adaptation proved to be the connection to current regional problems,projects, and initiatives in which stakeholders are already involved. Examples are flood mitiga-tion programs, initiatives on urban (re-)development, or ecological habitat improvement pro-grams. Beyond this, currently experienced climate impacts (e.g., within the agricultural sector)can function as a good starting point for climate proofing activities.

• Often, regions or countries are known for their expertise in a specific field of action (e.g., Dutchwater and dike boards for their innovative sea defense and water management systems). Cross-national exchange between climate adaptation projects can transfer knowledge and experiencesto other regions. During the CPA project there have been several exchanges of experiencebetween the different project areas. Project members from different countries acted as so-calledCommunity of Practice, exchanging experiences and information by means of excursions, projectmeetings, and mutual presentations. These have been valuable in contributing to the solution ofpilot project-related problems and served as a catalyst for successful progress.

• Finally, specific attention can be paid to more strategic local and regional policy making, whichhas been accomplished, for example, in Schouwen-Duiveland by getting connected to themunicipal strategic vision for 2040.

Adaptation Toolkit: Towards Regional Climate Adaptation

Analyzing the experiences from the CPA project in terms of successfully applied practices andapproaches, it appears meaningful to structure the good practice examples in terms of assigning themto the different phases of the problem-solving cycle. Thus, a more generic approach for regionalclimate adaptation in coastal areas can be outlined, as realized as part of the Adaptation toolkittowards regional climate adaptation developed with the CPA project (van Oostrom et al. 2011). Thiswill be illustrated by a number of recommendations and specific issues attached to different phasesof the problem-solving cycle.


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Problem DefinitionFirst of all, regions should be encouraged to undertake regional climate adaptation initiatives.Climate change is an important issue worldwide, and the regional level provides challengingopportunities to link this issue to different sectors and regional land use planning from an integrativeperspective. Assuming there is enough awareness among stakeholders, they are able to forma regional alliance (see, e.g., Goltemann and Marengwa 2012) and initiate a climate proofingprocess. Stakeholders need to be integrated in the climate proofing process from the beginning.

Problem SpecificationIn most cases it is recommended to undertake a regional climate impact analysis, including the itemsas listed in the previous section. This analysis should have regard to the abovementioned climateimpacts issues that are particular for coastal regions. Stakeholders representing different sectors haveto be involved in the regional analysis. Modeling and the development of (long-term) scenarios isneeded to understand the range of possible effects, especially at local and regional scales. Therefore,more detailed site-specific information and data is required than what is actually available on globaland national scale. Timescales need to be adjusted to planning periods in order to facilitate thedevelopment of no-regret (or at least low-regret) adaptation options.

Generation of SolutionsThe CPA project showed that pilot projects can generate a large number of possible options to adaptto the identified climate impacts. In order to raise acceptance (in subsequent phases), it isrecommended to involve stakeholders also in this phase of the process. CPA itself was a valuableknowledge base for climate proofing activities in other regions. It is recommended that accessibleand clustered information platforms on regional, national, and EU levels are created in order to shareexperience.

It is a challenge to create consistent and comprehensive regional adaptation strategies, especiallythose involving both physical and socioeconomic actions. Regional and local knowledge and theinnovative capacity of the private sector should be harnessed at the earliest opportunity to betterensure the success of solutions chosen.

Choice of the Best SolutionRegional and local administrations must embed climate adaptation within decision-making pro-cesses with regard to any plans, policies, and land use programs that might affect the ability ofa region to adapt to climate change in the future. It is therefore essential to integrate climate impactassessment into formal processes such as the environmental impact assessment (EIA).

Whether chosen solutions are successful or not depends on the future development of a region.Therefore, before choosing adaptation solutions, decision makers should agree on a common visionfor the region, having involved stakeholders and the public. Adaptation solutions that match thevision should have broader acceptance and accelerate the implementation process.

Finally, adaptation strategies should aim to add value. Socioeconomic and environmental benefitsshould be identified and considered together in order to generate no-regret solutions and should aimfor win-win outcomes.

Implementation of the Selected SolutionClimate adaptation can be accelerated by creating so-called windows of opportunity. Thus, climateadaptation should be delivered through ongoing plans and projects in different sectors. Climateadaptation should make use of the climate and weather impacts already experienced by stakeholders.


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Awareness of today’s climate variability can be very valuable when linking the assessment ofpossible impacts of climate change in the future to more strategic local and regional policy making.Current weather impacts can be used during the problem specification phase to contribute to analysisand solutions generation.

Evaluation of the Adaptation ProcessClimate proofing projects and processes can play an important role in “learning by doing.” Theresults and experiences should be monitored and evaluated and contribute to new projects andinitiatives. In this respect it is particularly important to inform the public on experiences andsuccesses. Adaptation is a continuous process, and successful implementation does not mean thefuture is secure. When further action is needed, at least one stakeholder should take the coordinatingrole and restart the process.

Recommendations for Regional Scale Climate Adaptation

Some general recommendations can be given in order to optimize the regional climate adaptationprocess.

• While climate proofing has to be considered as a process rather than a project, a clear processmanagement (and process manager) is required, including a process plan. The role, position, andresponsibilities of different stakeholders, often from different sectors or administration levels,have to be clear and agreed.

• Through all stages of the process, participation of stakeholders is a major issue. There aredifferent ways available to facilitate this. Several examples are mentioned in the previous sections(e.g., regional fora, workshops, exhibitions).

• From the beginning of the climate proofing process, communication and awareness raising iscrucial, especially because climate change is often still perceived as an abstract problem.A communication strategy is a necessity.

• Organization of cross-regional and cross-national exchange between climate proofing areas andprojects is recommended. This can be very valuable to achieve progress and to improve thequality of analyses, methodologies, solutions, knowledge, and information sharing.

Although most climate adaptation activities are – or will be – undertaken at national, regional, orlocal level, these can be supported and strengthened by an integrated and coordinated approach atEU level (Com 2009). This is one of the main reasons why the CPA project has been executed underthe umbrella of the EU Interreg IVB North Sea Region Program. In connection with the experiencesand results from the CPA project, we conclude with a couple of perspectives on European support forregional climate adaptation in coastal areas.

ResearchThe complexity of climate proofing processes and climate impact analyses requires coordinated andcontinued research on a number of subjects that are relevant for all regions involved. The CPAproject did not generate a research agenda but identified the following issues as illustrative:

• Water and groundwater management under a changing climate must be linked to the frameworkof national and EU regulations (e.g., Water Framework Directive, Groundwater Directive, Flood


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Directive, proposed Soil Framework Directive). Although climate change is already implicitlyconsidered, a more explicit consideration is required.

• Management of freshwater supply and (innovative) food production must take care of changingclimate conditions. Droughts, waterlogging, and salt intrusion may have severe impacts whichmight be compensated by innovative drainage systems, fish and seaweed farms, or salt-tolerantagricultural crops (e.g., potatoes).

• Flood risk management has to cope with climate change. The EU Flood Directive has to beconnected with climate impacts.

• Climate and socioeconomic scenario development, alignment, and application are necessary tounderstand and illustrate the potential impacts of climate change. Uncertainties in the science,long-term developments, and working at different temporal and spatial scales make scenariodevelopment challenging.

• Governance issues should be applied to regional climate adaptation processes. Stakeholderinvolvement, cross-sectoral and cross-level cooperation, institutional and planning frameworks,as well as cooperation with the private sector and communication are relevant issues in thisrespect.

Exchange of Knowledge and InformationCross-national and cross-regional exchanges between climate proofing pilot areas and projectsproved to be very valuable and stimulating in terms of regional climate adaptation. The North SeaRegion (NSR) and EU can support these exchanges in many ways, e.g., by the connection toresearch programs, conferences, and communities of practice and the creation or strengthening ofdedicated platforms (e.g., climate-adapt.eea.europa.eu). In addition, the ongoing improvement ofinformation and expert databases or web portals at EU level will contribute to these exchanges (e.g.,www.wiser.eu). In this respect it is important that these facilities are promoted, easily accessible, andharmonized as far as necessary. The EU and regional stakeholders should cooperate more to connectregional climate proofing programs to enduring national and international climate researchprograms.

Policy and RegulationsAn important recommendation from the CPA project is that a new systematic tool should bedeveloped which can help “insert” climate adaptation into decision-making. Therefore, a so-calledClimate Adaptation Pre-Assessment (CAPrA) should be developed. This should focus on thedevelopment and application of climate adaptation criteria within relevant plans and decision-making processes, according to and based on the spirit of a Strategic Environmental Assessment(SEA). This is in line with the EU Impact Assessment Guidelines, stating that for any relevantplanning option, it should be identified if it affects our ability to adapt to climate change.

European regulations and their translation into national policy frameworks play an important roledefining roles and boundaries for climate adaptation at the regional scale. It is therefore important toincorporate climate adaptation strategies in relevant European policies and regulations and to alignthem with different administration levels in countries and regions. The CPA project has focused lesson this issue. Within the different pilots, projects, and analyses, the following relevant directives andpolicies have been referred to Bird and Habitat Directives (and Natura 2000), Water FrameworkDirective (and the related Groundwater Directive), EU Flood Directive, Soil Framework Directive(proposed), and the Common Agricultural Policy. Connected with the previously mentionedcharacteristic climate impacts in coastal areas, in most cases these policies and regulations shouldbe taken into account in climate proofing projects.


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http://www.wiser.eu

Investment ProgramsMost of the presented supportive activities can be connected to ongoing EU investment programsregarding research, regional and economic development, or infrastructure. On the other hand,regional authorities and stakeholders should continuously and in a coordinated way specify theirneeds and present promising strategies in order for relevant EU programs and networks to take theminto account.

Finally, a number of specific remarks can be added regarding European support for regionalclimate adaptation:

• The EU and the NSR play an important role in raising awareness on climate change and climateadaptation. Keeping adaptation on the agenda, creating easy access to information and knowledgeand connecting this to all relevant EU-programs will contribute to continued awareness ondifferent stakeholder levels.

• (Inter-)National cooperation between regions can address how to handle differences in regional orlocal vulnerability to climate change and how to learn from experiences.

• For relevant programs and activities, closer connections with the mitigation domain (regardingCO2 policy and regulations, renewable energy programs) can possibly strengthen the achieve-ments in the adaptation domain, especially because of the extensive involvement of the EU inmitigation.

Conclusion

Since climate change will affect coastal regions, it is necessary to foster climate (change) adaptationat different spatiotemporal scales. This should mutually be done from an integrated perspective andbe embedded in current projects, initiatives, and policies. The regional level is a very appropriatescale in which to link climate adaptation with different sectors and land use planning. The CPAproject provided various ideas and experiences to deal with “typical” climate impacts in coastalregions such as higher flood risk, waterlogging, droughts, salinization, ecological disturbance, andfreshwater supply for agriculture. Furthermore, the project suggested a more generic approach toguide regional climate adaptation in coastal areas. However, regional climate adaptation is not yetcommon practice. It is a long and continuous process that requires close coordination betweenregional, national, and international levels. At EU level, this can be supported by an integrated andcoordinated approach regarding research, exchange of knowledge and information, andmainstreaming of policies and regulations and investment programs. At national level, financialand organizational boundary conditions for climate adaptation are set. But at regional level, tailor-made solutions need to be developed and implemented. The tools and approaches presented in thischapter cannot guarantee a successful climate adaptation. Decisions must be made under uncertainty(e.g., with regard to scenario projections), and decisions are made by people often thinking intimescales of elections, investments, or life span of measures rather than of decadal or centennialvisions. No-regret solutions and win-win outcomes will not be available in every case. However, thepresented tools and approaches can significantly contribute to a successful adaptation process atregional scale since they aim at increasing integration and acceptance of climate change adaptationmeasures by identifying joint targets and by involving people. In accordance with Integrated WaterResourcesManagement and Integrative Coastal ZoneManagement, feedback loops will increase theefficiency of adaptation through learning from successes and mistakes and considering informationand knowledge gathered meanwhile.


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Acknowledgment

The authors thank the European Union for their partial funding of the “Climate Proof Areas” projectin the framework of the Interreg IV B North Sea Region program.

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Index Terms:

Adaptation toolkit 12Climate change adaptation 14Pilot studies 5Policy recommendations 13Regional scale 7, 14


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Documents

Handbook of Climate Change Adaptation || Guiding Regional Climate Adaptation in Coastal Areas