Green Building Magazine - Hydrogen Supplement - Spring 08

8/14/2019 Green Building Magazine - Hydrogen Supplement - Spring 08

1/1357 GreenBuildingmagazine - Spring08

In this special feature, regular contributor to Green

Building magazine, Gavin Harper has assembled this

special supplement for us looking at hydrogen fuel and

fuel cells ...

The recent flurry of activity by the scientific and engineering

community has brought the fuel cell into the public eye, with

the subject being mentioned on the Green Building forum,

prompting a flurry of activity on the subject. We decided to

cover the topic with a round-up of some current projects,

interviews with people at the centre of the action, and an

exposition of the technology, with the aim of attempting to

answer some of the questions posed, and investigating

the real capabilities of this technology.

Many would believe that the fuel cell was a recent

innovation, however, its roots can be traced back to as

early as 1838. Sir William Robert Grove is widely heralded

as the father of the fuel cell. He was born in 1811, in

Swansea, Wales, a Welsh lawyer who later applied himself

to the mastery of science. He discovered what is known

as the Grove gas battery. In 1843 he published a diagram

and made a primitive model. However, it was not really

until much later (in 1959), that a fuel cell with a sizable

power output (5kW) was developed by British engineer,

Francis Thomas Bacon.

Green Building magazine :

www.greenbuildingmagazine.co.uk



What is a fuel cell?A fuel cell is an electrochemical energy conversion device. Why

electrochemical? Because it harnesses the energy made in

chemical reactions to produce electrical energy. You might like

to think of a fuel cell as being very similar to a battery, however,

there are some key differences. A battery is a sealed unit, where

in the case of disposable batteries, once all of the reactants are

used up, their energy is depleted. Fuel cells differ in this respect,

in that the reactants are continuously replenished allowing the

cell to operate for much longer periods.

There is also another key difference. In a battery, because of

the chemical reactions that are occurring, the electrodes change

over the life of the battery. In the case of rechargeable batteries,

this change is reversible adding energy to the battery allows

the electrodes to change back into their original state. Fuel cells

differ significantly in this respect. A fuel cells electrodes are

catalytic and do not change considerably over the life of the fuel

cell. The fuel in a fuel cell is not burned, like in an engine, as such.

Fuel cells are quiet, even silent in operation, and are free from

polluting emissions. The key fuel in a fuel cell is hydrogen. Inmany fuel cells this is supplied as a gas, however, with some fuel

cells, for example direct methanol fuel cells, another fuel is used

which is a hydrogen carrier. This is to say, the methanol acts

as a transport mechanism for getting hydrogen to the fuel cell.

In Woking, natural gas is being used as a carrier for hydrogen,

being reformed on-site before it enters the fuel cell.

Why not just use hydrogen? Well, sometimes by using a

hydrogen carrier we make the fuel easier to transport and store.

These hydrogen carriers could have an important part to play

in a transition to a hydrogen economy, as they would allow us

to use existing infrastructure that is currently used to transport

petrol and other liquid fuels. However, it must also be noted

that there are carbon dioxide emissions as a result of using ahydrogen carrier.

The idea was broached on the Green Building Forum, of

a hydrogen infrastructure being a useless duplication of

infrastructure that is already present for distributing energy

namely our gas and electricity networks. However, if the idea

of hydrogen flowing through pipes in the street seems an alien

one, think back to before the discovery of North Sea gas, when

town gas contained up to 50% hydrogen. Allan Jones remains

confident that gas will continue to flow into the UK for many

years yet, citing that LPG is easily transportable and can be

imported easily. However, the UK has already changed from one

piped gas to another variety with different characteristics its

not inconceivable could happen again.

How do fuel cells work?Lets take a look at what happens inside a fuel cell. In this

example we are going to look at a proton exchange membrane

or polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell. As we will see later,

there are different types of fuel cells, all of which follow similar

principles.

There are two sides to the fuel cell (see Figure 1), the anode

and the cathode. The anode is what we would call our positive

terminal or +V and the cathode, we would call our negative

terminal or -V. Our anode is perpetually exposed to hydrogen

which is constantly replenished from a supply such as a tank. The

cathode is perpetually exposed to oxygen, which is constantly

replenished. The two are separated by a plastic membrane made

from nafion, but more about that later.

Looking at the anode, the hydrogen must first diffuse through

a gas diffusion electrode (GDE). This is a material which allowsthe gas to pass through to the catalyst, whilst also conducting

electricity. Carbon cloths and papers are commonly used as they

have the property of being porous to the hydrogen, whilst also

conducting electricity.

Once it has passed through the GDE it comes into contact

with the catalyst, which generally contains platinum. The catalyst

facilitates the chemical reaction which comes next, allowing the

hydrogen to break into protons and electrons. The nafion plastic

membrane is porous to protons and allows them to pass through.

However, the electrons cannot pass through the membrane.

Instead, they take the next easiest route to reach the other side

this is the electric circuit that allows us to extract useful power

from the fuel cell. As the electrons travel round the circuit,

they do some work; this could be powering a motor in a car or

scooter, powering a portable electronic device or illuminating a

lamp in your home. When they reach the other side, the oxygen

(which can either be pure oxygen or the oxygen present in air)

reacts with the electrons which have travelled through the circuit,

and the protons which have travelled through the membrane, to

form water.

How much power does a fuel cell produce?Typically, each cell produces a potential difference of around 0.8

volts. In a similar way to in a car battery where multiple cells

Figure 1. Simplified diagram of how a fuel cell works.



are used to create 12v, or in many electrical appliances where

we use a number of batteries to create a higher voltage, so

fuel cells can be built up in stacks. A fuel cell stack produces a

higher voltage than an individual fuel cell. The amount of current

that a fuel cell produces is largely dependent upon the size of

the active area where the chemical reaction is taking place.

Fuel cell effi cienc yOne of the great advantages of fuel cells is that unlike

conventional heat engines, such as the internal combustion

engine (the sort you find in your car or generator), or external

combustion engines (such as steam and Stirling engines), the

fuel cell is not constrained by the Carnot cycle effi ciency (that

is to say the rule of thermodynamics which govern the effi ciency

of conventional engines) because the fuel cells do not operate

using a thermal cycle. As a result, fuel cells are theoretically far

more effi cient than heat engines which results in extracting

more energy from our fuel. However, work is still in progress to

reach those theoretically attainable effi ciencies. From practical

experience effi ciencies of 30% are being attained which

correlates with those figures obtained by Paul in Montreal fromWikipedia on the Green Building Forum. Indeed, further to Pauls

comments about energy storage in batteries, projects like HARI

(see page 64), show how both technologies can be successfully

integrated providing effi cient short term storage, with the

capacity for longer-term storage of energy in hydrogen and

the ability to transport this energy easily or use it as a transport

fuel.

The hydrogen economyWith peak oil, and the possibility of peak coal, peak gas and peak

uranium, people are looking for new solutions to meet our energy

needs. The hydrogen economy is one proposed way of meeting

our energy needs more sustainably.

It is important to note, that hydrogen is not used as a

fuel but as a carrier for energy that is produced using other

means. Hydrogen is a near ideal energy carrier and permits a

decentralised energy infrastructure supporting the argument

for small scale, local energy production. It can also fit within

the framework of our present large scale energy generation

infrastructure and the ability to store it eliminates many of

the intermittency problems that are often discussed about

renewables.

Hydrogen is the first element on the periodic table for a very

special reason. It is the simplest of all chemicals, and also the

lightest. We do not need to fear running out of hydrogen, as

it is the most abundant element in the universe. Hydrogen is

a fantastic energy carrier and to understand what makes it so

good, you need to look at why carbon based energy carriers are

so bad. When a carbon based fuel burns, it produces carbon

dioxide, a greenhouse gas. In addition, when carbon is burned

in an internal combustion engine, impurities in the fuel lead

to sulphurous emissions that lead to acid rain, and the large

nitrogen content of the air, coupled with the high temperatures

reached inside the engine, promote the production of NOX.

Furthermore, engines also emit large amounts of unburnt

hydrocarbons, VOCs and masses of particulates. The damage

caused by burning carbon based fuels can clearly be seen in

places like Los Angeles, which is permanently shrouded in a

photochemical smog.

We have seen the evil of carbon based fuels, which are

responsible for the UKs transition to fuels with a lower carbon

content typified by the dash for gas, where coal was usurped

by natural gas as the energy of choice. However, the hydrogen

economy promises a future without carbon.

Hydrogen is colourless, odourless and tasteless, non toxic, an

produces water as its only by-product. However, it is dangerous

if mixed with air or oxygen because of the fire and explosion

risk. In principle, it can asphyxiate through denying the body

access to oxygen. Contrast this to carbon based fuels which

are also explosive, cause damage to the ecosystem, personal

health problems, and potential future fuel insecurity. Our global

prosperity in the past couple of centuries has been built on

carbon. Unfortunately carbon fuels have been burnt with little

consideration for future supply, and the damage done to the

environment. After much development, our carbon based

engines still only reach around 20% effi ciency. Furthermore,

our energy is currently generated centrally, which, due to lossesin transmission and conversion, can be horribly ineffi cient. By

transitioning to a hydrogen economy, the future is open for

distributed generation.

Types of fuel cellThere are a large number of fuel cell types in research and

development by a large number of companies. At the moment,

the state of fuel cell technology can be broken down into a

distinct number of types, all with their own distinct characteris-

tics, which make them ideal for certain applications.

So how is hydrogen made?There are a number of ways that we can get our hydrogen. It is

bit of a myth that hydrogen is a fuel. It isnt really, as there is nosuch thing as a hydrogen mine.

ElectrolysisAt school, you might have used a Hoffman apparatus in science

class. A Hoffman apparatus has a reservoir of water through

which is passed an electric current. The electric current

disassociates the hydrogen from the oxygen in the water. The

gas bubbles off from the electrodes and is collected in separate

storage containers. It is observed that twice as much hydrogen

is produced as oxygen. Taking a little bit of time to think about

this, we see that the chemical formula for water is H2O. This

makes sense as we can see that there is twice as much hydroge

in water as oxygen. The hydrogen produced by the electrolysis

process is very pure. Some fuel cells require a very pure form o

hydrogen so this is ideal.

The one disadvantage of electrolysis is that significant

amounts of electrical energy are needed for the process. Whilst

this electricity can be generated using clean, green renewable

energy, there are also many champions of a nuclear-hydrogen

economy using supposedly cheap nuclear energy to produce

hydrogen this would leave us with a toxic legacy of waste and

would negate many of the benefits of a clean hydrogen econom

Steam reformationBy combining high temperature steam, and methane, it is



possible to extract hydrogen from this fossil fuel. The process

is fairly cheap and inexpensive, and the heat produced can also

be harnessed (known as co-generation which is covered later).

Co-generation provides us with lots of low-level heat which could

prove useful in local combined heat and power schemes. This

method does show a lot of promise as it is currently an effi cient

cheap technology that will work with existing gas-distribution

infrastructure. However the carbon emissions are impossible to

ignore.

Biomass gasification and reformationBiomass has proven itself as a relatively clean, near carbon

neutral source of energy. Agricultural waste, organic matter,

wood and other sources of biomass can be heated in a controlled

atmosphere without the presence of oxygen. This yields a gas

synthesis gas, which is hydrogen rich as well as containing

carbon monoxide and dioxide.

The carbon emissions from this source of energy are

effectively neutral as the carbon dioxide was taken out of the

atmosphere in the first place by the growing plants. However,carbon emissions in the production and distribution of Biomass

cannot be ignored. There is also the possibility of sequestering

the carbon produced in the gasification process. This could

effectively make biomass with hydrogen extraction a carbon

negative fuel.

PhotoelectrolysisPhotoelectrolysis is a relatively new unproven technology. It

involves using solar energy to stimulate a silicon junction similar

to a photovoltaic cell, with the distinction that instead of the

energy being converted to electricity, the silicon junction acts

directly on the water where electrolysis occurs. This technology

shows promise, although much development must be done.

Biologically produced hydrogenThere are a number of types of algae that use

photosynthesis to convert solar energy into hydrogen.

At the moment these processes have only been

demonstrated on a small scale, but research in this area

is intense. It is expected that great strides forward in

this area could be made.

Clean coal?There are vast tracts of coal throughout the world.

However, coal is carbon rich burning it doesnt

help global warming, and mining leaves scars on the

landscape which can last for generations. There are,

however, schemes afoot to look at gasifying coal,

extracting the carbon, and sequestering it.

Co, tri and quad generationWhilst fuel cells are some way off achieving their

theoretical maximum effi ciency, the waste heat that

is produced can be utilised in heating and cooling

applications. Whilst some heat is still lost this is

inevitable the model of producing electricity using

decentralised fuel cells is far more attractive than the

present model of centralised generation. Allan Jones

explores how fuel cells have the potential to reduce

the amount of energy wasted as dumped heat, and

electrical losses designed into a centralised generation scheme

(see page 66).

Taking the example of fuel cell combined heat and power from

natural gas, it is seen in Figure 2 what supporting equipment is

necessary to interface the fundamental unit of the fuel cell to

the rest of the building services. Heat generated from the fuel

cell is sequestered in a thermal store until it is required. This

helps to balance supply and demand. For backup purposes, and

for when additional heat is required, a gas burner is provided to

supplement the heat from the fuel cell.

Because many solid-oxide fuel cells are sensitive to sulphur,

the sulphur must first be scrubbed from the gas to avoid

contaminating the fuel cell. There are plans afoot to develop

fuel cells which tolerate of sulphur. Companies such as TMI in

Cleveland, Ohio are developing fuel cells that may not require

this intermediate step and can also run from gases with high

sulphur content such as that produced by agricultural biogas

digesters. The gas must then be humidified waste heat from

the fuel cell is used to heat up water to provide humidification.This humidification helps with the next step, which is the steam-

reformation of natural gas into hydrogen and carbon dioxide. The

gas then passes through a heat exchanger where it is pre-heated

before going to the fuel cell, along with air, which is also pre-

heated. The hot exhaust from the fuel cell is used to provide heat

for the heat exchanger which produces the hot water, preheats

the gases being supplied to the fuel cell and heats the reformer.

The output from the fuel cell is direct current (DC) which

must then be rectified into alternating current (AC) and

synchronised with the phase and frequency of the grid into which

it is being fed. In Woking (see page 66) it can be seen how fuel

cells have been selected with power electronics that can work

in island mode and maintain the grid frequency in the event

Figure 2. A tri-generation fuel cell.



of a main grid failure. This capability enables the private wire

network to operate independently in the event that the grid fails.

Additionally, controls will interface with the building management

system, to match the fuel cells operation to the buildings need

for heat and power.

This is accomplished by using the heat for useful applications

heating a building, or coupled with absorptive cooling to

meet a buildings cooling loads in the summer. In Woking,quadgeneration is being employed, which builds upon co-

generation and tri-generation, by providing electricity, steam, hot

water, and chilled water for cooling, all from a single fuel source

natural gas. A variable fraction of the heat-generated can be

diverted into absorptive cooling, enabling the fuel cell quad-gen

system to match closely the demand for heating and cooling.

Additionally, because the electricity is generated close to source,

electrical losses are reduced.

Things are beginning to happen apace. For instance, the

PURE Energy Centre has announced its collaboration with Fuel

Cells Scotland (see page 62), to produce the first unplugged

hydrogen houses. The technology is in place, so it is only a

matter of time before the first commercially available domestic

fuel cell systems are being sold for early adopters. At last years

Grove Fuel Cell Symposium, the boiler manufacturer BAXI was

exhibiting a combined heat and power unit, so its only a matter

of time before smaller units become available.

Gavin Harper

Useful links:

WWW.GROVEFUELCELL.COM

WWW.LSHC.CO.UK

HTTP:// EC.EUROPA.EU/NEWS/SCIENCE/071011 _ 1 _ EN.HTM

Figure 3. Where the energy from tri-generation goes.

HYDROGENFUELTECHNOLOGY

For many years, hydrogen fuel cell technology has

been just over the horizon, just a couple of years

away, a little out of grasp. Its a technology that

doesnt ever seem to be covered in much depth in

the mainstream, as it is always seen as intangible

- something which is more science-fiction than science

fact, and something that we wont need to worry

about for a good couple of years yet...

The signs are this perception is rapidly changing.

A number of announcements and events in the past

couple of months have been the catalyst for hydrogen

technologies gaining increased prominence in the

media, and a number of announcements have shown

that hydrogen is beginning to permeate the publics

imagination. It is a technology which we can no longer

afford to ignore, as the signs are it is coming of age.

Whilst the buildings and installations that presently

feature fuel cells are few and far between, there

are signs in the air that the technology is gaining

momentum, and likely to become an increasingly

common sight in the next couple of years.

The bi-annual Grove Fuel Cell Symposium was held

in London recently, widely regarded as the worlds

premier fuel cell event, occupying the Queen Elizabeth

II conference centre for three days. The event acted

as a magnet for hydrogen experts, companies and

organisations to descend on London for a few

days and with any major event like this, there is

bound to be an intensification of press releases,announcements and interest in the field. BAXI, the

mainstream boiler manufacturer, were exhibiting a

fuel cell combined heat and power (CHP) system, that

could eventually scale down for smaller buildings, even

domestic use.

Support for hydrogen has just been bolstered by

the European Union, who believe that hydrogen is

part of the package in a sustainable energy future,

and so on the 11th of October 2007, they launched a

joint technology initiative, with over 1 billion funding

including 470m from the EU coffers. This is bound

to stimulate new research, innovative early-adopter

buildings which integrate fuel cell technology and

further development of the field.

All the signs point to exciting times ahead, and we

are seeing the first batch of designers integrating

hydrogen into their homes.



PURE hydrogenOn the northernmost inhabited island of the

British Isles is an unlikely combination of cuttingedge energy technology, and an unrivalled pool of

expertise in hydrogen and fuel cells. Gavin Harper

visits the PURE Energy Centre and talks to Ross Gazey.

The Shetlands is too distant to be part of the national

grid, so the bulk of its power is produced by an ageing

oil-fired power station on the island. There are moves to

increase the amount of energy supplied to the island by

wind turbines and with the best wind resource in Europe,

there is certainly potential to meet the needs of its 20,000

inhabitants.

Unfortunately, the island is also one of contrasts.

Despite being the location of the North Sea oil industrys

massive transhipment terminal at Sullum Voe, the island

has the highest fuel prices in the United Kingdom because

the oil must be shipped back to the UK for refining, before

being shipped back for resale. This means that over 50%

of islanders spend over 20% of their income on fuel.

The lack of opportunities for graduates on the island

prompted the community development organisation

The Unst Partnership to look at investing in fuel cell

technology as a way of putting Unst on the energy map,

retaining skills on the island and diversifying revenue

streams. It is clear that in a small community such as onUnst, no man is an island and the close links between

PURE, and the community in which it operates, have

benefits for everyone.

Gazey likens the problems facing qualified young

people in Unst to the brain drain facing Britain in the

past couple of decades, where highly qualified graduates

left the shores of blighty to the US. However, resourceful

Gazey was determined for the same fate not to befall his

home island. Looking for opportunities to develop clean

energy opportunities for the future, he was instrumental in

the founding days of what is known as the PURE Energy

Centre.

In addition to creating six full-time equivalent jobs

on the island, the centre has also created wealth for its

community, as a result of the visitors to the centre, who

stay, spend money on the island and use the services

and accommodation. Forget Live Earth, Unst was the

first place in the world to hold a rock concert fuelled on

renewable hydrogen!

In a technology marketplace which is changing rapidly,

and the state of the art develops day-by-day, PURE has

built itself a formidable reputation in the European fuel

cell industry in a relatively short time. As well as the

technology improving, PURE believes that the economics

of the technology are starting to make sense predicting

that fuel cells will decrease in price by up to 50% in the

next three years bringing the technology to a much

wider marketplace.

Energy centreThe PURE system is based on the premise that hydrogen

should be produced from renewable sources. Presently

this comes courtesy of a pair of 6kW Proven wind

turbines, with plans to upgrade to two 15kW turbines

when some design issues are rectified.

Being a remote island in the middle of the North

Sea, Unst receives more than its fair share of wind, so

the availability from the turbines is very good indeed

-averaging around 45-50%. Power from the turbines is

used to heat the building by modified electric heaters,

designed to utilise the supply from the wind turbines more

effi ciently, and spare excess power is diverted into the

electrolyser unit to produce hydrogen.

The electrolyser and associated elec-trickery are

housed inside the Hy-Pod. PURE has designed the

system to be modular, housing all of the technology inside

an easily transportable unit (see inset right). This opensup many opportunities for shipping the device and rolling

out this solution around the world. Policy makers are

beginning to sit up and notice, with many from the great

and the good of UK and EU parliaments visiting PURE

since its establishment.

The hydrogen produced by the electrolyser is then

stored for later use in standard K type cylinders. This

is a cost-effective solution, and avoids the problems of

ineffi ciency and energy-loss associated with having to

compress the gas. PURE is able to do this because of its

novel electrolyser arrangement, which operates at system

pressure. The organisation then has a number of options.

It can use the hydrogen in a 5kW Plug Power fuel cellwhich provides electricity on-site, mounted next to the

HyPod. It has also been developing hydrogen cooking

appliances, the first iteration being the PURE hydrogen

barbecue, which often comes out for course attendees

if the weather is fine. In addition, PURE is developing an

internal combustion engine which will run on hydrogen

allowing cheap, legacy technology to reap the benefits of

clean hydrogen gas. The HyPod has also been equipped

to recharge the hydride cylinders inside the PURE

hydrogen vehicle, which Dr Daniel Aklil HAlluin commutes

to work in!

Hydrogen vehicleGazey told me that this is the first road-legal type-

approved hydrogen vehicle in the UK. There is a hint of

irony in its location, Gazey intimates, as on Unst, vehicles

do not require an MOT!

Whilst on many of the cars on the island, the tell-tale

signs of bubbling paint betray the secrets of the tin-

worm beneath, the ravages of the Shetland weather, and

high salt content of the atmosphere do not show on the

bodywork of Gazeys car, which he tells me, is ABS plastic

covered with a green film - proudly alluding to the cars

eco-credentials.

Gazey is clear to differentiate the PURE vehicle from



the crowd -the PURE hydrogen car is refueled with 100%

green hydrogen. Many hydrogen vehicles are fuelled from

hydrogen produced from fossil fuel. His vehicle employs PEM

(proton exchange membrane) fuel cell technology to convert

hydrogen into electrical energy, which can power the cars

4.6kW DC electric motor. In the PURE car the hydrogen acts

in symphony with the lead-acid batteries originally fitted to

the G-Wiz car on which the PURE car was based, providing a

hydrogen hybrid solution and giving the car extra range and

acceleration.

I am told that one of the challenges with hydrogen vehicle

technology is designing a method for refueling, Gazey notes

that the PURE system works at a relatively low pressure.

However, he is quick to add that it does take six hours to fill

the cars metal hydride cylinder (a kind of can filled with a

hydrogen sponge which soaks up the gas). This is because

the vehicle is refueled at low-pressure, which helps to

circumvent some of the safety legislation that the mainstream

car manufacturers are having to grapple with. It is clear from

Gazeys description of the vehicle and refueling station that

he has a passion for flair and innovation.

So why Unst as the location for this novel enterprise?

In addition to creating a novel and innovative vehicle,very much in keeping with the current zeitgeist for green

technology sweeping the motoring industry, PURE has also

created the sustainable infrastructure to allow refuelling of

the hydrogen vehicle. All of this is surprising from one of

Britains remotest islands.

Road testI took the hydrogen car out for a spin and driving it was a

surreal experience. It became apparent that once inside,

anyone expecting more than a modicum of knee-room, was

likely to be severely distressed. As my large frame climbed

into the drivers seat, and flicked the red-switch retro-fitted

by PURE, the Ballard fuel cell whirred into action behind me.

The quiet hum of the cooling fans was a far cry from the roarof an internal combustion engine, and more akin to an engine

fan fitted to many cars.

Gazey reminded me that as the vehicle is gearless, there

are only two pedals, loud and soft, with no clutch to worry

about. To the right hand side of the steering wheel is a

chunky rotary knob. R, N, E and F denote reverse, neutral,

economy and fast. Ever the daredevil, I was urged to

plump for fast. Gingerly pushing on the accelerator, the car

surges forward. In all frankness, this was unexpected. Initial

acceleration is quite brisk. Turning out of the car park the

vehicles limitations become apparent as we disconcertingly

lurch to the left but Gazey reassured me that with several

hundred kilo of lead acid batteries and steel frame beneath

us were not going to roll over. On the straight the pedal

touches the floor, and the vehicle begins to get up to speed...

surprisingly nippy!

I was left with the feeling that it is amazing how such a

bold technical achievement has been accomplished by such a

small organisation and doubtless with pressure from declining

oil reserves, vehicles like the PURE are likely to become a

common sight on our streets in years to come.

Gavin Harper

For further info: PURE Energy Centre, Hagdale Industrial Estate,Unst, Shetland, ZE2 9DS

TECHSPECOFTHEPUREHYDROGENPROPELLEDCA

Vehicle body: 2 Door

Dimensions: L 2.6m, W 1.3m, H 1.6m

Rolling weight: 665kg

Turning circle: 3.5 metres

Top speed: 45mph/72kph

Tyres: 13 low rolling resistance

Drive: Rear-wheel drive

Power: 8x6v lead acid batteries and a

Ballard Nexa 1.2kW fuel cell

Motor: 4.6kW, 48V DC motor

Torque 50 lb ft @ 2000rpm

Fuel cell: Proton exchange membrane

Hydrogen storage: Metal hydride tanks

Braking: Hydraulic regenerative

Insurance group: 1

The PURE hydrogen car being refuelled and (inset) one of the hydrogen fuestations that are dotted across the island.



Gavin Harper talks to Rupert Gammon,

system architect of the Hydrogen

and Renewables Integration Project

(HARI) at West Beacon Farm in

Leicestershire, the home of Tony

Marmont.

Tony Marmont is a name that has become

synonymous with renewable energy in

the UK. His West Beacon Farm has

become one of the great examples of

how renewable energies can integratewith the rural home.The hydrogen and

renewables integration project at his farm,

takes Tony Marmonts existing renewable

energy infrastructure and examines how

renewables could potentially integrate with

hydrogen infrastructure in the future.

The existing system consisted of a

mixed basket of renewables, including two

25kW Carter wind turbines a total installed

capacity of 13kWp of photovoltaics and

two micro-hydroelectric turbines with a

combined output in the region of 3kW.

The houses central heating needs aremet by a 10kW thermal heat pump,

circulating water from a coil at the bottom

of an artificial lake and a 15kW electrical,

38kW thermal Totem combined heat and

power unit that currently runs on liquified

petroleum gas, as well as an array of

evacuated tube solar thermal collectors

for hot water.

However, there is still work to be done.

Speaking to Dr Gammon of Bryte Energy

who has been responsible for much of

the design and implementation of the

project, there are still un-resolved issues

with the architecture of the systems

power electronics and it is constantly

evolving. For instance, the system has now

transitioned from a high voltage (600V)

bus concept shown in the system diagram

(right), to a lower voltage of 120V for the

main distribution system.

Batteries are used to provide short-

term energy storage. The team did

some experimentation with advanced

batteries, however, these have now been

disconnected in favour of traditional

lead-acid batteries which have proven to

be a more robust solution and a simpler

technology.

The most recent refinement to the

system takes the renewable electricity

produced by the solar arrays, micro hydro

turbines and wind turbines, and converts

any overcapacity that the batteries

cannot store into hydrogen. It does this

by electrolysis feeding spare power

into a 36kW electrolyser, which, in turn,

produces hydrogen at 25 bar which is

then compressed and stored in cylinders,

providing a measure of long-term energy

storage, which complements the shorter

term storage capability of the lead acidbatteries.

So now when additional power is

required on dull and windless days, a Plug

Power 5kW fuel cell takes the hydrogen

and turns it into electricity to augment

any power being produced from the

renewables. Interestingly, the stored

hydrogen can also be used to meet some

of the on-site transport energy needs.

More on that later.

Much has been learnt about the

practical implementation of hydrogentechnologies, and incremental

improvements have been made during the

life of the installation. Pipework has been

insulated over time to reduce thermal

losses, with plans to further insulate

the electrolyser. Furthermore, a water-

conservation strategy has been adopted,

whereby water, generated as a waste

product from the fuel cell, is recirculated

back to the electrolyser for production of

fresh hydrogen ensuring it is not wasted.

There has also been extensive research

and work needed to enable the integration

of the 5kW Plug Power fuel cell with

the other renewable power system.

Regardless of the hurdles Gammon

remains confident that the technology

underpinning the fuel cell concept is

fundamentally reliable and sound. Most

of the problems have been more as

a result of system integration. For

example, after experiencing problems with

controlling the fuel cell, it was decided to

move the fuel cell closer to the control

electronics, as the line was experiencing

some attenuation. There have also been

a few teething troubles and modifications

needed to the software controlling thefuel cell. Dr Gammon is clear, that whilst

the basic technology is sound, the jury is

still out on the full capabilities of the fuel

cell.

A significant amount of energy is

produced by the installation at Beacon

Farm. According to Tony Marmont, the

energy generated on-site since the mid-

eighties averages 50MWh per annum.

Before the HARI project, 30MWh, on

average, was used on site each year and

the surplus 20MWh was exported to the

grid. Now the spare capacity is divertedinto hydrogen production, however,

whenever energy is converted from one

form to another, some is invariably lost

as heat. Tony Marmont estimates that

the round-trip effi ciency of converting

Hydrogen integrationat West Beacon Farm



electricity to hydrogen, then back toelectricity, is around 30% - with 70% being

lost as a result of ineffi ciency.

Since the system has been operational,

3.6MWh equivalent of hydrogen has

been generated and stored onsite, whilst

around 6MWh was lost as leaks during the

bedding in process, but this issue is now

resolved. This resulted in West Beacon

Farm temporarily being a net importer of

green energy. However, in the future, the

plan is for the farm to be able to operate

independently, with no need to buy from

or sell to the grid.

From storage to transportOriginally, there were plans to develop a

fuel cell range extender for an electric car.

However, these plans have been shelved

in favour of developing a dual-fuel (petrol

and hydrogen) car.

Whilst internal combustion engines are

not the most effi cient technology, they

are very well understood, and this feature

has made them appealing for the first

wave of hydrogen vehicle development.

Indeed, BMW has decided to stick with

internal combustion engine technology

for its Hydrogen 7. The plans are to

employ compressed hydrogen stored in

a pressurised tank the simplest option

for storing the hydrogen. There are other

methods under exploration

Plans are afoot at the farm to modify

a Toyota Prius to work as a dual fuel

vehicle. Asking why it was decided to keep

the legacy option of petrol, Gammonreplies dual fuel never gets stranded

anywhere. If anything, this highlights

how the infrastructure needed to support

hydrogen transportation will need to be

developed significantly for the technology

to become a practical option for the

average motorist.

Lessons learntThe work conducted to date is showing

that whilst there is a need for continued

investment and development, practical

hydrogen-based solutions are not too far

away. Asking about the lessons learnedfrom the project, Gammon replies: The

project has certainly shown us lots of

small problems, but the big picture is that

it has helped us to understand how the

concept of a hydrogen economy really

will work and it strongly underlines the

fact that it is not about electricity storage,

there are other ways of doing that but

its about hydrogen as a grid balancing

mechanism which also produces transport

fuel. Its not about storage, its about

transferring surplus electricity to use as a

transport fuel.

Gavin HarperFurther Information:

WWW.BEACONENERGY.CO.UK/PDFS/WESTBEACON-

FARM _ 050208.PDF

Gammon, R., Roy, A., Barton, J. & Little, M.,(2006) Hydrogen and Renewables Integration,CREST, Loughborough UniversityWWW.BRYTE-ENERGY.COM

All images and table courtesy of Dr RupertGammon

Table 1. Summary of all renewable energy systems at West Beacon Farm.

System Manufacturer/Supplier/ Model Designation Rated Performance Cost (in )(indicative)

Electrolyser Hydrogenics (formerly Vandenborre) 8 Nm 3/hour of H2, 34kW, 2.5 MPa (25 bar) rated 143,000

Fuel cell (1) Intelligent Energy, CHP Unit 2 kW (el), 2kW (th), 24 VDC 25,000

Fuel cell (2) Plug Power GenCore, supplied by SiGen Ltd 5 kW (el), 48 V DC 20,000

H2 Compressor Hydro-Pac supplied by BOC 11 Nm3

/hour, 3.75 kW, 8:1 compression ratio 59,000H

2Storage Supplied by BOC 48 cylinders, each 0.475 m3, 13.7MPa (137 bar) max pressure,

2856 Nm3 total H2

capacity122,000

Sub total cost o f fuel ce ll system 369,000

Wind turbines Carter wind turbines 2 x 25kW two bladed stall-regulated, pitch over-speed 50,000

Solar PV BP 13kW total, mixed polycrystalline and monocrystalline 60,000

Hydro-electric Two systems installed by Dulas 850W cross-flow turbine with 2m head2.2kW Turgo turbine with 25m head

67,000

Integrationsystem

Control techniques and bespoke convertersfrom Loughborough University

Various 49,000

All systems total cost 595,000

West Beacon Farm hydrogen project:above: the house behind the hydrogen shedbelow left : the electrolyser that makes hydrogeexcess renewable energybelow right: the Plug Power fuel cell

bottom: the hydrogen storage tanks.



an interview with Allan Jones

Allan Jones, MBE was the mastermind behind the UKs first

fuel cell CHP venture in Woking, and is now Chief Executive

Offi cer of the London Climate Change Agency. Gavin Harper

talked to Jones about fuel cells and private wire networks,

and about their future role in our built environment...

Ibegan by asking Jones why he had embarked on the idea of

combining fuel cell technology with private wire (local supply)

networks. Was it more for technical or regulatory reasons,

and what advantages did such networks have over the national

grid? The fuel cell CHP was embedded into an existing private

wire network at Woking Park and the fuel cell CHP was used

as a black start generator (as well as a CHP) to enable the

decentralised energy system at Woking Park to operate in island

generation mode in the event of a failure of the national grid.

This enabled the three swimming pools and the leisure centre to

continue in operation whilst everywhere else around them could

be in darkness. Island generation is a key attribute of fuel cell

CHP since they can switch from grid connect to island operation

in 0.5 milli seconds. Although Woking has other island generation

systems, this is very fast. For example, computers crash without

power supply at 8 milli seconds so would not even see a power

cut with a fuel cell driven island generation system. This is why

big banks and credit card companies use fuel cells in the USA.

The Woking Park system actually operated in island generation

mode due to power cuts in the national grid several times whilst

I was at Woking. The Woking Park decentralised energy system

comprises other larger CHP trigeneration systems and solar

photovoltaics. The heat from the fuel cell CHP was used for

supplying into both the district heating and cooling (via heat fired

absorption chillers) systems.

Electricity, heat and cooling was required for the Woking

Park site and supplying electricity on private wire networks atretail (though competitive) prices dramatically increased the

economics of the project by 400% over supplying electricity into

the national grid at very low wholesale prices. The decentralised

energy system at Woking Park met all of the electricity, heat and

cooling requirements of the site as well as being a net exporter

of surplus power which was supplied to other Woking sites at

competitive retail prices under the exempt licensing regime in

the UK, paying only a distribution charge to the local public wires

distribution network operator, ie., no grid transmission charges,

losses or government levies.

There were financial benefits because of the economics of

operating private wire networks under the exempt licensing

regime. I implemented 80 (yes eighty) decentralised energysystems on private wire networks at Woking, which not only

supplied these individual sites but also traded their electricity

together (imports/exports) between sites over the local public

wires distribution network without the need to sell or buy

electricity from the national grid.

I then asked whether he was disappointed with the current

regulatory framework for UK energy supplies, and what he

would change? The current regulatory framework does not

really inhibit supply on private wire networks to non domestic

customers since up to 100MW can be generated, distributed

and supplied on each private wire network. However, this is

limited to only 1MW for domestic customers on each private wire

What are ...?

Private wire networks are a network of supply wires within anorganisations buildings for distributing electricity aroundthe organisation.

Public wire networks are a network of wires linking differentbuildings and organisations. This includes the national grid.

Working towards a hydrogen future



network with the export over public wires limited to 2.5MW in

aggregate. This is unfair on domestic customers, since cheaper

electricity can be supplied to domestic customers on private wire

networks than from the grid, and inhibits the ability to provide

decentralised energy to mixed development, which in London is

very large scale, whereas in Woking they never came up against

this barrier. In its Energy White Paper the government promised

to look into the regulatory barriers to decentralised energy.

So based on that, how do you believe our energy markets

might adapt to a future hydrogen economy and how might the

current regulatory framework change or adapt? The current

regulatory framework only really applies to electricity and gas.

It does not concern itself with heat, heat to cool, renewable

gases and liquid fuels (both rich in hydrogen) or hydrogen.

However, if the regulatory barriers to decentralised energy are

removed, this would have the effect of not only stimulating low

and zero carbon technologies and infrastructure, it would also

provide an accelerated pathway to renewable hydrogen. For

example, renewable gases and liquid fuels derived from waste

and biomass (largest renewable energy resource in London) can

provide todays renewable energy for buildings (via CHP) and

transport, and tomorrows renewable hydrogen for buildings (via

CHP) and transport, since biogas (derived from organic waste

and biomass, via anaerobic digestion) and syngas (town gas) and

synthetic liquid fuels (derived from non organic or mixed waste

via gasification or pyrolysis) are all hydrogen rich fuels.

But to what extent do you believe that fuel cells can act as

an enabling technology for decentralised energy? Fuel cells

will not act as an enabling technology for decentralised energy

but decentralised energy will act as enabling technology for

fuel cells since the value of electricity would be increased which

would significantly improve the economics of fuel cells and bring

forward the utilisation of fuel cells.

So what give you the most hope for the future? Londontaking the lead in tackling climate change on a world city-wide

stage and the London Climate Change Agencys role in that.

Which leads us on to the gargantuan challenge Jones current

faces as Chief Executive Offi cer of the London Climate Change

Agency (LCCA), a post which he has now held since 2004. The

LCCA is the Mayors direct-delivery agency which has already se

in motion projects, including carbon accounting, Better Buildings

Partnership a project to enable and accelerate the uptake of

energy effi ciency retrofits in Londons commercial offi ces under

the Green Organisations Programme, study on the implications

for CO2

emissions of housing growth in London and prototyping

a deep service model for domestic energy effi ciency and micro

generation, which is now being rolled out under the Green HomeProgramme, renewable energy projects at the London Transpor

Museum, Palestra and City Hall, fuel cell CHP trigeneration study

at Palestra (which is currently being procured), renewable gases

and liquid fuels from waste and biomass project currently under

way with London Remade and the London ESCO a joint ventur

Energy Services Company with EDF Energy established to desig

finance, build and operate decentralised energy systems.

This is no small task, with urban centres such as London

possessing an extremely high energy density. London uses the

same amount of energy in a year as Greece or Portugal, so how

does Jones see us meeting this demand sustainably, and will

hydrogen help us in meeting this aim? The answer to this is

in the Mayors Climate Change Action Plan. 75% of Londons

CO2

emissions is due to centralised energy supply. This is not

normally shown in this way since emissions are normally smeare

across end use (ie., housing, commercial, industrial, etc). Howeve

it is important to identify the real cause of climate change since

this is how emissions can be reduced at large scale and quickly.

The Action Plan sets a target of taking 25% of Londons energy

supply of reliance on centralised energy by 2025 and by more

than 50% by 2050. This, taken together with energy effi ciency

and the greening up of the remnants of centralised energy

The now famous Woking combined heat and power plant with (inset) the fuelcell building set alongside the public swimmimg baths.



with large scale renewables will achieve a 60% reduction in CO2

emissions, not by 2050, but by 2025. Hydrogen will play a role in

this.

During the dash for gas Britain transitioned a significant

chunk of its centralised energy generating capacity to natural

gas. The fuel cells being used in Woking and other projects,

reform hydrogen from natural gas. Some people hold concerns

that, in the future, this will make Britain dependent on other

countries for its energy. Jones was quick to allay fears about

natural gas supply. With the UKs natural gas supplies rapidly

dwindling, how does Jones see us moving beyond reformation

of natural gas for hydrogen, and if so how does he foresee us

producing hydrogen on the scale required? The UKs natural gas

supplies may be dwindling but the UK has taken action on this by

connecting Norwegian gas to the UK by pipeline and establishing

a liquefied natural gas (LNG) infrastructure in the UK. LNG has

a very high energy density so very large amounts of gas can be

transported in a very small space. The UK has established LNG

terminals in the UK (I used LNG in Woking), enabling LNG to be

transported by tanker from such places as Indonesia, Trinidad

and elsewhere. The UK does not actually use any Siberian gasand probably has no need to. Therefore, natural gas will be

around for some time yet and probably longer if it is used for

CHP and notCCGT (combined cycle gas turbine)power stations.

Therefore, hydrogen can continue to be reformed from natural

gas for sometime yet but London is working on a renewable

hydrogen energy infrastructure to replace the natural gas

infrastructure.

Jones clearly has a record of practical implementation of

fuel cell projects and could well be the most qualified person

in the UK to crystal ball gaze and see the road ahead for

hydrogen in the UK. I asked him to put his neck on the line and

give us some sort of timescale. Hydrogen is 75% of the known

universe so is in pretty much everything, including us. Hydrogenwill be transported by natural gas (initially), biogas, syngas or

synthetic liquid fuels (longer term). This will be supplemented

by electrolysing renewable electricity locally but I do not see

this as a major source. Other sources of hydrogen also have

potential, such as growing hydrogen from microbes or a direct

photosynthesis process. Therefore, hydrogen will be transported

as part of a fuel by pipeline (gases) or by tanker (liquids).

There is no need to transport pure hydrogen (which would be

expensive, if not impractical) since hydrogen is only needed at

the point of supply at the stationary or transport fuel cell where

it can be reformed in situ at the fuel cell CHP or filling station for

fuel cell transportation. This could be technically feasible by 2025

and politically feasible by the same date, if the regulatory barriers

to decentralised energy were removed.

The incumbent government appears to have a resurgent

interest in nuclear power after several decades and seems

poised to guide us into a nuclear future, whilst other voices,

such as Centre for Alternative Technologys ZeroCarbonBritain1

report, dissent from this view and see the UK becoming a

nuclear free nation. The hydrogen economy has voices on both

sides of the fence. Some see a hydrogen future enabled by

nuclear installations electrolysing water to produce hydrogen,

whilst others believe that hydrogen is the key to enabling

decentralised technologies. But how does Jones feel about the

view put forward by some promoters of a nuclear/hydrogen

future, and whether nuclear power has a role to play in his

vision of the hydrogen economy. No. Nuclear power stations

are very ineffi cient, quite apart from the very significant cost,

environmental, disposal, long term storage and political issues.

According to the Digest of UK Energy Statistics (DUKES)

published by BERR (formerly the DTI), nuclear power stations

are only 38% effi cient across the year as a whole. Two thirds of

its energy is wasted into the atmosphere through cooling towers

and losses in the grid and a further 9% of electricity is lost in the

grid transmission and distribution systems (Ofgem figures). This

wasted thermal and electrical energy has to be replaced by fossil

fuel energy to heat buildings, steam for industry and losses in

the grid. UK power stations use 50% of the UKs water resources

and in a declining water resource world, with climate change, this

is just not sustainable and not conducive to what we are looking

for in a renewable hydrogen energy economy.

Nuclear power stations and so called carbon capture and

sequestered coal fired power stations are bear traps. Generating

hydrogen from power stations using electrolysis is technically

feasible but not sustainable for the reasons as above, quiteapart from consuming even more water, as well as the expense

and impracticability of transporting hydrogen long distances

from power stations. In other words hydrogen goes with low and

zero carbon decentralised energy and not with unsustainable

centralised energy.

Ken Livingstone is quoted as saying, What Allan Jones has

achieved in Woking is nothing short of revolutionary and I

am delighted that he has agreed to take up the challenge of

replicating what he achieved in one borough on Londons world-

city sized stage.

I asked Jones how he planned to make London the green

capital of Europe and he commented that the plan, as set outin the Mayors Climate Change Action Plan, concerns tackling

emissions in 7 sectors:

l existing homes

l existing commercial and municipal activity

l new build and development

l energy supply

l ground transport

l aviation

l Mayoral Group showing by doing.

Of these, energy supply is by far the largest emitter, causing

emissions of 35 million tonnes pa, 75% of Londons emissions.

This is set to increase by 15% by 2025 if no action is taken.

In closing our interview, Jones says, The Mayors ambition is

not just for London to become the green capital of Europe but

for London to lead the fight against climate change on a world

stage. That is why the C40, bringing together 40 of the worlds

largest cities, and the partnership with the Clinton Foundation

has been established. 75% of the worlds CO2

emissions comes

from cities. Cities are most at risk from climate change and cities

are best placed to tackle climate change. Cities can do this and

do not need permission from federal governments to do so.

Gavin Harper

1. WWW.ZEROCARBONBRITAIN.COM


13/13

THEATREISHYDROGENFUELCELLPOWERED

The Arcola Theatre is a good example of why Londons culturalsector is so dynamic and successful. Arcola is leading the theatreindustry in developing this premiere sustainable production and Iknow that many other theatres are now keen to follow. The Living

Unknown Soldier is unique in that it is the worlds first productionto be powered by a fuel cell, supplied and sponsored by the LondonHydrogen Partnership. Every individual, every business, every shop,and every theatre has a part to play in tackling climate changeand this lead by Arcola Theatre is just what we need said KenLivingstone, Mayor of London

Londons Arcola Theatre, one of the UKs leading independentvenues, has installed a hydrogen fuel cell to power its caf/bar andselected main house shows. The fuel cell operates almost silently,producing nothing but electricity and clean water. The 5kW fuel cellsystem takes pride of place in the foyer of the theatre, accompaniedby displays describing the benefits and challenges posed by thistechnology. The prominent location of the fuel cell, and the challengeof relying entirely upon it, provides both a powerful educational tooland a source of motivation for reducing energy use.

The first show to be powered by the fuel cell, The Living UnknownSoldier, produced by Strawberry Vale, may well be Londonspremier ecologically sustainable show. The environmental impactof all aspects of the production has been minimised, including setconstruction, marketing, company travel and show lighting. Theproductions environmental footprint will be evaluated by GlobalAction Plan and the lessons learned published for the benefit of otherpractitioners.

The lighting for the show has a peak power consumption of 4.5kW,up to 60% less than comparable lighting installations. This is madepossible through extensive use of LED lighting and the careful use ofhigh effi ciency tungsten lamps.

In addition Arcolas bar/caf has been upgraded to an eco-bar,serving organic and fair-trade refreshments, illuminated by a low

energy LED lighting system. The lighting for the entire caf/bar nowconsumes under 500 watts, a saving of 60%, with the added benefitof providing near infinite flexibility in light level and colour forperfect daytime operation as well as for caf/bar performances.

This project is part of Arcola Theatres extensive sustainability-relatedactivities - under the banner of Arcola Energy. It is spearheaded byDr Ben Todd, the theatres executive director, who also works as aconsultant in the fuel cell industry. He said: The arts have a crucialrole to play in elucidating and motivating the changes in lifestylenecessary to deliver an equitable future for all humankind. ThroughArcola Energy, Arcola Theatre is demonstrating that bold changes canbe made and that making them offers exciting opportunities for newcreative partnerships.

Todd also noted that When we launched Arcola Energy in July 2007we planned to install renewable technologies within 12 months, thisis unlikely to be possible due to restrictions on what we can do asa leaseholder and the protracted business of securing the freeholdfor our premises a problem faced by many organisations. Theinstallation of the fuel cell and our present emphasis on greeningour operations are examples of what can be done now, whilstinfrastructure projects are under development.

WWW.ARCOLAENERGY.COM

HYDROGENHOMESFOR SCOTLAND

Hjaltland Housing Association, along with the PURE Energy Centreand Fuel Cells Scotland, is to build the UKs first hydrogen homes,unplugged from the grid, and storing power generated onsite in theform of hydrogen, which can then be converted to heat and energy b

a solid-oxide fuel cell, with combined electrical and thermal effi cienof 90%.

The houses are going to be powered by micro CHP fuel cell systemsdeveloped by Fuel Cells Scotland. Gavin Harper caught up with FuelCells Scotland at the H207 conference earlier this year in Aberdeenwhere they were exhibiting their novel solid-oxide fuel cell. By thetime it reached the conference, the demonstration model had beenoperating for 1500 hours. It was a first in that the cell is a uniqueseal-less design. By eliminating the seals from the fuel cells, thephysical dimensions can be shrunk, making a higher energy-densitycell, suitable for small applications like domestic micro-CHP. The fuecell solution will also offer some advantages over the Stirling enginebased micro-CHP units currently being installed in some homes, inthat they have no moving parts.

The fuel cells have been developed by Dr TG Lindsay of Fuel CellsScotland whose work on solid oxide fuel cell stacks is the culminatioof 12 years of research and development. The installation is beingsupported by the Scottish Executive Renewable Hydrogen and FuelCell Scheme, and the applications side will be managed by PUREEnergy Centre.

Once the fuel cell has been installed, the second phase of the scheminvolves developing a renewable-sourced hydrogen production andstorage infrastructure around the houses. Initially, the hydrogen wilbe used to meet the homes heat and power needs, but the projecthopes to eventually develop to the point of producing hydrogen forfuelling a pair of hydrogen cars for the houses.

These houses have the potential to be a blueprint for future zero-carbon housing, as with renewably-sourced hydrogen, the only outpfrom the fuel cells will be pure water. Whilst at the moment, thetechnology is expensive, and the project is made possible by grant-funding, as the technology develops its economic-competitiveness, icould provide a clean energy-lifeline for isolated communities.

Dr Daniel Aklil DHalluin of the PURE Energy Centre said, 40% ofthe worldwide population live with no access to electricity and heatThe CHP scheme will provide these populations with such access. Itwill also provide communities around the world with access to cleanhydrogen fuel to power clean vehicles.

Links:

WWW.PURE.SHETLAND.CO.UK/HTML/INDEX.HTML

WWW.HJALTLAND.ORG.UK

WWW.FUELCELLS-SCOTLAND.COM

Documents

Green Building Magazine - Hydrogen Supplement - Spring 08