Grammar Foreign Trade

8/10/2019 Grammar Foreign Trade

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&erbs of possession &erbs of contents( capacity

own( oweconsist of( comprise( hold

II. THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE1. Form

The present continuous tense isformed by:

subject be !"#$%

&erbs ending in a silent ''' 4E5(we drop 4E5 before ''''' 4/;5

negotiate negotiating < type typing< leling< dancedancing

Except: and !erbs ending in ''' 4EE5

ageageing< singesingeing admittedpreferred

/f the stress is not on the lastsyllable( we $ust add ''' 4/;5 asusual

enterentering>entered < budgetbudgeting>budgeted

&erbs ending in '''?( we doublethe last consonant except in@merican English

signalsignalling( signalled +'E

since 1GG2> since / came here

The Present Perfect Tense isused for the rst of the 2 relatedactions in the present or in thefuture'

- "e says he has been promoted to thepost of Sales ,anager

- "e will retire as soon as he has sa!ed1888 888 dollars

The Present Perfect Tenseafter it is 4the rst5( 4thesecond5 ( 4the only5 and thesuperlati!es

- This is the easiest $ob / ha!e e!er had- This is the second time she has made

a complaint

The Present Perfect Tense isused to tal# about experience-

"a!e you e!er wor#ed as a mar#etingocerB- She has been to number of countries in

Southeast @siaNote:The main di7erent - / met her in 1GHI / ha!e already met

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between the simple past and thepresent perfect is that the simplepast tal#s about an action at adenite time in the past( whilethe present perfect does notmention the time'

her'

There is no connection with thepresent if we use the simple past

- "e fell ill last wee# "e has fallen

ill and now he is still in hospitalI&. THE PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE1. Form

sub$ect =ha!e = been = !%ing - ?an has been typing since K:88 am'2. Uses

/t is similar to the Present PerfectTense( but we put more emphasison the continuous aspect of theaction i'e' mainly for long andcontinuous action( which beganin the past and has continued to

the present( maybe it is stillcontinuing now( or perhaps it has$ust nished' ote that some!erbs cannot be used in thecontinuous tenses( except somespecial cases

- Than# you so much for the radio(/A!e been wanting it for ages

Com'(r#so$ o) t*e Prese$t Per)ect ($+ t*e Prese$t Per)ectco$t#$uous te$ses

They are similar and can be usedalternati!ely in most cases:

- /A!e been li!ing > /A!e li!ed in "C, cityfor 28 years

"owe!er( the Present PerfectTense refers to the result( whilethe Present Perfect ContinuousTense refers to the time'

Time:"e has been wor#ing in this ocefor 1 years she>it> you > they = will= = ha!e = past participle

2 UsesThe Future Perfect Tense is usedto expressed and action which

will ha!e nished before a futuregi!en time' Therefore( it is chieDyused with a time expressionbeginning with 4by5 4by thetime5( 4by that time5( 4by the endof next wee#5( 4by 28885'''

- +y the end of next month( he willha!e been here for 18 years'

-

-eAd better wait until September'+y then / will ha!e ta#en my exam- 3onAt worryO /A ll ha!e nished the

report by p'm'- "e sa!es M 288 a month' +y the

year 2888( "e will ha!e sa!edMJ888

,II. THE FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE.1 . Form

/>we = shall>will = ha!e =

been = &%ing he>she>it>you>they = will =

= ha!e = been = &%ing2. Uses

?i#e the Future Perfect Tense( theFuture Perfect Continuous Tenseis used to with a time expressionbeginning with 4by5

- +y the end of this year( he willha!e been wor#ing for 98 years

"owe!er( the Future PerfectContinuous Tense is used whenthe action is long andcontinuous

- "e will ha!e been waiting for ano7er for 2 years

PART T-O: THE GERUN

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I. FORMSThe gerund has exactly the sameform as the present participle

eating( spea#ing

Present gerund wor#ing( dancingPerfect gerund ha!ing wor#ed: "e was accused of

ha!ing stolen the statuettePassi!e gerund present being sent: "e was punished by

being sent to a desertPassi!e gerund perfect ha!ing been past participle : The

safe showed no signs of ha!ingbeen touched

II. FUNCTIONS Sub$ect of a sentence - Tidying the oce ma#es me

exhausted Complement of a sentence - "er hobby is painting @fter prepositions - "e was good at organi6ing @fter certain !erbs - She hates being made redundant

/n noun compounds -

@ !ending machine( typing paper /n short prohibitions - o campingO o shingO

1. T*e %eru$+ (s Subject o) ( &erb@ gerund can function as asub$ect of a sentence when theaction is considered in a generalsense'

- ?earning a foreign language ta#esa lot of time closeness to dedicated to< opposition>opposite to< similarity> similar to limit to

/n some xed expressions in addition to( with a !iew to- -eA!e come here with a !iew to

doing businessc. be (+ject#!e 're'os#t#o$ !erb"#$%be accustomed to be afraidof

be ashamed of be boredwithbe disappointed in be exitedabout befamous for be fond of

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be frightened of beinterested inbe proud of beresponsible forbe scared of be sorryforbe successful in be tiredof+. &erb object 're'os#t#o$ !erb"#$%

accuse smb of smt> doingsmt

suspect smb of smt> doing smt congratulate smb on smt>

doing smt pre!ent smb from smt> doing

smt

stop smb from smt> doing smt than# smb for smt> doing smt forgi!e smb for smt> doing smt warn smb against smt> doing

smt

- "e accused me of arri!ing late- The manager suspected him of

reading his letters- They congratulated me on passing

the exam- -e cannot pre!ent prices from

rising

-The members of the nion stoppedwor#ers from wor#ing

- Than# you for answering the phone- Please forgi!e me for disturbing you- The warned me against buying the

car by instalments . I$ Nou$ Com'ou$+s

gerund = noun or gerund =noun

fruit pic#ing( lorry dri!ing( coal miningwaiting room( dri!ing licence ( typingpaper( weeping girl'

3 . I$ s*ort 'ro*#b#t#o$s

The gerund can be used in shortprohibitions' This is common inpublic signs

o par#ing ( o camping o smo#ing(o shing( o par#ing

III . SOME COMMON E,PRESSIONS -ITH &ER4"ING1 ./tAs no use> itAs no good> /tAslittle use> itAs hardly any use '''

- /tAs no use worrying about it'ThereAs nothing you can do

- /tAs no good wor#ing all day'@fter: /tAs good( better( not good(we use to %inniti!e

2.ThereAs no point in ''' -

There As no point in arguing withhim' "e wonAt change his mind- There was no point in waiting( so

we went'/. /tAs not worth> itAs hardlyworth> /tAs scarcely worth> /tAsworthwhile '''

- The house is within a wal#ingdistance so itAs not worth ta#ing ataxi

- -e arri!ed home at 9 at night anditAs not worth going to bed

- This PC is hardly worth repairing.ha!e diculty > trouble in'''' - "e had diculty in nding a good

school for his children'- 3id you ha!e any diculty in

getting a !isaB- People often ha!e a lot of> much>

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- -e had much trouble getting thegoods'

- Lemember that we use 4diculty5(not 4diculties5

./t5s a waste of time> money''' - /tAs a waste of time reading thatboo#' /tAs rubbish

- /tAs a waste of money buying a solidgold watch

3.to spend > to wastetime>money'''

- "e spent hours loo#ing at thereport

- / wasted a lot of time loo#ing for a$ob

5. thereAs nothing worse than''' - ThereAs nothing worse than wal#ingin the rain on a cold day

6.whatAs the use> point''' - -hatAs the point of learning @rabicB7. not much care - / donAt much care ta#ing that $ob18. be busy''' - "eAs now busy negotiating a

contract with a customer

PART THREE: THE INFINITI&EI. FORM

1. Present inniti!e: @CT/&EP@SS/&E

to as# tobe as#ed

- She want to lea!e now- She as#ed to be gi!en a pay rise

2. Present continuous inniti!e: to be as#ing

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- She seems to be sleeping- /5ll be wor#ing tomorrow'

Full inniti!e : 4to wor#5+are inniti!e: 4wor#5' /t is notad!isable to place any wordbetween to and the !erb splitinniti!e

- "e needs to wor# harder- "e must wor# harder'

II. USES1. @s sub$ect of a !erb - To wor# in a construction site is

dangerous2. @s complement of a !erb Sub$ect complement *b$ect complement

-

- .our duty is to #eep the les ingood order

- -e saw him lea!e the oce at9'J8/. @s ob$ect of the !erb' - "e wants to lea!e /t follows the

!erb directly. +e = inniti!e to expresscommands or instructions

- "e is to stay here until we comebac#

. The inniti!e can expresspurposes

- / ha!e come here to do businesswith you

3. The inniti!e used aftersome ad$ecti!es to modifythem angry( glad( happy(

fortunate( li#ely( luc#yQ

- / am !ery glad to see you in "o Chi,inh City

- /t was stupid of him not to stay'

5. The inniti!e used afternouns to modify them

- "e has an ability to turn bac# thecloc#

6. The inniti!e to replacerelati!e clauses

- She was the youngest candidatewho entered for the competition

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She was the youngest candidate toenter for the competition'

A. T*e #$9$#t#!e (s subject o) ( !erbExamples: - To sa!e money now seems

impossible- To swim in this ri!er is dangerous'

/t is more usual to place the

preparatory or introductorypronoun 4it5 rst and mo!e theinniti!e or inniti!e phraseto the end of the sentence'

- /t seems impossible to sa!e moneynow

- /t is dangerous to sa!e money'

4. T*e #$9$#t#!e (s object or com'0eme$t o) ( !erb&erbs )o00oe+ +#rect0; b;t*e #$9$#t#!ea7ord ad!erb = enough =to% inniti!e

- "e is old enough to $oin the army- The chair is light enough to lift

too = ad$ecti!es > ad!erb =inniti!e

- / am too young to understand this- This piano is too hea!y to lift'

. T*e #$9$#t#!e #s use+ ()ter some $ou$sability< ambition < anxiety was successful ornot

- The prisoner tried to escape fromthe $ail'

try = &%ing means ma#e anexperiment to see what will

happen

- "a!e you tried ta#ing someaspirinsB

6. #$tereste+

4interested5 = in =&%ing refer towhat will or may happen( and4interested5 = to%inniti!e refersto what has happened

- /Am interested inwor#ing in Swit6erland' 3o you#now any one who can help meB /might do this

- / was interested toread in the newspaper thatscientists ha!e found out how the

uni!erse began it interested me7. ()r(#+

4afraid5 = to%inniti!e: we donAtwant to do it because it isdangerous or the result could beunpleasant' /t is deliberateaction

- / Am afraid to Dy ofDying is possible

- / Am afraid to climb thattree

-hen we tal# about somethingbad which happens

unexpectedly( without wantingor choosing them( only 4of5 the &%ing is possible in!oluntaryaction

- / donAt want to spea#French because /Am afraid of ma#ing

mista#es- The boy were afraid to

play football in the garden becausethey were afraid of brea#ing thewindow

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4afraid 4= that%clause toexpress a fear or( in the rstperson( a regret

- /5m afraid that he isout'

18. 0#Be

4li#e5 = &%ing N en$oy - She li#es wal#ing in therain to%inniti!e is also possible

4li#e5 = to%inniti!e N choose todo( be in the habit of( thin# itright to

- She li#es to do thewashing%up immediately after themeal

- / li#e to wash my cartwice a wee#

4would li#e5 means 4wish5(4want5 and is always followedby to%inniti!e' Similarly after4would lo!e5< 4hate5< 4prefer5

- / would li#e to as# youa 0uestion

- -hat would you li#e todo tomorrowB

-e can also use 4would li#e5 =4to ha!e done5 something /

regret that / didnAt or couldnAt doit'

- She would li#e to ha!ebecome a singer but she couldn5t

11. 0o!e? *(te? 're)er? c($t st($+

There is not much di7erence - / lo!e lying> to lie on my bac# andstaring> to stare at the s#y

4disli#e5( 4en$oy5( 4hate5( 4can5tstand5 are often used with the &%ing 4would hate5 are used withto%inniti!e

- / hate>disli#e>donAt en$oy washing%up'

+ut when we refer to oneparticular occasion( the to%inniti!e is more usual

-/ hate to brea# thingsup( but / must lea!e now

- / hate to mention it(but you owe me some money

12. see? *e(r? (tc*? $ot#ce? obser!e? $ot#ce

There is often a di7erence inmeaning between the twostructures' -e use an inniti!eto say that we saw> heard thewhole action from beginning to

end' The &%ing is used when wesaw> heard part of an action i'e'someone( something was in themiddle of the action and we didnot see the complete action The &%ing is possible for both

cases

- / saw him fall o7 hisbi#e

- / saw Tom waiting forthe bus yesterday / saw Tomyesterday' "e was waiting for the

bus- / saw the accident

happen The accident happened' /saw this

These !erbs can be followedby an ob$ect = a past participle with a passi!e meaning

- / heard your namerepeated se!eral times

- "a!e you e!er seen atele!ision thrown through a window

@fter the passi!e form ofthese !erbs( we use to%inniti!e4watch5 and 4notice5 are notused in this passi!e structure

- "e was ne!er heard tosay than# you

- "e was seen to standoutside the ban# at the time of the

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robbery- ustice must not only

be done' /t must be seen to be done 4smell5 and 4nd5 can be usedwith &% ing only

- Can you smellsomething burningB

- She found him readingher letters'

The &%ing is more usual and itcan express both complete andaction in progress' +ut the to%inniti!e is used especially whenwe want to emphasi6e that theaction is complete' /t is alsoneater than the &%ing when thereis a succession of actions

- / saw him enter theroom( unloc# the drawer( ta#e outthe document( photo it and put itbac#'

- / watched him step o7the pa!ement( cross the road( anddisappear into the post oce

4hear5< 4smell5< 4watch5 can befollowed by &%ing without a nounor pronoun ob$ect when the

action is percei!ed in a generalway as ob$ect of the !erb'

- -e heard shouting inthe distance

- She watches boxing

!ery often

1/. sorr;

4sorry5 = to%inniti!e when weapologi6e for smt that we aredoing or about to do

- Sorry to disturb you ( but could /spea# to you for a moment B

4sorry5 = for = &%ing or perfectinniti!e( or a that%clause whenwe apologi6e for smt we ha!ealready done

- Sorry for wa#ing you up so lateyesterday sorry to ha!ewo#en ''''( sorry for ha!ingwo#en '''( sorry that / wo#e youup '''' are all possible

4sorry5 = &%ing can be used foran immediately following action

1. (s*(me+4be ashamed of5 = &%ing4be ashamed of yourself5 = 4for5= &%ing'The gerund here refers to apre!ious action

- .ou should be ashamed of lying tohim you did lie to him

- .ou should be ashamed of yourselffor lying to him

4be ashamed5 = toRinniti!e:

the to%inniti!e refers to asubse0uent action

- /Am ashamed to tell you that / canAt

read

4would be ashamed 4= to%inniti!e implies that the sub$ectfeeling pre!ents him fromperforming the action

- /Ad be ashamed to as# for money so / wonAt do that

1. use+

Sub$ect = 4used5 = to % inniti!eis used to tal# about a past habit

- "is father used to beathim

Sub$ect = be> become>get =4used5 = 4to5 preposition isfollowed by a noun( pronoun(gerund and means 4be5 li!ingin hot climate

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13. (%ree= me($ 4agree5 ta#es the to%inniti!eopposite of 4refuse5 = inniti!e

- Tom agreed to wait fora wee# but +ill refused to wait

4agree5 cannot ta#e a noun orpronoun ob$ect' The opposite of4refuse5 = ob$ect is 4accept5 =ob$ect

- "e refused a reward "e accepted a reward

4agree to5 preposition can befollowed by possessi!e = &%ing

- "e agreed to mylea!ing early on Saturday

or a noun> pronoun ob$ect4agree5 to smt> on smt

- "e agreed to thechange of plan> to this proposal > tomy proposal

- "e agreed on a discount'

4mean5 N 4intend5 ta#es theto%inniti!e

- / was in a hurrybecause / meant to get home early

4mean5 N 4in!ol!e5 ta#es the&%ing

- "e is determined toget a seat e!en if it means standing

in a 0ueue all night- ew orders mean

wor#ing all night15. *e0' D c($t *e0'

4help5 = inniti!e( with orwithout 4to54canAt help5< 4couldnAt help5 NcanA> couldnAt stop oneself fromdoing smt always ta#es the &%ing

- E!erybody helped toclean the house

- E!erybody helped meto clean the house

- -e tried to be seriousbut we couldnAt help laughing

16. c*($ce D o''ortu$#t;

4chance of5 = doing smt - 3o you thin# / ha!e achance of passing the examinationB

- -e ha!e a !ery goodchance of winning the match

4no5< 4any5< 4little5< 4much5 =chance of

- / donAt thin# he hasmuch chance of nding a $ob

4-hat are the chances of5 ''' - -hat are my chancesof passing the examB

4There is a chance of5 smthappening

- ThereAs a chance ofhim lending me his money ThereAs

a chance that he will''''- ThereAs a chance of ourmatch winning the coming matchThereAs a chance that''

chance to do smt N time>opportunity to do smt

- "a!e you read theboo# / lent youB % *hO / ha!enAt hada chance to read it yet

- -e didnAt ha!e muchchance to tal# when we last met'

4opportunity5 to do smt ofdoing smt is also possible with

similar meaning

- / ha!e the opportunityto study in the States

4any5< 4no5< 4little5< 4much5 plenty of opportunityto go s#iing

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3o not say 4possibility to dosmt5

17. 're)er ($+ ou0+ r(t*erThese are used to tal# aboutpreference(. 4prefer to do5 and 4prefer5doing

-e can use 4prefer to do5 and4prefer doing5 to say what youprefer in general' Prefer to do ismore usual

- / donAt li#e politics' /prefer to study economics

Lemember these structures:b. 4prefer5 something tosomething elsec. 4prefer5 doing smt to doingsmt+. 4prefer5 to do somethingrather than do something else

- / prefer big cities to thecountryside

- / always prefer startingearly( rather than lea!ing e!erything to the last minute

- / prefer dri!ing totra!eling by train

- / prefer to dri!e ratherthan tra!el by train

e. would prefer Ud prefer to dosomething rather than dosomething else

- / prefer to li!e in bigcities rather than li!e in thecountryside

-e use would prefer to do smtto say what someone wants todo in a particular situation( not ingeneral

- -ould you prefer teaor co7eeB % Co7ee( please

- Shall we go by trainB R-ell( /5d prefer to go not going bytrain

- /5d prefer to stay heretonight than dri!e all the long wayhome

+ut many people say thatwith would prefer( only thepreferred action is mentioned' /f (therefore( we want to mentionboth actions( we should usewould rather

- /5d prefer to stay heretonight / would rather stay heretonight than dri!e home

). 4would rather5< 4wouldsooner5 do smt than do smt N

would prefer to do smt @fter 4would rather5 4wouldsooner5 we use bare inniti!e

- / would rather stay athome tonight than go to the cinema

- /5d sooner not go outthis e!ening- 3o you want to go

dancing nowB R /5d rather not%. Sub$ect = 4would rather5 was>will be'

- The post has been deli!ered> Therubbish hasn5t been collected

- The classrooms are swepte!eryday

- .our hand will be )%rayed'% The goods were deli!ered

yesterday'

2. -hen we don5t #now( ordon5t #now exactly( or ha!eforgotten who did the action'

- The telephone was in!ented in thelast century'

- President Wennedy wasassassinated on 22>11>1GIJ in3allas'

- The soft drin# Coca%Cola wasin!ented in @tlanta on H ,ay( 1HHI

- .ou will be met at the station- ,y car has been mo!ed'> /5!e been

told thatQ'''''

/. -hen the sub$ect of theacti!e !erb is 4people5( 4anyone5as they are !ague words used assub$ects' /nstead of 4someoneas#ed me to explain a point / had

- People suspect him ofrecei!ing stolen good "e issuspected of recei!ing stolen goods/t is suspected that he recei!esstolen goods' That he recei!es

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made5 we often say: 4@fter mytal#( / was as#ed to explain apoint / had made'5

stolen goods is suspected by people- People suppose that

they are now li!ing in +ang#o#They are supposed to be li!ing in+ang#o#

- People belie!e that hestole the picture "e is belie!ed to

ha!e stolen the picture'. -hen the sub$ect of theacti!e sentence is the indenitepronoun 4one5

- *ne sees this sort of ad!ertisement e!erywhere Thissort of ad!ertisement is seene!erywhere

"owe!er( in collo0uial speech(we can use the indenitepronoun 4you5 and an acti!e!erb' +ut in formal English( weuses 4one5 = acti!e !erb or themore usual passi!e form'

- .ou see this sort of ad!ertisemente!ery where'

The passi!e is obligatory inpublic notices such as:

- English is spo#en(?oans are arranged( Shoes arerepaired

. -hen we are moreinterested in the action than theperson who does it' -e wish tofocus on the happening which ismore important than who orwhat caused the happening

- The house next doorhas been bought'

- @n airport is going tobe built in the neighborhood

- The building was builtlong before the war'

/n informal speech( we can usethe indenite pronoun 4they5 (4we5 and an acti!e !erb

- They >we are going tobuild an airport'

3. -hen we want to a!oid anaw#ward or ungrammaticalsentence' This is usually done bya!oiding a change of sub$ect'

- -hen their father wasaway( the neighbours loo#ed afterthe children -hen their fatherwas away( the children were loo#edafter by the neighbours'

5. The passi!e is used forpsychological reasons' Thespea#er may use the passi!e todisclaim responsibility for

disagreeable announcements

- *!ertime rates arebeing reduced> will be reduced

- The Dight & IH hasbeen cancelled due to bad weather

condition' *n the contrary( the acti!e isused for agreeableannouncements'

- -e are going toincrease o!ertime rates'

Sometimes( we want to a!oidmentioning the name of theperson who performs the actionthough we #now it

- This letter has beensent instead of: .ou ha!e sent theletter

SOME TPICAL CONTE,TS FOR THE PASSI&E1. Formal notices and

ad!ertisements- Candidates are

re0uired to present themsel!esfteen minutes before theexamination'

- They are as#ed to bepunctual'

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% Passengers are re0uested toremain seated until the aircraftcomes to a complete stop'

2. /n press reports where theagent is not #nown( or doesnot need to be mentioned

- ,any people ha!ebeen 0uestioned and the dri!er ofthe getaway car has been traced'

/. /n newspaper headlines' 4WEE3. @SS@SS/@TE3O5 at5-hen a past participle is usedli#e an ad$ecti!e to describe astate of mind( not an action 4by5is not usually used' The correctprepositions may be: 4about5(4with5 4of5 Q

Compare: % 4/ was worried aboutyou all night5 ad$ecti!e: stateand 4/ was worried by the news5passi!e: dynamic !erb

- /Am interested inbuying a computer'

- /Am excited aboutgoing'

- / was frightened by amouse running into the room !erb

- /Am always frightenedof death'

scared of( ama6ed at >by(

disappointed in>with> about( worriedabout( bored with( disgustedat>by>with( annoyed at> with> about >satised( dissatised with( depressedabout> concerned about

POSITION OF A&ER4S AN PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES IN THE PASSI&ESENTENCES

@d!erbs of place stand before4by = agent5' @d!erbs of time stand after 4by= agent5 @d!erbs of manner usuallystand between 4be5 and the pastparticiple esp' in written English

- The chairs werecarried into the house by thechildren this morning

- The house will bebought at that price by ,r' +rownnext wee#

- They ha!e beencruelly treated by the boss

- These gures mustbe carefully chec#ed

4by = agent5 is generally omittedfrom the passi!e sentence' /t isonly necessary when the spea#er

wishes to say or the hearer has to#now who or what is responsiblefor the e!ent in 0uestion'

INFINITI&E CONSTRUCTIONS AFTER PASSI&E &ER4S1. @fter 4ac#nowledge5( 4assume5(4belie!e5( 4claim5( 4consider5(4estimate5( 4feel5( 4nd5( 4#now5(4presume5( 4report5( 4say5( 4thin#5(4understand5 etc' Sentences suchas: 4People thin#> #now>consider5Q etc that he is5 '''' ha!e

three possible passi!e forms:'+' The inniti!e is neater and itis chieDy used with the !erb 4be5though other !erbs can be usedsimilarly'

- People thin# that heis rich/t is thought that he isrich "e is thought to be richThat he is rich is thought bypeople

- People said that hedid the wor# well /t was said

that he did the wor# well "ewas said to do the wor# well That he did the wor# well was saidby people

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- "e is thought to ha!einformation which will be useful tothe police

-hen the thought concerns apre!ious action( the perfectinniti!e can be used

- People thin# that hewas a spy "e is thought to ha!ebeen a spy

- People thought that

he was rich

"e was thought tobe> to ha!e been rich2. The continuous inniti!es canbe used with 4belie!e5 say '''that he is li!ing abroad "e isbelie!ed> said to be li!ing ''''

The perfect form is possible forpre!ious actions:

- People belie!e thathe was li!ing abroad "e isbelie!ed to ha!e been li!ing

- .ou should ha!e beenwor#ing.ou are supposed to

ha!e been wor#ing/. @fter 4suppose5(4expect5 thepresent inniti!e con!eys an ideaof duties( obligations' Therefore itis used in reproaches( criticismsand not the normal e0ui!alent of4suppose5 and 4expect5 in theacti!e'

- .ou are supposed to#now how to dri!e.ou should#now how to dri!e /t is yourduty to #now how to dri!e

- .ou are supposed to#eep 0uiet .ou must #eep 0uiet

4suppose5 can be followed byperfect inniti!e'

- .ou are supposed toha!e nished the test

-"e is supposed toha!e escaped disguised as a

woman People suppose that heescaped''

./nniti!e after passi!e !erbs areusually full inniti!es

- -e saw them go outThey were seen to go out

- "e made us wor# -e were made to wor#

4let5( howe!er( is used without 4to5 - They let us go -ewere let go -e were allowed togo

SOME SPECIAL PASSI&E STRUCTURES 4ad!ise5( 4suggest5( 4propose5(4recommend5 = &%ing: -e can usea 4should5 % clause

- They ad!ised usingbullet%proof glass They ad!isedthat bullet%proof should be used

There be = past participle =complement with a limitedselection of !erbs: 4ac#nowledge5(4allege5( 4belie!e5( 4consider5(4fear5( 4feel5( 4#now5( 4presume5(4report5( 4say5( 4suppose5( 4thin#5(

and 4understand5'

- There is said to beplenty of oil o7 our coast

- There are #nown tobe thousands of di7erent speciesof beetles

/t is possible> impossible Q - /t is impossible togrow mai6e here ,ai6e can5t begrown here

- /t is possible to

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change sea water into drin#ingwater Sea water can bechanged Q

Public notices - 3on5t feed theanimalsThe animals mustn5t befed

- 3o it now please

?et it be done now( please'THE CAUSATI&E FORMS AN STRUCTURES -ITH HA&EThe causati!e is similar to thepassi!e' -e focus on what is doneto something or someone'1. *(!e sb +o st - Please ha!e the boy

deli!er my letter to her house'- / had the mechanic

ser!ice my motorbi#e- "e got the builder to

repair the roof'

2. %et sb to +o st - /5ll get my boss toring you this afternoon

- / had built my housepast perfect

- / had my house builtcausati!e: simple past

There are sentences where pastparticiple can be omitted'

- / had a tooth outyesterday N / had a tooth pulledout

/. *(!e=%et st =sb '(st '(rt#c#'0e

- Please ha!e thethings deli!ered to my house

- / got my car ser!icedlast wee#

- /All ha!e my eyesightchec#ed next wee#

- The fridge isnAtwor#ing properly' /Am going toha!e it loo#ed at

/n these examples( ob$ect 1 iscaused 4as#ed5( 4paid5( 4ordered5(4employed5 ''' to do the action of

the !erb following it ' /n the casesthe ob$ect recei!es the actiondenoted by the past participlefollowing it' The personperforming the action is either notmentioned or indicated by 4by =agent5' Care should be ta#en withthe word order to a!oid confusion'

PART SI, : THE CONITIONAL SENTENCES

I . THE CONITIONAL TENSES1.The present conditional tense' /> we = should > would = !erb "e > she> it > you > they = would

- / would should wor# /Ad wor#

- "e would wor# "eAd

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= !erb wor#

2.The perfect conditional tense would>should>could = ha!e =past participle

- /f / had wor#edharder( / would ha!e passed lastyear5s exam

II. TPES OF CONITIONAL SENTENCES

T;'es I)"c0(use M(#$ c0(use

PresentProbable Simple Present Tensewor#s( wor# Simple Future Tense will>shallwor#Presentnreal

Past Sub$uncti!ewor#ed

Present Conditional wouldwor#

Past nreal Past Perfect had wor#ed Perfect Conditional would ha!ewor#ed

TPE 1: PRESENT PRO4A4LE.1. 4(s#c )orm

The !erb in the main clause is inthe simple future< the !erb in the

if%clause is in the present tense'

- /f she comes sheAll besurprised

- The lecture willpunish the boy if he doesnAt obeyhis orders'

Uses:This type of conditionalsentences implies that the actionin the if%clause is 0uite possible orthe conditions can be easilyfullled in the present or futuretime' ote that the meaning iseither present or future but the

!erb in the if%clause is in apresent( not a future tense'2. Poss#b0e !(r#(t#o$s o) t*e b(s#c )orm'

I$ t*e m(#$ c0(use 4may5 and 4might5 for presentor future possibility

- /f the price issatisfactory( we may>might placerepeat order perhaps we willplace '''

- /f you as# him hemay agree ''' perhaps he agrees

4may5 and 4can5 for permission

present or future

- /f your car brea#s

down you can>may ha!e a day o7'- /f she is sic#( she may

lea!e early' 4can5 and 4could5 for abilitypresent or future

- /f it stops raining( wecan go out'

- /f he attends thissecretarial course( he can ta#eshorthand

4must5 ( 4should5 for commands(re0uests( ad!ice'

- /f you want to reducethe costs( you should lay o7 someclerical sta7

- /f you donAt want toget into trouble( you must abideby the school regulations

4had better5 for ad!ice - /f you want to pass

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this examination( you had betterenroll in this course'

/mperati!e for orders orad!ice'

- /f you ha!e any0ueries( please donAt hesitate tocontact us

The simple present tense toexpress automatic or immediate

or habitual results

- /f we heat ice( it turnsinto water' will turn is possible

- /f you say you areright( /Am wrong'

- /f there is a shortageof any product( the prices of thatproduct go up'

*ther future tenses' - /f he gets the $ob( heis going to go abroad < % /f we donAtrun( the train will ha!e left'

I$ t*e #)"c0(use The present continuous toexpress a continuous action in the

present or an arrangement in thefuture'

- /f you are now alsowaiting for the bus ( youAd better

$oin the 0ueue'- /f you are loo#ing for

Peter( you will nd him upstairs'- /f you are coming

tomorrow( weAll put you up so thatyou donAt ha!e to waste money onhotel accommodation

The present perfect > or presentperfect continuous to tal# aboutsomething which has $usthappened '''see the use of thepresent perfect tense

- /f you ha!e $ust eatendinner( /All bring you some dessert'

- /f @nn has !isitedParis( she will ser!e as a guide'

- /f you ha!enAt seenthe exhibition( youAd better do ittoday'

- /f he has beentra!elling all night( heAll need arest'

4can5 < 4may5< 4must5 etc'NOTES:-e can use 4if = should5in type 1 to indicate that theaction ( although possible( is not

li#ely' /t is usually combined withan imperati!e chieDy in writteninstructions( polite re0uests( or tellpeople what to do and businesscorrespondence' This ma#e thecondition more doubtful'

- /f you should write toher( send her my lo!e'

- /f you should nd the

goods unsatisfactory( pleaseinform us without delay'- /f the spare parts

should arri!e in a damagedcondition( please ring this numberand weAll see to it'

/n!ersion happened when 4if5 isomitted from the sentence'

- Should the goodsarri!e in a damaged condition '''

- Should / see him( /Alltell him to ring you bac#'

- Should you not wish

our agent to call( please let us#now'

TPE 2 : PRESENT UNREAL1.Form

/f%clause past sub$uncti!e - /f / met him now /%J1%


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,ain clause would> should would tell him all the truth'2. Uses

(. This type of conditionalsentences is used to tal# about animaginary situation in the if%clauseand we speculate about itsimaginary conse0uence in themain clause' Though the pasttense is used( the reference is tothe present and future time( not topast time' That is why this use ofthe past tense after if is oftencalled Athe unreal past tenseA The spea#er doesnAt thin# about areal possibility' The conditions arecontrary % to % fact in the presentor future'

- /f / were you / wouldaccept the terms and conditions

b. -hen the supposition is

contrary to #nown fact'

- /f / li!ed near my

oce /Ad be on time for wor#' /nfact / do not li!e near my oce

- / were you / wouldapply for the $ob

c. -hen we donAt expect theaction in the if% clause( although0uite possible( to ta#e place

- /f someone tried toblac#mail me( / would tell thepolice'

- /f we wentban#ruptcy( a lot of wor#ers wouldlose their $obs

/. Poss#b0e !(r#(t#o$s o) t*e b(s#c )orm.

I$ t*e m(#$ c0(use(. might5< 4could5 instead of4would5 The conse0uence is lessli#ely

- /f you tried again( youwould succeed certain result

- /f you tried again( youmight> could succeed possibleresult

b. could5 for ability>permission - /f / #new her number /could ring her now'

- /f he got a wor#permit( he could get a $ob ability

or permission'c. 4ought to5 for duty( ad!ice - /f he failed( he oughtto try again'

I$ t*e #)"c0(use

(. Past continuous - -e are tra!eling bycar and /Am sic#' /f we weretra!eling by train( / would feelmuch better

- /f we werenAt sittingin the class now( we would be

playing games'b. Past perfect' This is a mixtureof type 2 an J

- /f he had ta#en myad!ice( he would be rich now'

TPE / : PAST UNREAL.1. Form:

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4otherwise5 (5pro!iding>pro!idedthat5( 4so long as5(4suppose5>5supposing that5 = a0uestion1. e!e$ #) = e!e$ t*ou%* - .ou must go

tomorrow e!en if you arenAt ready- -e intend to go to

/ndia e!en if air fares go up againbetween now and summer'

2. *et*er ... or= #) ... or. - .ou must gotomorrow whether you are readyor not

- -hether / feel well ornot on ,onday( /Am going bac# towor#'

/. U$0ess= armati!e N if =negati!e' unless is stronger than4if '''' not5

- nless you start atonce( youAll be late

- nless you had a

wor# permit( you couldnAt get a$ob'

. 4ut )orN 4/f it were not for5> 4/fit hadnAt been for5

- ,y father pays thefees' +ut for that / wouldnAt be atthis college'

- ,y car bro#e down'+ut for that we would ha!e arri!edon time'

- +ut for his pension(he would star!e

. ot*er#seN 4if this doesnAt

happen5>5if this didnAt happen5> 4ifthis hadnAt happened5'/n collo0uial English 4or = else5can replace 4otherwise5

- -e must be bac#before mid%night : otherwise weAllbe loc#ed out N /f we are not bac#before mid%night( weAll be loc#edout'

- "er father pays thefees< otherwise she wouldnAt behere N if her father didnAt pay thefees( she wouldnAt be here

- / used a calculatorotherwise /All callthe police'

3. 'ro!#+e+= 'ro!#+#$%@t*(tcan replace if when there is astrong idea of limitation orrestriction' /t is chieDy used with

permission

- .ou can camp herepro!ided>pro!iding that youlea!e no mess'

5. su''ose= su''os#$%@t*(tN 4what ''' if5'This is used to introduce a0uestion or a suggestion

- Suppose>supposingthat we miss the train( what shallwe do B

- Suppose the train is%J9%


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late N -hat if>what will happen ifthe plane is late

6. (s 0o$% (s so 0o$% (s - So long as> as long asyou clear your des# by thise!ening( you can ha!e tomorrowo7'

7. o$ @t*e co$+#t#o$ @t*(t - TheyAll lend us theirDat on condition that we loo# afterit'

18. #$ c(se4in case5 gi!e reason for the actionin the main clause' 4/n case5 =present tense means because 4thismay happen5> 4because this willperhaps happen5 or 4for fear thatthis may happen54/n case5 = past tense meansbecause 4this might happen5 or

4for fear that this would happen5

- / always carry anumbrella in case it rains becauseit may rain

- / bought a bottle ofwine in case he comes' becausehe may> will possibly come'

- "e always slept bythe phone in case she rang duringthe night'because she might ring

during the night'4/n case5 can be dropped withoutchanging the meaning of thesentence

- /All come tomorrow incase he wants me / will surelycome

- /All come tomorrow /will surely come

NOTES:4in case5 is normallyplaced after the main clause' +utin 4case of5 = noun N 4if thereis>are5 is used at the beginning ofthe sentence

- /n case of accident(phone GGG N if there is anaccident '''

CONITIONAL SENTENCES IN INIRECT SPEECHT;'e 1:basic form( the tenseschange in the usual way

- "e said( A/f / catch the9'J8 train /All be home by !eA"esaid that if he caught the 9'J8train he would be home by !e

T;'e 2:basic form( the tensesremain unchanged'

- She said( A/f / had awor# permit / could get a $obAShe said that if she had a wor#permit she could get a $ob'

T;'e /:basic form no changes: - "e said( A/f she had

lo!ed Tom( she wouldnAt ha!elo!ed himA"e said if she hadlo!ed him she wouldnAt ha!e lefthim'

PART EIGHT : THE REPORTE SPEECH

There are J types of sentences:Statements( Yuestions( andCommands in the reported speech

A. STATEMENTS IN INIRECT SPEECHI. Examples

The boss said: Z/ shall lea!e &ietnamtomorrow[ The boss said that he

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would lea!e &ietnam the followingday'[?an said( 4/ am sic# today'5 ?antold me that she was sic# that day'

II. Proce+ureLemember to ma#e the followingchanges the

following day- the day after tomorrow in two

daysA time> two days later- next wee#> yearthe following

wee#> year- last wee# > yearthe pre!ious

wee#> year- a year agoa year before> the

pre!ious year

-herethere

- thisthat- this e!ening>tonightthat

e!eningTenses change as follows: - simple present simple past

- present continuouspastcontinuous

- present perfectpast perfect- present perfect continuouspast

perfect continuous

-simple pastpast perfect

- past continuouspast perfectcontinuous

- simple futurefuture in the past

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present conditional- future continuousconditional

continuous- conditionalconditional

III. Notes

1. The past tense remains

unchanged'/n theory( the past tense changesto the past perfect'

- The man said( A -e

signed the contract in 2888

Theman said that they signed thecontract 2888'

(. /f it is 0uite clear and therecannot be any confusion aboutrelati!e times of the action'b.4/>he>she>we>they = had better5remains unchanged4.ou had better5 can either remainunchanged or become 4ad!ise5 =ob$ect = inniti!e'

- AThe children hadbetter go to bed(A said the mother The mother said that thechildren had better go to bedearly'

- A.ouAd better not drin#the water(A said the guide Theguide ad!ised>warned us not todrin# the water'

c.Conditional sentences types 2and J remain unchanged'

- ?an said: Z/f he came(/ would tell him e!erything[ ?antold me that if he came she wouldtell him e!erything'

- ?an said: Z/f / had methim yesterday( / would ha!e

#nown about the change of plan[?an said that if she had methim the say before( she wouldha!e #nown about the chance ofplan'

2. The present tense remainsunchanged when it refers to ageneral truth'

- The teacher said( A-ater free6es at 8oCA Theteacher said that water free6es ato 8c'

4. KUESTIONS IN THE REPORTE SPEECHI. E>(m'0es

% "e said( A-here can / nd her inthis townBA% She as#ed: -ill it rain tonightB

- "e as#ed me where he couldnd her in that town'

- She wanted to #now if it wouldrain that night

I. Proce+ureLemember tthe following steps1. Change the !erb 4say5 to 4as#5or other !erbs of in0uiry 4in0uire5(

4wonder5( 4want to #now5 These!erbs are used without ob$ects ''' if heshould post it'

*7ers' - Shall / ma#e you acup of co7eeB "e o7ered toma#e me a cup of co7ee'

- /All bring you a cup ofco7ee' "e o7ered to bring me

a cup of co7ee' Suggestions'ote: -hat>"ow about '''''''B wouldyou ''''''B These may be ordinary0uestions( re0uests( o7ers

- -ill you sit downB"e as#ed me /f / would sit down

"e told me to sit down- -ill>would you le

these letter( pleaseB "e as#ed

me to le the letters- -ould you li#e to

come round> could you comeround for a drin#B "e in!itedme to come round for a drin#'

C. COMMANS REKUESTS A&ICE IN INIRECT SPEECHI. E>(m'0es

The woman said( APlease wait forme here( Tom'AShe said: 3onAt touch anything inthis room'A

The woman as#ed Tom to wait forher there The woman told me not to touchanything in that room

II. Proce+ure

1"Change the !erb 4say5 to 4tell5(4order5( 4as#5 according to theattitude and relation of thespea#er and the listener' @dd an ob$ect to those !erbs inthe reported speech

*mit the comma( the in!ertedcommas( the colon( the 0uotationmar#s( the word 4please5 and theexclamation mar#2"Change the !erb in the direct

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speech from armati!ecommands to 4to%inniti!e5( orfrom the negati!e commands to4not = to%inniti!e5/"Change the personal pronounsand possessi!e( if necessary(according to the meaning of thesentence the same as instatements"Change the words showingplace and time( if the place andtime are di7erent'

III. Notes

(.The following !erbs can beused: 4ad!ise5( 4as#5( 4beg5(4command5( 4encourage5(4entreat5 ( 4forbid5( 4implore5 in!ite(

order( 4recommend5( 4remind5(4re0uest5( 4tell5( 4urge5( 4warn5'ote that 4say5 is not included inthis list( 4forbid5 is only commonin the passi!eb.The !erbs in (abo!e re0uireob$ect = inniti!e' They must befollowed directly by the personaddressed without a preposition'/n direct commands( this person isoften not mentioned

- "e said( A;o awayOA' -hen reporting suchcommand( we must add a noun orpronoun: "e told the boy to goaway

4as#5 is di7erent' /t can befollowed directly by the inniti!ewithout an ob$ect' /t is 0uitedi7erent from 4as#5 = ob$ect =inniti!e'

- "e said( ACould / see Tom( pleaseBA "eas#ed to see Tom

+oth 4as#5 and 4beg5 can befollowed by the passi!e inniti!e'

- Pleasesend me to "anoi She as#edto be sent to "anoi She as#edus to sent her to "anoi'

- Please

allow me to see my lawyer Sheas#ed us to allow her to see herlawyerShe as#ed to be allowedto see her lawyer'

c. -ill you ''' is normallyreported as re0uest by 4as#5

- -ill yousit down( pleaseB "e as#ed usto sit down'

+ut if it is spo#en sharply orirritably( and the word please inomitted ( it might be reported by4tell5 4order5'

- -ill yoube 0uietO +e 0uiet( will youO "e told> ordered us to be 0uiet'

+. 4say5< 4tel5l = ob$ect = 4that5 =be = inniti!e

- APleasewait hereA "e told me that /was to wait there "e told me towait there'

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@d!ice can be expressed by4ad!ice5( 4recommend5 and 4urge5= 4should5 esp' in the passi!e

- She said: / ad!ise cancelling the meeting She ad!ised that the meetingshould be cancelled

e. ?etAs< let us< let him< let them?etAs Q' suggestion is reportedby 4 suggest5

- ?etAslea!e the washing up till

tomorrow

"e suggestedlea!ing the washing up till thenext dayShe suggested thatthey should lea!e the washing uptill the next day She suggestedthat the washing up should be lefttill the next day

- ?etAs notsay anything about it till we hearthe facts "e suggested notsaying> saying nothing about it till

they heard the facts+ut 4?etAs not5 in answer toarmati!e suggestion is reportedby such phrases as : 4She opposedthe idea5< 5She was against it5 left theship is>was the captain N The lastman to lea!e the ship

- The only one whounderstands>understood N The onlyone to understand

2% -hen there is idea of purposeor duty or permission

- "e has an exercise to doN "ehas an exercise that he must do

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- They need a garden to play inNThey need a garden a garden inwhich they can> may play in

- / need a #nife to cut the breadwithN / need a #nife with which / cancut the bread

III. t*(t

4that5 non % dening1. 4that5 N 4who5( 4whom5( 4which52. ne!er preceded by a

preposition/. only used in dening clause'

4that5 is used1. @fter superlati!e including

4rst5 and 4last52. @fter a mixed antecedent

/. @fter interrogati!e pronouns4who5 and 4what5

. @fter 4same5 but 4as5 is moreusual

. @fter 4all5 4only5( 4!ery( 4e!ery5(4no5 4any5( 4much5

- "e was the cle!erest boy that/ ha!e e!er met

- The man and the mannersthat he described were unfamiliar

to most of us- -ho that saw her did not pity

her- This is the same story that the

teacher told us ''' as the teachertold us

- .ou may #eep any boo# thatyou nd

THE NOUN CLAUSES < USES AN FUNCTIONS1 " Subject o) ( !erb - -hy the plane exploded is

still a mystery- That he can do it is 0uite

certain- /t is true that time is

!aluable2 " Object o) ( !erb. - obody #nows how

language was started'- ;i!e whoe!er answers the

phone this message/ " Com'0eme$t o) ( !erb - "is great fear is that he may

fail- "e became what / hadexpected him to become'

- "e has made the companywhat it is today

" I$ (''os#t#o$ to ( $ou$ - The rumour that he was#illed is untrue

- She express the hope thathe may reco!er shortly

" A)ter ( $umber o)(+ject#!es

sub$ect = be = ad$ecti!e =noun % clause

- @re you sure that he didthisB

- /Am afraid that / must as#you for help again'

THE A&ER4 CLAUSES < TPES

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or not5' recently inherited three million dollars

6 " A+!erb#(0 c0(use o)com'(r#so$.They are introduced by 4as ''' as5(4not ''' so5 ( 4such ''' as5( \\\ er '''4than5( 4more5 ''' 4than5(4less5 '''4than5ote: the !erb or both the sub$ectand the !erb may be omitted fromthese clauses'

- She sang less beautifully than /expected

- "e li#es you more than he li#esme> more than me

- The food is better in the cafeteriatoday than it was yesterday'

7 " A+!erb#(0 c0(use o)co$+#t#o$They are introduced by 4if5( 4ifonly5( 4in case5( 4so long as5( 4aslong as5( 4unless5( 4pro!iding that5(4pro!ided that5( 4on condition that5

- -e shall come to the match unlessit rains'

- /f he were here( he would help me'

N4:The same clause may be a

noun clause in one sentence( anad$ecti!e clause in another( or anad!erbial clause in another(

- -here the hero lies is un#nown'

noun clause- o one has found the place where

the hero lies' ad$ecti!e clause- The search party stops right where

the hero lies without #nowing it'ad!erb clause

PART TEN: THE NOUNST;'es:

There are four types of nouns inEnglish

- Common nouns: des#(newspaper( computer

- Proper nouns: /taly( ,adrid( ,r'-atson

- @bstract nouns: beauty( charity(pollution

- Collecti!e nouns: crowd( team(go!ernment'

Fu$ct#o$s@ noun can function as: Sub$ect of a !erb Complement of be(

become( seem *b$ect of a !erb: *b$ect of a preposition /n the possessi!e case

- +ra6il exports a lot of co7ee- "e became an actor at the

age of 28- "e bought a cub yesterday- "e is interested in arts- TomAs boo#s

I. GENER

,asculine: men( boy( maleanimals pronoun 4he5( 4they5Feminine: girls ( women( femaleanimals pronoun 4she5( 4they5euter inanimate things( animalwhose sex we donAt #now andsometimes babies: 4des#5(4butterDy5Exceptions: Ships( cars other

- +ritain has a lot of thingsthat she can be proud of

- The ship @tlantic is now onher !oyage to @ustralia

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!ehicles( countries are sometimesreferred to as feminine esp' whenregarded with lo!e and a7ection1 % ,asculine> feminine noundenoting people % 3i7erent forms

1. Peo'0eM(scu0#$e Fem#$#$eadulterer adulteressboy girlbachelor spinsterbridegroom bridedady momyance] anceeAfather mothergrand father grandmothergrand uncle grand auntgrandson granddaughtergentleman lady

husband wifeman womannephew nieceson daughterwidower widow

2. T#t0esdu#e duchessmar0uis> mar0uess marchioness> mar0uiseearl>count countess!iscount !iscountessbaron baroness

friar>mon# nun#ing 0ueenlord lady>dameprince princess

/. Occu'(t#o$s

most of the nouns referring toprofession ha!e the same form:artist< coo#< dri!er< guide dog she% goat> dog< coc#% sparrow hen%sparrowbilly%goat nanny%goatboar sowbuc#< stag doebulloc# heifer> cowbull cowbull%whale>elephant cow%whale>elephantcoc# hencoc#%sparrow >pheasant> robin hen%sparrow

pheasant>robincolt llydog bitchdra#e duc#fox !ixengander gooselion lionessram ewestag>hart fully%gown doe N hindstallion mare( llytiger tigresshog sow

II= PLURALS:The plural of nouns is usuallymade by adding s to the singulars'Some special cases:1 "ouns ending in 4o5( 4ch5( 4ss5(4x5 : add es

- tomato tomatoes < brush brushes< church churches #iss #isses< box boxes

+ut words of foreign origin orabbre!iated words ending in 4o5(add 4s5 only' @lso: !owel =o = s isadded to the spo#en word

-

2 "-ords ending in 4y5 following aconsonant ( we drop 4y5 and add4ies5

- baby babies< Dy Dies < countrycountries< ladyladies

+ut nouns ending in 4y5 following a!owel ( we add 4s5 only

- boy boys< mon#ey mon#eys5e!ery5 ''' 4and5 ''' singular!erb

- Each teacher and each studenthasagreed to follow this process

- E!ery man and woman in this!illage attendsthe $umble sale

Fixed expressions li#e 4bread andbutter5( 5cheese and wine5 ( 4lemonand oil5( 4sh and chips5 '''-e use them as a whole withsingular !erb' "owe!er( when wethin# of them separately( plural

!erbs are necessary'

- +read and butter is an important0uestion for e!eryone of us

- Fish and chips is a popular meal inEngland

4each5 ta#e singular !erb - Each of the student was gi!en alaptop'

4each5 is used with !erbs( the !erbagrees with the sub$ect( not 4each5

- They each ha!etheir own share

/f there is one person( we usesingular !erb

- ,y friend and my benefactor ( ohn(has come one person

- The founder and editor of thismaga6ine is ,r' -hite

3i7erent persons or things( weuse plural !erb

- The artist and the editor of thismaga6ine are discussing modern arts'

- Fire and water do not agree'- .ou and sheha!e the same idea'

.-hen a compound sub$ectwhose elements are connectedby 4neither ''' nor5 ( 4either ''' or5(

- The 3irector or his P>@ attends theconference

- either my manager nor my !ice%%J%


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4not only ''' but also5( 4not only '''but ''' as well5 ( the !erb agrees innumber with the nearest noun orin informal style( plural !erb

director hasany idea- either the teacher nor the students

#now the answer- either ames nor /am interested in

the proposal'- Either my secretary or / attend the

meeting- ot only you but / am responsible for

this accident+ut 4neither of5 ''' can be used

with both singular or plural !erb'.-hen the normal word order!erb sub$ect is in!erted !erb

sub$ect( the !erb agrees withthe sub$ect after it'

- @t the door are standing four largepolicemen

- There comes the bus'- @t the top of the hill stands a tiny

chapel'4here5 ( 4there5 !erb sub$ect - "ere comes the bus'

- There go the lecturers'

3.singular sub$ect li#e singular!erb

butexcept

plural sub$ect including plural !erb

besidesalong withinstead oftogether withas well asin addition tono less thanbut not

- This no!el( li#e many others(analyseslo!e and hate'

- obody but Ted and ones was eagerto wor# on night shift

- @ll the members( including thechairman( ha!e signed the petition

- The ,arshal together with hisattendants isentering the hall

- The pilot( as well as all thepassengers( was rescued from the crash

- "is loud clothes( no less than his

loud !oice( botherme a lot- Lobert( and not you( has won the

rst pri6e5.all :most :more : singular noun sing' !erbsome : of

part : plural noun plural !erbhalf :percent :fraction :

- "alf of the stationery has been used- "alf of the coo#iesha!e been eaten- Some sugar has been spilled on the

Door- The greatest part of his life has been

spent in laboratories

- Eighty percent of the students ha!e!oted- Three%fourth of his fortune was

de!oted to scientic research- Two%third of the boo#sare no!els

6. ouns ending in 4\ics5 usuallyta#e singular !erb referring toacademic sub$ects or sciencesThese include: acoustics( athletics(aesthetics( ci!ics( hydraulics(gymnastics( linguistics (mathematics( optics( physics(economics( ethics( pediatrics(politics( phonetics( statistics

- ,athematicsis my wea# sub$ect- Pediatricsis a branch of medicine'- Statistics is !ery confusing'- @esthetics tries to ma#e clear the

laws and principles of beauty

7.ouns plural in form( singular in

%9%


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idea = singular !erb Periods of time ,oney 3istance Yuantity 3iseases ;ames

Countries( territoriesThe nited States( Theetherlands( -ales( and someother nouns such as: news(molasses( tactics

- Three wee#s isa long time to wait'- Two hundred dollars is not too much

to pay for that boo#'- Forty miles is a long way to wal# in a

day'- Three pints doesnAt ma#e me drun#- ,umps is dangerous measles(

shingles: be^nh l da( ric#ets : be^nhnho xng

- +illiardsis time consuming draughts(tenpins

- The Philippinesis small18.4The5 = ad$ecti!e to representthe group as a whole' Theseinclude: the rich( the poor( theyoung( the old( the blind( the deaf(the sic#( the dead( the disabled(

the unemployed( the in$uredQ

- The disabledare calling for help- The old areta#en care of by the

society'- The in$ured are ta#en to hospital'

11. 4the number5 refers to thetotal ta#es singular !erb< 4anumber5( 4a group5 used withplural nouns and ta#es plural !erb'They refers to indi!idual units'

- @ number of mista#es were found inyour composition'

- @ group of us ha!e decided to set upa consultation oce

- The number of students doing part%time $obs is increasing'

12.Some nouns ha!e the samesingular form for both singular andplural eg: sheep( carp( deer(boar( swine( cod( bream( herring(mac#erel( salmon( trout( grouse(snipe( ha#e( craft( ship( fruit'''etc'

- @ sheep is bred for its meat andwool'

- Sheep are bred for their meat andwool'

Some nouns ha!e the same pluralform for both singular and plural'means( crossroads( bric#%wor#s(corps( chamois( chassis ( mews(series( species( shambles(supercies'''etc'

- There is a bric#%wor#s in theneighborhood'

- There are four bric#%wor#s in theneighborhood'

- This means of transportation ischeap'

- These means of transportation are

cheap

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Grammar Foreign Trade