Grammar & Punctuation

1Grammar & Punctuation

Many of us have forgotten the grammar rules we learned in school. Effective writers realize how important good grammar is. They know that people judge us based on the correctness of our writing.

In this section you will review the grammar and punctuation rules that help our readers understand our message.

Here’s how you’ll benefit:

• You’ll feel more confident about grammar and punctuation. You can be sure you’re always using good grammar and you’ll know how to correct any mistakes you come across.

• You’ll be able to produce documents that are clear and unambiguous.

• You’ll enjoy more credibility. Documents with clean grammar reflect positively on you, your department and your company.

• You’ll become a more confident, accurate and reliable proofreader.

Parts of Speech Here is a list of the typical parts of speech to help you.

1. noun (fish, John, industry)

2. pronoun (him, her)

3. verb (is, eat, swim)

4. adjective, article (yellow dog, a circus)

5. adverb (run quickly)

6. preposition (to the table, over the top)

7. conjunction (John and Marie),

8. interjection (Oh!)

Grammar & Punctuation


Parts of the Sentence Subjectsimple subject (Your letter is very eloquent.)complete subject (This lavish production is very impressive.)compound subject (The small dog and the large cat are fighting.)imperative subject ([You] Have a seat, please.)

Predicate (verbs, objects, complements)linking verb with subject complement (Love is blind.)transitive verb with direct object (The hunter shoots the deer.)transitive verb with indirect object (The man read [to] the children a story.)intransitive verb with no object or complement (Money talks.)

Phrasesprepositional phrasesadjective prepositional phrase (We attended the conference in Seattle.)adverbial prepositional phrase (Don’t judge a book by its cover.)

verbal phrases (these contain verb forms)participial phrase (Food prepared with love tastes best.)gerund phrase (Coming events include a cocktail party.)infinitive phrase (He cut off his nose to spite his face.)

appositive phrases describe nouns or pronouns (Children, narcissists at heart, think of themselves first.)

absolute phrases modify a whole sentence or clause (Like a shot from a gun, the president left the meeting.)

Subordinate clauses are patterned like sentences but cannot stand aloneadjective clauses (I found the house where the family lived.)adverb clauses (Tom practiced every day so that his presentation would be perfect.)noun clauses function as subjects, objects or complements (How you manage on your income is a mystery to me.)


Sentence Typessimple sentence is one independent clause with no subordinate clauses (Elizabeth joined the association.)

compound sentence has two or more independent clauses, no subordinate clauses (Elizabeth joined the association, but she finds it expensive.)

complex sentence has at least one independent clause and at least one subordinate clause (If you join the association, you’ll enjoy many benefits.)

compound-complex sentence has at least two independent clauses and at least one subordinate clause (If you join the association, you’ll find it expensive but you’ll also enjoy many benefits.)


Subject TypesThere are two main parts of the sentence: the subject (which is the person or thing the sentence is about) and the predicate (which is the verb plus its objects or complements).

The subject is a noun or pronoun (naming a person, place or thing). It is often a noun group, and it’s not necessarily the only noun in the sentence.

In an active clause, it always indicates the person or thing that performs the action described by the verb or is in the state indicated by the verb. In a passive clause, the subject refers to the person or thing affected by an action or involved in someone’s thoughts.

The subject is usually found right at the beginning of a sentence.

The simple subject is always a noun or pronoun, and it is what the verb must agree with

Your letter is very eloquent.

The complete subject is the simple subject plus all its modifiers.

This lavish production is impressive.

A compound subject is two or more subjects joined with a coordinate conjunction.

Your ingenuity and my connections will help expand our markets.

An imperative subject is implicitly “you.”

[You] Park your car.


Grammar

Subject-Verb AgreementBeware of words between the subject and the verbStrip away modifiers to locate the real subject, and ensure this real subject agrees with the verb. Locate the subject and verb of the sentence core.

Examples

The manual with all the safety procedures describes personal protective equipment.

The interest rate for the new loans is high.

Treat compound subjects joined by “and” as pluralExamples

Rachel’s natural ability and her desire to help others have led to a career in training.

A background in sales and two years in management are adequate experience.

Compound subjects joined by “or” or “nor” Make the verb agree with the part of the subject nearer to the verb.

Examples

Two half-days or one full-day is required to complete this course.

One full-day or two half-days are required to complete this course.

Treat collective nouns as singularCollective nouns name groups of people or things. Some examples include names of companies, team, flock, heard and management. We treat them as singular.

Examples

The jury is going to reach a verdict soon.

That group of executives is enjoying the conference.

Gowan and Associates is our accountant for this project.


Collective nouns can be pluralWhen you want to emphasize individuals, you can treat collective nouns as plural.

Examples

The jury have retired to their hotel rooms for the evening.

The team of managers are competing for the director’s job.

Indefinite pronouns take singular verbsIndefinite pronouns include each, either, neither, anyone, everyone.

Examples

Each of the employees is contributing to the fund.

Neither of my colleagues has experience.


In the following sentences first locate and underline the subject, then find and circle the verb. Decide if they agree. If they agree, write an “A” beside the sentence.

1. Your order and your payment was received today.

2. The Board of Directors are meeting on Friday.

3. The Board members is coming from all over the country to meet in Winnipeg next month.

4. None of our team members is planning to leave before the project is finished.

5. All shares from ALIA nominee administered account 12345 was transferred to Mr. Tyson’s account.

6. Each of my associates are receiving a bonus this year.

7. The deposits in every single bank in Canada is insured by the federal government.

8. The Savings Bank, along with other large national banks, offer a variety of savings plans.

9. The budget analyst wants to know if the Equipment Committee are ready to recommend a product.

Subject-Verb Agreement


Noun-Pronoun AgreementPronouns need to agree with their antecedentsA pronoun’s antecedent is the word it refers to. They agree when they are either both singular or both plural.

Examples

Singular: The minister made her speech today.Plural: The ministers made their speeches today.

Singular: Does Tom have his orders ready?Plural: Do the sales reps have their orders ready?

Collective nouns can take singular pronounsCollective nouns include jury, troop, couple, majority, minority, and committee. Company names generally take singular pronouns.

Example

Singular: The committee granted its permission to build.

Collective nouns can take plural pronounsUse a plural pronoun if you want to emphasize individuals in the group.

Example

Plural: The committee put their signatures on the document.

Be gender neutralA gender biased sentence:

An administrative assistant needs to keep her desk organized.

You can avoid having to choose a gender or creating a gender biased sentence by:

1. substituting “his or her”An administrative assistant needs to keep his or her desk organized.

2. substituting an article An administrative assistant needs to keep an organized desk.

3. making the subject pluralAdministrative assistants need to keep their desks organized.

4. breaking the ruleAn administrative assistant needs to keep their desk organized.


I or me?The pronoun needs to agree with the case of the noun (subject or object) it replaces.

Pronouns that replace subjects are in the subjective case; they include I, he, she, we, you, they.

Pronouns that replace other nouns are usually in the objective case; they include me, her, him, us, them.

Subject: Sandra and I will accompany you.Object: Will you accompany Sandra and me?Object: You will be accompanied by Sandra and me.

Subject: Either they or we will contact you by 2:00 p.m. Object: You will hear from either them or us by 2:00 p.m.

Me or myself? Reflexive pronouns like myself or yourself are rarely used in business writing. Avoid using them.

Example

Before: Jill and myself wish you all the best on your retirement.After: Jill and I wish you all the best on your retirement.

Before: Please contact Jason, Lena or myself for more information.After: Please contact Jason, Lena or me for more information.

Indefinite pronouns traditionally take singular pronounsIndefinite pronouns refer to non-specific persons or things. Although formal English treats indefinite pronouns as singular, business writers often ignore this rule.

Indefinite pronouns include: anybody, anyone, each, either, everybody, everyone, everything, neither, none, no one, someone, something.

Modern English recognizes the need to have a gender neutral pronoun and you can use the plural pronoun their with an indefinite pronoun.


Example

In this course everyone works on their own materials.

This is acceptable but if you prefer to avoid their, here are three workarounds.

1. Replace the plural pronoun with his or her.

2. Make the antecedent plural.

3. Rewrite the sentence so no problem of agreement exists.

Generic nouns traditionally take singular pronounsGeneric nouns represent a typical member of a group. Although they seem to have plural meanings, they are singular.

Example

A law student must study hard if they want to succeed.

This is acceptable but if you prefer to avoid they, here are three workarounds.

1. A law student must study hard if he or she wants to succeed.

2. Law students must study hard if they want to succeed.

3. A law student must study hard in order to succeed.


The noun and pronoun in each sentence are in bold text. If the pronoun agrees with the noun it refers to, write “A” beside the sentence.

1. A marketing guru never reveals their secret.

2. Each participant must know his material.

3. The team likes its leader.

4. Apparently Ms. Simpson, one of the applicants, forgot to sign their application.

5. As this company is mainly a household supplier of appliances, they do not appear to be a logical choice for partnership.

6. The hotel will usually include a variety of programs to appeal to all their guests.

7. A claims adjuster must keep their/his or her tone positive even when they have to give bad news.

8. Each airline is responsible for their own policies.

Noun-Pronoun Agreement


Use the correct articleArticles are words that we use to tell us more about a noun. You have two articles to choose from in English: “a” or “the.” If you have trouble knowing when to use these two articles, the guidelines in the table below will help you.

Article Type of Article When to Use Examples

a indefinite to refer to any one in a group

I used a microscope. (any microscope)

We need a laptop to collect the field data. (any laptop)

the definiteTo refer to a specific person, place or thing.

I used the microscope.(a specific microscope)

Why don’t we use the new laptop?(a specific laptop)

Whenever you see an article you will find a noun with it. Here are some guidelines to help you choose when to use an article, and how to use the right one.

1. Always use a or the before a noun, unless you are making a general statement about the noun, e.g. Audit Reports are necessary.

2. Don’t use a or the before a pronoun (he, she, I, me, you, it, them, they).

3. Don’t use a or the before a proper name:

• names of people (Juanita, Frank, Dr. Chin)• names of games (basketball, chess, bridge)• names of places (streets, cities, towns, states, provinces and

most countries)

Tip: A becomes an when the next word begins with a vowel (a, e, i, o, u.)E.g. We will need a witness and an application.


The ApostropheForms possessivesAdd an apostrophe and “s” to indicate a possessive noun when the noun is singular, or when it is plural and doesn’t end in an s.

Examples

John’s hatThe tree’s rootsThe women’s shoesLois’s hat

Omit the final s only if it makes the pronunciation awkward. (Euripides’ plays, Achilles’ heel, goodness’ sake, United Nations’ mandate.) Add only an apostrophe when noun is plural and ends in s.

Examples

Both actresses’ jewels were stolen.Good writers understand their audiences’ needs.Please provide two weeks’ notice if you are planning to take another job.

To indicate a possessive compound noun, add ’s to the last element in the series.We ate dinner at my sister-in-law’s house.

To indicate joint possession, use ’s or s’ with final name only.John and Mary’s computer has crashed.

To indicate individual possession, make all nouns possessive.John’s and Mary’s expectations of marriage couldn’t have been more different.

Tip: If possession is difficult to determine, try turning it into an “of” phrase:The tree’s roots = The roots of the treeThe United Nations’ mandate= the mandate of the United Nations


Doesn’t form pluralsEspecially when pluralizing words or numbers.

1990s, 90s

Unless there might be a misunderstanding

Rachel got three A’s on her report card.

Or unless the word has internal punctuation

How many Ph.D.’s do you employ?

Forms contractionsUse the apostrophe in contractions to indicate a missing letter.

We’re negotiating the contract.

Remember : it’s = it is or it has its = possessive


Add the missing apostrophes and delete unnecessary ones.

1. She played the devils advocate at the meeting.

2. The job is hers’.

3. Many companies’ buildings require more maintenance than anticipated.

4. I would appreciate it if you could give me ten members addresses’.

5. Problems are assigned to individual correspondence representative’s by client services.

6. We will review last month’s figures at the board’s next meeting.

7. I like the speaker whose wearing the blue suit.

8. We are writing three offer of employment’s this week.

9. Those company’s hired three MBA’s in the last month.

10. Ottawa is only a few hours drive from here.

Apostrophes


The CommaJoins independent clauses with coordinate conjunctionsUse a comma with a coordinate conjunction to join independent clauses. Place the comma before the coordinate conjunction. There are seven coordinate conjunctions: and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet.

When the clauses are short and there is no danger of misunderstanding, this comma is optional.

Examples

I arrived in Tokyo late, but my luggage didn’t arrive at all.

She wants to meet tonight so let’s order some dinner.

Separates items in a listThis comma is known as the series comma, or the Oxford comma. Choose one method and be consistent. Either

1. put the comma between every item in the series, including one before the final “and,” or

2. omit the final comma before the and, except where the items in the series have and’s in them and a misunderstanding might arise.

Examples

Method 1: You’ll find papers, pens, pencils, and staplers in the supply cabinet.

Method 2: You’ll find papers, pens, pencils and staplers in the supply cabinet.

Methods 1 & 2: The available background color schemes include black and white, yellow and gray, and blue and green.

Methods 1 & 2: Non-derivative financial instruments comprise investments in trade and other receivables, cash and equivalents, and trade and other payables.


Separates an introductory expression from a sentenceIf there is no danger of misunderstanding, this comma is optional.

Examples

Optional: Rushing down the hall, she slipped and fell.

Necessary: When everyone had left, the office was locked.

Necessary: As well, elected officials should be conversant with the funding issues, as they may need to explain them to the public.

Necessary: Through education, members can better understand their rights under the collective agreement.

Sets off interrupting expressions A comma is used to set off expressions or numbers that interrupt or qualify the sentence. You can omit these commas if there is no danger of misunderstanding:

Examples

The industry judges operations on a broader, sometimes immeasurable, set of standards.

We are, however, still planning to attend the trade show.


Encloses non-defining material Often, this non-defining material is contained in a relative clause. Relative clauses start with where, when, who, whose, whom, that or which. Relative clauses can be either defining or non-defining.

Non-defining relative clauses, which require commas, provide information about someone or something we already know is under discussion.

Examples

Non-defining relative clause: Manissa Patel, who is heading the United Way drive, broke her ankle.

The writer wants to emphasize that she broke her ankle, so the phrase “who is heading the United Way drive” is unessential and surrounded by commas.

Non-defining relative clause: The goals of the hiring committee, which are known to all, should be met by the end of the year.

Do not enclose defining information Defining relative clauses impart information essential to our understanding of which particular person or thing is being discussed.

Examples

Defining relative clause: The woman who is heading the United Way drive broke her ankle. In this example “who is heading the United Way drive” is essential information because it tells us which woman broke her ankle.

Choose “that” for the defining clause (with no commas) and “which” for non-defining clauses (with commas).

Defining relative clause: The files that end with the extension .tmp can be safely deleted.

Non-defining relative clause: The temporary files, which end with the extension .tmp, can be safely deleted.


Do not use commas to separate elements that are not independent clausesYou can use commas before coordinate conjunctions when they join independent clauses, but not when they join other compound word groups.

Example

The sales manager led the sales reps to their phones, and gave an inspiring last-minute pep talk.

Note that the word group following and is not an independent clause. It connects the verbs led and gave.

Use commas between coordinate adjectives Coordinate adjectives each modify the noun separately and can be scrambled. Don’t put a comma after the last adjective in the series.

Examples

Joanne has become a strong, confident, independent woman.

When you develop your mental capacities you live a richer, fuller life.

Don’t use a comma between cumulative adjectivesThis is where one adjective builds on the other, and they cannot be scrambled.

Examples

Three large shapes moved slowly toward us.

Ransom and Associates, the European arm of a global advertising agency, has swallowed a Chicago-based shop.


Introduce a direct quotation of a complete sentenceExample

The employee said, “I expect to be in the office today.”

Exception: If the quotation is longer than a sentence, use a colon to introduce it.

Sets off nouns of direct address, yes and no, and interrogative tagsExamples

Noun of direct address:

Let’s eat, Mother.

John, your manual looks great.

Yes/no:

Yes, the loan will be approved.

No, the new program is not available yet.

Interrogative tag:

The seminar is instructive, isn’t it?

The new supervisor is competent, isn’t she?


Insert commas where necessary. Delete the unnecessary commas.

1. We expected John Smiley not Frank Jameson to head the committee.

2. Drivers, who think they own the road, make bicycle riding a dangerous urban sport.

3. The goals of the hiring committee which are known to all should be met by the end of the year.

4. The new process would reduce, if not eliminate the manual matching performed by the mailroom staff.

5. Tom’s Monday morning memo which few of us bothered to read expressed his concerns about staff engagement.

6. Ava wants to travel to New York, and meet with the client.

7. In addition to a pullback in the energy trusts and the oil and gas trusts we witnessed a few of the business trusts trading downwards in the last few days.

8. We have however revised the redemption charge schedule since your last purchase.

9. Radio spots have been scheduled during the week of the Christmas sale which is planned for Nov. 28.

10. Inside two traders were telling hilarious stories.

11. The operations department recommends installing an automatic system that generates a complete package, for each plan holder.

12. When legal forms fail health and safety officers may use their political skills to influence change.

13. Everyday clients send us their trade tickets by email.

Commas


The SemicolonJoins two sentencesUse to join two sentences without a coordinating conjunction. We have seven coordinating conjunctions in English: and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet.

Join sentences in this way when the relation between them is clear without the conjunction.

If you join two sentences with only a comma, you have a comma splice, which is grammatically incorrect.

Examples

Laughter is not at all a bad beginning for a friendship; it is by far the best ending for one. (Oscar Wilde)Progress always involves risk; you can’t steal second base and keep your foot on first.Slow down; there’s a police car behind you.The sales department did not assume client services would catch the discrepancy; we did not know there was a discrepancy.

Joins sentences with conjunctive adverbsUse the semicolon to join two independent clauses joined by a conjunctive adverb. Conjunctive adverbs include the words however, nevertheless, moreover, therefore, finally, similarly, then and thus.

Examples

I wanted to go; however, my calendar was full.Good writers recognize the importance of their readers; therefore, they revise with the reader’s needs in mind.


Joins sentences with a transitional expressionUse a semicolon to join two independent clauses joined by a transitional expression. Transitional expressions include in fact and for example.

Example

He eats too much; for example, he ate two lunches today.

Joins items in a seriesUse between items in a series containing internal punctuation.

Example

The sites we liked included Toronto, Ontario; Montréal, Québec; Edmonton, Alberta; and Vancouver, B.C.

Better solution

The sites we liked included:• Toronto, Ontario• Montréal, Québec• Edmonton, Alberta• Vancouver, B.C.


Add commas and semicolons where necessary.

1. According to the media restructuring is a passé topic however we find the need for restructuring greater than ever.

2. The president approves of your choice moreover she applauds your analysis.

3. We have included client account data, the name, address and employer of the account holder, and the name of the registered representative.

4. Every member wanted to change the brochure: Sonia thought it should be blue, not green, Ray, who always likes to keep costs down, suggested fewer pages, and Mel, along with those remaining, wanted larger body text.

5. Her birthday is coming soon, she’ll be 43.

6. A cheque was sent to your office on April 22, 20xx, please confirm receipt of this.

7. There are; however, several benefits you should consider.

8. Nelson is good at problem solving, he is also good at time management.

9. We’re opening a branch office in Kitchener next fall and we hope to serve all your needs from that office.

Semicolons


Colons, Dashes and Quotation MarksThe ColonThe colon directs the reader’s eye forward.

Introduces a list

Example

John took the following: a book, a pen and a pad of paper.

Restates an independent clauseUse the colon after an independent clause if what follows restates or expands on that clause.

In this function, and in these examples, you could choose to use a dash instead of a colon. You would use the colon when you want a more formal feel.

Examples

There is only one thing I value more than money: friendship.He knew one thing for sure: This would be a long night.


The Em DashWhen typing, the conventional way to create a dash is to use two hyphens, no spaces anywhere.

Sets off appositivesAppositives are nouns or noun phrases that elaborate on a nearby noun.

Examples

In my hometown the basic needs of people—food, clothing and shelter—are less costly than in Whitehorse.We ate lunch—sandwiches, coffee and donuts—at noon.

Adds emphasis to an interrupting expressionYou can use the dash in place of the comma to give emphasis to a thought within a sentence.

Examples

I made some significant discoveries—and I truly learned—because I truly participated.The dash—compared with the comma—adds emphasis to these expressions.


Quotation MarksAvoid overusing quotation marks. Use them for quoted material and to add special emphasis.

Using quotation marks with other forms of punctuationPeriods and commas always go inside quotation marks. Colons and semicolons go outside. Put ? and ! inside, unless they apply to the sentence as a whole.

Examples

It’s the “how,” not the “why,” we care about.

On car trips our children continually ask, “Are we there yet?”

Have you seen the opera “La Traviata”?


Add colons, dashes and quotation marks as necessary. Add any other missing punctuation marks.

1. After talking to Giles and Paul, I came to this final decision, we need one person responsible during the time I’ll be away.

2. Here’s the list of attendees John Kiln from Toronto Ontario Ken Downing from Winnipeg Manitoba and Leanne Jacobs from Detroit Michigan.

3. It’s your time not your money that we value most.

4. By integrity then I mean doing an excellent job.

5. The following committee members volunteered to help out at our trade show booth John Allison Kim and Liz.

6. There’s one thing we know for sure mistakes are costly.

7. We hired you for your expertise in marketing not in operations.

8. Clarity, persuasiveness and brevity, these are what most business writers desire.

9. She had only one challenge her teenage son.

10. I’d like to discuss: this year’s inventory, Ray’s latest acquisition, and that tie you’re wearing.

11. These employees deserve special mention for the Fenton account, Trisha Causley, Intab Ali, and Andrew Mosier.

Colons, Dashes and Quotation Marks