Gender wage gap study

7/28/2019 Gender wage gap study

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The Simple TruThabt t G pay Ga

2013 ediTion


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1

Tab f Ctts

Foreword 2

Introduction 3

What Is the Pay Gap? 5

Is the Pay Gap Really about

Womens Lie Choices? 8

How Does the Pay Gap Aect Women

o Dierent Demographics? 10

Is Tere a Pay Gap in All Jobs? 15

How Can I Make a Dierence? 17

What Should I Do I I Experience

Sex Discrimination at Work? 22

AAUW Resources 23

Notes 24


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Fw

I you take one simple truth rom this guide, I hope its this: Te pay gap isreal. Tis guide backs up this assertion with the latest evidence and presents

ideas or what we can do about it.

Te American Association o University Women (AAUW) has been on the

ront lines o the ght or pay equity since 1913. AAUW members were in

the Oval Oce when President John F. Kennedy signed the Equal Pay Acto 1963 into law, and 50 years later, we continue to lead the push or poli-

cies and legislation to encourage and enorce air pay in the workplace.

Pay equity is a priority or AAUW, and it will continue to be until women

everywhere earn a air days pay or a air days work. In January 2009, Presi-

dent Barack Obama signed the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act into law, thanks

to the hard work and leadership o AAUW, our members, and our coalitionpartners. Since then, AAUW has worked or the passage o the Paycheck

Fairness Act, which would give women additional and much-needed equal

pay protections. Te legislation ailed in procedural votes in the House and

Senate in summer 2012. Clearly, our work is not yet over.

Tis guide is designed to empower our members and other advocates with

the acts and resources they need to tell the simple truth about the pay gap.

Its real, its persistent, and its undermining the economic security o Ameri-

can women and their amilies. We hope you will join us in the ght.

Linda D. Hallman, CAE

AAUW Executive Director


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100%

90%

80%

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%

197

1

197

5

198

3

198

7

199

3

199

7

200

3

200

9

60%

77%

197

3

197

9

198

1

198

5

198

9

199

1

199

5

199

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200

1

200

5

2011

Did you know that in 2011, women working ull time in the United States

typically were paid just 77 percent o what men were paid, a gap o 23

percent? Te gap has narrowed since the 1970s (Figure 1), due largely to

womens progress in education and workorce participation and to mens

wages rising at a slower rate. Progress has stalled in recent years, and the pay

gap does not appear likely to go away on its own.

itct

Fg 1.Ws ma Aa eags as a pctag f ms ma

Aa eag f F-t, Ya- Wks, 197120111

Note: Includes people ages 15 and older beginning in 1980; for previous years, includes people ages 14 oldand older as of the following year. Before 1989, only civilian workers are included.


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Equal pay is not simply a womens issueits a amily issue. Families

increasingly rely on womens wages to make ends meet. In typical married

households, womens incomes accounted or 36 percent o total amilyincome in 2008, up rom 29 percent in 1983. A large majority o mothers

are in the paid labor orce, and about one-third o employed mothers are the

sole breadwinners or their amilies.2

For the 34 percent o working mothers who are their amilies sole bread-

winnereither because they are single parents or their spouses are not in

the labor orcethe gender pay gap can contribute to poor living condi-

tions, poor nutrition, and ewer opportunities or their children.3 For these

women, closing the gender pay gap is much more than a point o prideits

a matter o necessity.

Tis guide provides key acts about the gender pay gap in the United States,

along with explanations and resources. Inormation is organized around sixcommon questions:

1. What is the pay gap?

2. Is the pay gap really about womens lie choices?

3. How does the pay gap afect women o diferent demographics?

4. Is there a pay gap in all jobs?

5. What can I do to make a diference?

6. What should I do i I experience sex discrimination at work?

AAUW is condent that this inormation will help you to eectively and

condently advocate or pay equity or all workers in your community.


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Te pay gap is the dierence in mens and womens typical earnings, usu-ally reported as either the earnings ratio between men and women or as an

actual pay gap, as dened below. Te median value is the middle value, with

equal numbers o ull-time workers earning more and earning less.

Earnings ratio =Womens median earnings

Mens median earnings

Pay gap =[Mens median earnings Womens median earnings]

Mens median earnings

In 2011, median annualearnings in the United States or women and men

working ull time, year round were $37,118 and $48,202, respectively.

2011 earnings ratio =$37,118

= 77%

$48,202

2011 pay gap =[$48,202 - $37,118]

= 23%$48,202

Earnings can also be reported on a weekly basis. Te gender pay gap inweekly earnings tends to be slightly smaller than the pay gap in terms o

annual earnings. In 2012, the pay gap in median weekly earnings was 19

percent, according to the U.S. Department o Labor.

W t ata c f?Federal agencies such as the Census Bureau, the Department o Education,

and the Bureau o Labor Statistics conduct surveys o individuals, house-holds, and businesses to gather inormation about peoples salaries and other

earnings.

Wat is t pay Ga?


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Most reports on national workorce participation, pay, and pay dierences

depend on data rom the Current Population Survey (CPS) (www.census.gov/cps), the countrys primary source o labor orce statistics. Te CPS is a

monthly survey o about 50,000 households conducted by the U.S. Census

Bureau or the Bureau o Labor Statistics.

Te estimate o the pay gap usingweeklyearnings is based on the annual

average o median weekly earnings or the previous year, usually released

in January o each year by the Bureau o Labor Statistics (www.bls.gov/

cps). Te estimate o the pay gap usingannualearnings is based on the

CPS Annual Social and Economic Supplement data, which is published

each September by the Census Bureau and the Bureau o Labor Statistics.

In recent years, this data has been published in Income, Poverty, and Health

Insurance Coverage in the United States.4

Stat-v ataA pay gap can also be calculated or each state (Figure 2). Te American

Community Survey (ACS) (www.census.gov/acs) is oten used to make esti-

mates o the pay gap at the state level because it includes more households

than the CPS. Te Census Bureau began the ACS in 1996 as the successor

to the long orm o the decennial census. Te ACS results are released

annually in September, and bries based on the survey can be ound on thebureaus website.5 According to ACS data, in 2011 the pay gap was small-

est in Washington, D.C., where women were paid 90 percent o what men

were paid, and largest in Wyoming, where women were paid 67 percent o

what men were paid.


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Fg 2.Stat ma Aa eags a eags rat f F-t,

Ya- Wks, Ags 16 a o, by Stat a G, 20116

1Washington, D.C. $66,760 $60,332 90%

2Vermont $44,057 $38,177 87%

3 Maryland $56,708 $48,748 86%

4 Nevada $41,803 $35,484 85%

5California $49,281 $41,817 85%

6Rhode Island $48,842 $41,412 85%

7Arizona $42,544 $36,048 85%

8 New York $50,388 $42,113 84%

9Florida $40,951 $33,823 83%

10 Arkansas $37,488 $30,752 82%

11 Hawaii $45,494 $37,242 82%

12 Texas $43,160 $35,301 82%

13 Georgia $43,902 $35,438 81%

14 Delaware $50,411 $40,500 80%

15 Tennessee $41,309 $33,184 80%

16Minnesota $50,580 $40,416 80%

17 North Carolina $41,950 $33,459 80%

18 Nebraska $42,182 $33,424 79%

19 Colorado $50,987 $40,236 79%

20New Mexico $41,037 $32,316 79%

21Maine $43,944 $34,599 79%

22Kentucky $41,612 $32,684 79%

23Missouri $43,146 $33,865 78%

24 Oregon $45,976 $36,027 78%

25Connecticut $60,705 $47,476 78%

26New Jersey $60,568 $47,155 78%

m Weags

ratm W

eagsrat

27 South Dakota $40,285 $31,329 78%

28Wisconsin $46,214 $35,890 78%

29 Virginia $52,805 $40,969 78%

30 Alaska $52,379 $40,550 77%

31 Ohio $46,176 $35,746 77%

32Iowa $43,624 $33,745 77%

33 New Hampshire $53,033 $41,021 77%

34 Pennsylvania $47,956 $37,089 77%

35 Washington $53,046 $40,993 77%

36 Illinois $50,746 $39,150 77%

37Massachusetts $60,264 $46,185 77%

38Kansas $43,993 $33,269 76%

39 South Carolina $41,464 $31,330 76%

40 Oklahoma $41,420 $31,274 76%

41Indiana $45,183 $34,023 75%

42 Idaho $41,528 $31,238 75%

43Montana $41,635 $31,067 75%

44Alabama $42,951 $31,862 74%

45Michigan $50,053 $36,931 74%

46 Mississippi $40,202 $29,548 73%

47North Dakota $44,660 $32,462 73%

48 West Virginia $42,125 $29,688 70%

49 Utah $47,573 $32,843 69%

50Louisiana $46,313 $31,844 69%

51Wyoming $51,630 $34,381 67%

United States* $48,202 $37,118 77%

*National data include workers ages 15 and older and are based on data from the U.S. Census BureausCurrent Population Survey.


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Critics charge that pay dierences between men and women are simply a

matter o personal choices. AAUW addressed this argument in our 2012

report, Graduating to a Pay Gap: Te Earnings of Women and Men One Year

after College Graduation. Our analysis ound that just one year ater college

graduation, women were paid just 82 percent o what their male counter-

parts were paid.7

An earlier report, Behind the Pay Gap (AAUW, 2007),ound that 10 years ater graduation, the pay gap widened, and women

were paid only 69 percent o what men were paid.8

In part, these pay gaps do refect mens and womens choices, especially the

choice o college major and the type o job pursued ater graduation. For

example, women are more likely than men to go into teaching, and this

contributes to the pay gap because teachers tend to be paid less than other

college graduates. Tis portion o the pay gap is considered to be explained,

regardless o whether teachers wages are considered air.

Yet not all o the gap can be explained away. Ater accounting or college

major, occupation, economic sector, hours worked, months unemployed

since graduation, GPA, type o undergraduate institution, institutionselectivity, age, geographical region, and marital status, Graduating to a Pay

Gap ound that a7 percent diference in the earnings o male and emale

college graduates one year ater graduation was still unexplained.

Similarly, Behind the Pay Gap ound a12 percentunexplained dierence in

earnings among ull-time workers 10 years ater college graduation. Other

researchers have also ound that the gender pay gap is not ully accountedor by womens and mens choices.9, 10

is t pay Ga ray abtWs lf Ccs?


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Becoming a parent is an example o a choice that oten has dierent out-

comes or men and women. Behind the Pay Gap ound that 10 years ater

graduation, 23 percent o mothers in our sample were out o the workorce,and 17 percent worked part time. Among athers, only 1 percent were out

o the workorce, and only 2 percent worked part time.

Many stay-at-home and part-time working mothers will eventually decide

to return to the ull-time workorce, and when they do they may encoun-

ter a motherhood penalty that extends beyond the actual time out o the

workorce. Experimental research has documented that employers are less

likely to hire mothers compared with childless women, and when employ-

ers do make an oer to a mother, they oer her a lower salary than they

do other women. Fathers, in contrast, do not suer a penalty compared

with other men.11 Clearly, parenthood oten aects men and women very

dierently in terms o labor orce participation and how they are viewed by

employers, and that dierence may be refected in a workers salary.

Fran/www

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0

$200

$400

$600

$800

$1,000

$1,200

AsianAmerican

WhiteAfricanAmerican

Hispanic orLatina/o

Total

xx%= women's earnings as a percentage of men's earningsWomen Men

$691

$854

$521

$592 $599

$665

$710

$879

$770

$1,055

73%

81%

90%

88%

81%

Fg 3.ma Wky eags, by rac/etcty a G, 201212

Te pay gap aects women rom all backgrounds, at all ages, and o all levels

o educational achievement, although earnings and the gap vary depending

on a womans individual situation.

hw ds t pay Ga Affct

W f dfft dgacs?

Note: Based on median usual weekly earnings of full-time wage and salary workers, ages 16 and older, 2012annual averages


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rac/tctyAmong ull-time workers in 2012, Hispanic, Latina, and Arican American

women had lower median weekly earnings compared with white and AsianAmerican women. But within racial/ethnic groups, Arican American and

Hispanic or Latina women experienced a smaller gender pay gap compared

with men in the same group than did white and Asian American women

(Figure 3).

Using a single benchmark provides a more inormative picture. Because

white men are the largest demographic group in the labor orce, they are

oten used or that purpose.

Compared with the salary inormation or white male workers, Asian wom-

ens salaries show the smallest gender pay gap, at 88 percent o white mens

earnings. Te gap was largest or Hispanic and Latina women, who were

paid only 59 percent o what white men were paid in 2012 (Figure 4). Tesmaller gender pay gap among Arican Americans, Hispanics, and Latinos is

due solely to the act that Arican American, Hispanic, and Latino men were

paid substantially less than white men in 2012.

Womens earnings as a

percentage of mens earningswithin race/ethnicity

Womens earnings as apercentage of white

mens earnings

Hispanic or Latina 88% 59%

African American 90% 68%

White 81% 81%

Asian American 73% 88%

Note: Based on median usual weekly earnings of full-time wage and salary workers, 2012 annual averages

Fg 4.eags rat, by rac/etcty, 201213


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0

$200

$400

$600

$800

$1,000

65 yearsand older

5564 years4554 years3544 years2534 years2024 years1619 years

$328

$370

$438$470

$662

$717$734

$935

$744

$979

$749

$997

$664

$821

81%

75%76%79%

92%

93%

89%


Note: Based on median usual weekly earnings of full-time wage and salary workers, 2011 annual averages

Fg 5.ma Wky eags, by Ag a G, 201114

AgEarnings or both emale and male ull-time workers tend to increase with

age, with a plateau ater 45 and a drop ater age 65. Te gender pay gap alsogrows with age, and dierences among older workers are considerably larger

than gaps among younger workers.

In 2011, or ull-time workers ages 2024, women were paid 93 percent

o what men were paid on a weekly basis. Among workers 5564 years

old, women were paid only 75 percent o what their male peers were paid.

Women typically are paid about 90 percent o what men are paid until

around the age o 35, at which point median earnings or women start to

grow much more slowly than median earnings or men. From around age


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$388

$543

$677

$909

$1,127

$1,362 $1,352

$486

$710

$886

$1,188

$1,488

$1,881

$1,686

$0

$200

$400

$600

$800

$1,000

$1,200

$1,400

$1,600

$1,800

$2,000

Less than highschool diploma

High schoolgraduate

Associatedegree

Bachelor'sdegree

Master'sdegree

Professionaldegree

Doctoraldegree

80%

76%

76%

77%

76%

72%

80%


Note: Based on median usual weekly earnings of full-time wage and salary workers, ages 25 and older, 2010

annual averages

Fg 6.ma Wky eags, by lv f ecat a G, 201015

35 through retirement, women are typically paid about 75 to 80 percent o

what men are paid (Figure 5).

ecatAs a rule, earnings increase as years o education increase or both men and

women. While more education is an eective tool or increasing earnings, it

is not an eective tool against the gender pay gap. At every level o academic

achievement, womens median earnings are less than mens median earnings,

and in some cases, the gender pay gap is larger at higher levels o education

(Figure 6).


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$0

$200

$400

$600

$800

$1,000

$1,200

Hispanic womenAfrican American womenWhite women

Advanced degreeBachelor's degreeSome college or associate degree

High school graduates, no collegeLess than a high school diploma

$389

$581

$678

$939

$1,164

$377

$499

$595

$389

$846

$997

$369

$501

$611

$818

$1,093

Education improves earnings or women o all races and ethnicities, but

earnings are aected by race and ethnicity as well as gender. White women

are paid more than Arican American and Hispanic women at all educationlevels (Figure 7).

Research suggests that dierences in education and other measurable actors

explain part o the dierence in earnings between racial and ethnic groups.

However, as is the case with gender, part o the racial/ethnic pay gap cannot

be explained by actors known to aect earnings and is likely due, at least in

part, to discrimination.16

Fg 7.ma Wky eags f W, by rac/etcty a lv f

ecat, 201217

Note: Based on median usual weekly earnings of full-time wage and salary workers, ages 25 and older, 2012annual averages


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In nearly every line o work, women ace a pay gap. Among the manyoccupations or which the Bureau o Labor Statistics collects data that

allow or valid comparison, womens earnings are higher than mens in

only a handul.18

While a pay gap exists in nearly every occupational eld, jobs traditionally

associated with men tend to pay better than traditionally emale jobs or thesame level o skill required. And even in 2013, women and men still tend to

work in dierent kinds o jobs. Tis segregation o occupations is a major

actor behind the pay gap.19, 20

In 2011, the U.S. civilian workorce included approximately 140 million

ull- and part-time employed workers; 53 percent were men, and 47 percent

were women.21 Just over 40 percent o working women were employed intraditionally emale occupations such as social work, nursing, and teaching.

In contrast, ewer than 5 percent o men worked in these jobs. Forty-our

percent o working men were in traditionally male occupations, such as

computer programming, aerospace engineering, and reghting, compared

with just under 6 percent o women in those jobs.22 Women are more likely

to work in proessional, oce and administrative support, sales, and service

occupations, and men are more likely to work in construction, maintenance

and repair, and production and transportation occupations.

Although men and women still tend to work in dierent jobs, occupational

gender segregation has decreased over the last 40 years. Te reduction in

gender segregation is largely due to women moving into previously predom-

inantly male jobs, especially during the 1970s and 1980s,23

and to astergrowth o more mixed-gender occupations in the 1990s.24

is T a pay Ga A Jbs?


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0 $500 $1,000 $1,500 $2,000 $2,500

Counselors

Editors

Secondaryschool teachers

Financialmanagers

Medical scientists

Registered nurses

Computerprogrammers

Lawyers

Pharmacists


103%

90%

93%

70%

80%

91%

84%

80%

100%

Fg 8.T G pay Ga ma Wky eags ag F-t Wks,

Sct occats, 2012 25

Increasing the number o women in traditionally male elds is likely to

improve wages or women, but it is unlikely to ully eliminate the pay gap.

Women in male jobs such as computer programming still ace a pay gapcompared with their male counterparts (Figure 8), even though they may

be paid higher salaries than women in traditionally emale elds. It will take

more than individual women pursuing careers in male elds to ensure air

pay or all.


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hw Ca i mak a dffc?

Te gender pay gap is unlikely to go away on its own, but there are manythings that we can do in our workplaces and in our communities to make

a dierence. Here are some steps that employers, individuals, and govern-

ments can take to ensure air pay.

ivas

Many personal decisions have proound implications or our economicsecurity. Pursuing a college education has long been viewed as an impor-

tant step toward ensuring a middle-class liestyle. But not all college majors

will provide an equal oundation or a secure nancial uture. In addition,

the kinds o jobs pursued early in a career set the stage or an entire career

o earnings. Because benets and subsequent raises are generally based on

initial wages, a lower starting salary could mean a lietime o lower compen-

sation and smaller retirement benets. Decisions about marriage, children,and caregiving also play critical roles in womens economic security.

Developing negotiation skills can help workers to be paid airly. Because

most employers have some latitude when it comes to salaries, negotiating

can pay o. But negotiation skills are especially tricky or women because

some behaviors, like sel-promotion, that work or men may backre on

women.26, 27 Knowing what your skills are worth, making clear what you

bring to the table, emphasizing common goals, and maintaining a positive

attitude are some negotiation tactics that have been shown to be eective or

women.28 AAUW, in collaboration with the Wage Project, oers $tart $mart

salary negotiation workshops on college campuses to train women how to

negotiate beore they enter the job market.


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Beyond their personal lives, individuals can also take steps to infuence

employers and governments. Tere are more ways to make your voice heard

than ever beoreletters to your legislators and local papers, blogs, andtweets are just a ew examples. Joining an organization like AAUW can

make all these activities a little easier, especially i you use our Programs in

a Box and other resources and connect with our ready-made network o

activists.

eysCompanies should know by now that paying workers airly is necessary or

legal and ethical reasons. But not every employer has taken this lesson to

heart. Companies like Home Depot, Novartis, and Smith Barney have paid

hundreds o millions o dollars to settle cases o gender pay discrimination

brought by women employees under the Equal Pay Act and itle VII o

the Civil Rights Act. Wal-Mart recently spent billions o dollars deending

what would have been the largest class-action lawsuit in history, brought bywomen employees alleging systemic pay and promotion discrimination.

Indeed, air pay can be good or the bottom line. Believing that an employer

is air improves workers morale,29, 30 and employees are less likely to be

absent when they perceive that their employer is air. Work perormance

has also been linked to the perception o organizational justice.31 In other

words, a worker who believes that she or he is paid airly is more likely to

contribute her or his best eort to the job.

As U.S. Supreme Court Justice Louis Brandeis once noted, Sunshine is

the best disinectant. ransparency in compensation is one example o

a policy that can make a dierence. A recent survey by the Institute or

Womens Policy Research (IWPR) ound that about hal o employees said

they worked in a setting where discussions o wages and salaries are either

ormally prohibited or discouraged by managers.32 According to IWPR, pay


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secrecy is much more common in the private sector, where 61 percent o

employees are either discouraged or prohibited rom discussing wage and

salary inormation. In contrast, only 14 percent o public-sector employeesreported that pay discussions were either discouraged or prohibited. Tis

higher degree o transparency in the public sector may be related to the

greater gender pay equity ound in the ederal government. Federal workers

can easily see how their salaries compare with others at their grade level and

geographical location because the U.S. Oce o Personnel Management

makes public the salary and wage range or each level o ederal worker and

additional locality pay or areas where the cost o living is higher.33 A 2009

report ound that, among ederal workers, women were paid 89 percent

o what men were paid, compared with 78 percent in the workorce as

a whole.34

DanaFradon/Th

eNewYorkerCollection/www.cartoonbank.com


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Employers can also use audits to monitor and address gender pay dier-

ences. Te state o Minnesota requires public-sector employers to conduct

a pay equity study every ew years and eliminate pay disparities betweenemale-dominated and male-dominated jobs that require comparable levels

o expertise. Employers use a job evaluation tool to compare jobs on dimen-

sions such as the complexity o issues encountered, the depth and breadth

o knowledge needed, the nature o interpersonal contacts required, and the

physical working conditions. Tis allows employers to identiy jobsor

example, delivery van drivers and clerk typiststhat, despite being di-

erent, require similar levels o knowledge and responsibility. An analysis

is then done to compare wages or predominantly emale jobs with those

o predominantly male jobs o comparable skill levels. I the results o the

study show that women are consistently paid less than men or jobs requir-

ing similar levels o knowledge and responsibility, the employer makes the

necessary salary increases. For more inormation on the audits, visit Minne-

sotas pay equity web page.35

GvtIn 1963, Congress passed the Equal Pay Act, which requires employers

to give men and women employees equal pay or equal work. One year

later, in 1964, the Civil Rights Act was passed. itle VII o that act bars all

discrimination in employment, including discrimination in hiring, ring,

promotion, and wages on the basis o race, color, religion, sex, or nationalorigin.

Yet these legal protections have not ensured equal pay or women and men.

Te rst piece o legislation signed into law by President Barack Obama,

the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act o 2009, provides some additional protec-


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tion against discrimination. Te law claries that pay discrimination occurs

when a pay decision is made, when an employee is subject to that decision,

or at any time an employee is injured by it; employees have 180 days romany o those instances to le a claim.36

Tis is an essential law, but it is by no means sucient. Additional legisla-

tion is needed to provide more eective equal pay protections. During

each session o Congress since the Equal Pay Act was passed, bills designed

to update it have been introduced and sometimes voted on. In 2009, the

House o Representatives passed the Paycheck Fairness Act, a comprehensive

bill aimed at updating the Equal Pay Act by closing loopholes, strengthen-

ing incentives to prevent pay discrimination, and prohibiting retaliation

against workers who inquire about employers wage practices or disclose

their own wages. But despite widespread backing rom the American public,

the strong leadership o AAUW, and the diligent eorts o our members and

coalition partnersas well as the support o a majority o senators and theWhite Housethe Senate deeated the Paycheck Fairness Act in November

2010 in a procedural vote (58-41). AAUW lobbied hard or the Paycheck

Fairness Act during all 2010 and again in summer 2012, ater the act was

reintroduced. Unortunately, the Paycheck Fairness Act ailed in procedural

votes in summer 2012, this time in both the Senate and the House. AAUW

urges Congress to support this legislation.

AAUW continues to advocate or strong pay equity legislation, regulation,

and enorcement to protect employees and assist employers. AAUW also

educates the public about this persistent problem and its eect on working

amilies. Tese eorts are critical elements as we work to close the gender

pay gap.


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Wat S i d if i exc

Sx dscat at Wk?

1. pt t wtg.Always put everything in writing so you have a record

and a timeline.

2. d y wk. For more inormation on your rights, call the

U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) hotline at

800.669.4000.

3. Sk . alk with your supervisor or human resources representative

at work to learn about the grievance procedure.

4. Av s s. While the desire to talk about your case is under-

standable, the threat o countersuits or deamation is real.

5. Gt ga avc. alk to a lawyer who has specic experience with sexdiscrimination in the workplace. For a reerral in your state, e-mail the

AAUW Legal Advocacy Fund at [email protected].

6. Act qcky. Tere is a statute o limitations on ling complaints with

the EEOC.

7. Watc y cks a s. alk to a lawyer or an accountant

about the nancial burdens o a lawsuit.

8. Vst y ctys, y ct.You may experience a physical

and emotional toll that should be addressed and documented.

9. pa f t g a. Filing a discrimination lawsuit is a long

process, but others have succeeded in ghting discrimination, and you

can too.

10. F a st twk.AAUW branches can help support you. Find

a branch near you at www.aauw.org.


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Visit AAUWs pay equity resource page on the AAUW website at www.aauw.org/issues/economic-justice or current inormation on the status

o legislation, ederal policies, and action that you can take to narrow the

pay gap.

Join AAUWs Action Network to keep up with equal pay advocacy and

receive notices to tell your legislators what you think: capwiz.com/aauw/

home. Visit the LAF online resource library to learn more about pay equity and

what you can do i you believe youre being paid unairly: www.aauw.org/

what-we-do/legal-resources.

Get ideas or programming and advocacy with the AAUW Pay Equity

Resource Kit: www.aauw.org/resource/pay-equity-resource-kit.

Visit AAUWs $tart $mart salary negotiation page on the AAUW web-site at www.aauw.org/what-we-do/campus-programs/start-smart-salary-

negotiation-workshop or the Wage Project website at www.wageproject.

org to nd out how to attend a salary negotiation workshop.

Read more about the pay gap at www.aauw.org/what-we-do/research.

Join AAUW and help ensure pay equity or all: www.aauw.org/join.

AAuW rscs


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nts

1. Source: DeNavas-Walt, Carmen, Bernadette D. Proctor, and Jessica C. Smith. (2012).U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Reports. Income, Poverty, and Health InsuranceCoverage in the United States: 2011. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Oce.

2. U.S. Senate Joint Economic Committee. (2010) Invest in Women, Invest in America: AComprehensive Review of Women in the U.S. Economy. A Report by the Majority Sta othe Joint Economic Committee, Representative Carolyn B. Maloney, Chair. jec.senate.gov/public/index.cm?p=Reports1.

3. Ibid.

4. DeNavas-Walt, Carmen, Bernadette D. Proctor, and Jessica C. Smith. (2012). U.S. Cen-

sus Bureau, Current Population Reports. Income, Poverty, and Health Insurance Coveragein the United States: 2011. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Oce.5. www.census.gov/acs/www/data_documentation.

6. Sources: State data: U.S. Census Bureau, 2011 American Community Survey. Nationaldata: DeNavas-Walt, Carmen, Bernadette D. Proctor, and Jessica C. Smith. (2012). U.S.Census Bureau, Current Population Reports. Income, Poverty, and Health Insurance Cover-age in the United States: 2011. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Oce.

7. Corbett, Christianne, and Catherine Hill. (2012). Graduating to a Pay Gap: Te Earningsof Women and Men One Year after College Graduation. Washington, DC: AAUW.

8. Dey, Judy Goldberg, and Catherine Hill. (2007). Behind the Pay Gap. Washington, DC:AAUW Educational Foundation.

9. Blau, Francine D., and Lawrence M. Kahn. (2006). Te U.S. gender pay gap in the1990s: Slowing convergence. Industrial and Labor Relations Review60 (1): 4565.

10. Jagsi, R., K. A. Grith, A. Stewart , D. Sambuco, R. DeCastro, and P. A. Ubel. (2012).Gender dierences in the salaries o physician researchers.Journal of the American Medical

Association 307 (22): 2410-17.11. Correll, Shelley J., and Stephen Benard. (2007). Getting a job: Is there a motherhood

penalty?American Journal of Sociology112 (5): 12971338.12. Source: Current Population Survey, reported in U.S. Department o Labor, U.S. Bureau

o Labor Statistics (January 18, 2013). Usual Weekly Earnings Summary Economic NewsRelease, USDL-13-0060. www.bls.gov/news.release/wkyeng.nr0.htm.

13. Ibid.

14. Source: Current Population Survey, reported in U.S. Department o Labor, U.S. Bureauo Labor Statistics. (October 2012). Highlights of Womens Earnings in 2011. able 1.

www.bls.gov/cps/cpswom2011.pd.

15. Source: Current Population Survey, reported in U.S. Department o Labor, U.S. Bureauo Labor Statistics. (December 2011).Women in the Labor Force: A Databook(2011 Edi-tion). www.bls.gov/cps/wl-databook2011.htm.

16. omaskovicDevey, Donald, Melvin Tomas, and Kecia Johnson. (2005). Race and theAccumulation o Human Capital across the Career: A Teoretical Model and FixedEects Application.American Journal of Sociology111 (1): 58-89.

17. Source: Current Population Survey, reported in U.S. Department o Labor, U.S. Bureauo Labor Statistics (January 18, 2013). Usual Weekly Earnings Summary Economic NewsRelease, USDL-13-0060, able 9. www.bls.gov/news.release/wkyeng.nr0.htm.


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18. U.S. Department o Labor, U.S. Bureau o Labor Statistics. Current Population Surveyannual average data tables. able 39. www.bls.gov/cps/cpsaat39.pd.

19. Reskin, Barbara F., and Denise D. Bielby. (2005). A sociological perspective on gender

and career outcomes.Journal of Economic Perspectives19 (1): 7186.20. Institute or Womens Policy Research. (September 2010). Separate and not equal?

Gender segregation in the labor market and the gender wage gap. IWPR Brieng Papers.www.iwpr.org/publications/all-2010/separate-and-not-equal-gender-segregation-in-the-labor-market-and-the-gender-wage-gap.

21. U.S. Department o Labor, U.S. Bureau o Labor Statistics. Current Population Surveyannual average data tables. ables 1 and 2. www.bls.gov/cps/tables.htm.

22. Institute or Womens Policy Research. (April 2011). Te gender wage gap by occupation.IWPR Fact Sheet. www.iwpr.org/publications/pubs/the-gender-wage-gap-by-occupation-updated-april-2011.

23. Blau, Francine D., Marianne A. Ferber, and Anne E. Winkler. (2006). Dierences inoccupations and earnings: Overview. Te Economics of Women, Men and Work, 5th edi-tion. Englewood Clis, NJ: Prentice Hall.

24. Institute or Womens Policy Research. (September 2010). Separate and not equal?Gender segregation in the labor market and the gender wage gap. IWPR Brieng Papers.

www.iwpr.org/publications/all-2010/separate-and-not-equal-gender-segregation-in-the-labor-market-and-the-gender-wage-gap.

25. Source: U.S. Department o Labor, U.S. Bureau o Labor Statistics. Current PopulationSurvey annual average data tables. able 39. www.bls.gov/cps/cpsaat39.pd.

26. Carter, Nancy M., and Christine Silva. (2011). Te myth o the ideal worker: Does doingall the right things really get women ahead? Catalyst. www.catalyst.org/publication/509/the-myth-o-the-ideal-worker-does-doing-all-the-right-things-really-get-women-ahead.

27. Reskin, Barbara F., and Denise D. Bielby. (2005). A sociological perspective on genderand career outcomes.Journal of Economic Perspectives19 (1): 7186.

28. Babcock, Linda, and Sara Laschever. (2008).Ask For It: How Women Can Use the Power ofNegotiation to Get What Tey Really Want. New York: Bantam Dell.

29. Cohen-Charash, Y., and P. E. Spector. (2001). Te role o justice in organizations: Ameta-analysis. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes86, 278321.

30. Kim, H. (2009). Integrating organizational justice into the relationship managementtheory. www.allacademic.com.

31. Colquitt, J. A., D. E. Conlon, M. J. Wesson, C. O. Porter, and K. Y. Ng. (2001). Justiceat the millennium: A meta-analytic review o 25 years o organizational justice research.

Journal of Applied Psychology86, 42545.32. Institute or Womens Policy Research. (June 2011). Pay secrecy and wage discrimination.

IWPR Fact Sheet. www.iwpr.org/publications/pubs/pay-secrecy-and-wage-discrimination.

33. www.opm.gov/oca/12tables/indexGS.asp.

34. www.gao.gov/new.items/d09279.pd.

35. www.mmb.state.mn.us/comp-pay-equity.36. Te law came in response to Ledbetter v. Goodyear ire & Rubber, which overturned 40years o EEOC policies and precedents on statutes o limitations in discrimination cases.


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