Structure in Functional Text

The structure of a functional document can be analysed from three different points of view: the presentation of information content, the development of argument, and the grammatical and stylistic cohesion of the text. To be effective, a document must be well structured in all three ways. This paper explores the relationships between the three types of structure, and suggests ways in which the writer can make the three types mutually reinforce each other. The resulting documentation will rate highly in ease of retrieval, ease of comprehension, and ease of use.

What is Structure?

A structure is a construct, or combination of components, formed according to consistent and observable principles. Structure - the property possessed by structures - is principled, or systematic, organisation.

The idea of a combination of components is fundamental to language. We combine words into phrases, phrases into clauses, clauses into sentences, sentences into paragraphs, paragraphs into chapters, chapters into books. Structure, then, implies that we start with smaller bits and end up with bigger bits (see Figure 1).

Figure 1: Structure in Language

Principles — and the rules of grammar are just a rigorous form of principle — determine how these combinations are made. A random collection of words, like "rhubarb manual decided", has no governing principle and is therefore not structured.

Principles must be consistent (within reasonable limits): we must be able to distinguish between the effects of principle and those of chance.

Principles must be observable (and observably consistent): we must be able to see them at work, rather than merely predicting their effects.

For our purposes, concerned as we are with functional texts, structure can be found at three different levels. We can find principles at work in the way sentences combine to form text, in the way information items combine to represent reality, and in the way propositions combine to form an explanation or argument. We can’t completely isolate these three aspects, because they do not correspond to completely separate features of language; in particular, the reader has to deal with all three concurrently. We can, though, isolate and examine the underlying principles.

Aspects of Structure

It makes sense to look at language-based structure in terms of semantics, or information content (meaning); rhetoric, or argument; and cohesion, or textual unity. We’ll look at each in some detail.

Semantic Structures

The fundamental semantic structure can be usefully described as topic/comment, though the particular tradition I work in prefers the terminology theme/rheme for sentence structure. In fact, the two are not identical; but they are close enough for our purposes, and I shall use both pairs of terms interchangeably. In a simple declarative sentence, the theme corresponds to the subject, and the rheme to the predicate. In a conventional paragraph, the theme corresponds to the topic sentence, and the rheme to the remainder. The theme or topic is what comes first: it is "what we are talking about". The rheme or comment follows: it is "what we are saying about the theme or topic".

Thematic Links

It is a general principle of clear writing that we should introduce new material by associating it with old material. We put old (or given) information in the theme, and make our new information the rheme. Once we have introduced that new information, it becomes old, so we can then use it (or something derived from it) in theme position to introduce further new material. Like this:

(1) The power switch is located at the top right-hand comer of the front panel.

(2) It is marked with two symbols: 0 and 1.

(3a) Push the switch towards 1 to turn power on. Push it towards 0 to turn power off.

(3b) To turn power on, push the switch towards 1. To turn power off, push the switch towards 0.

It is interesting to see how the thematic links are developed differently in 3a and 3b, as illustrated in Figure 2. These examples show clearly how "new" information, once presented, becomes "old" — and thus available for reuse. These examples also show how the "new" slot can be used to reprocess old information, presenting it in a new light. You might care to decide whether you prefer 3a or 3b; the nature of the thematic links might then help to account for your choice.

Figure 2: Variations in thematic linkage

The Outline as a Semantic Structure

The effect of thematic links within a paragraph is that the theme of every sentence in the paragraph should be (directly or indirectly) derived from the topic sentence (see Figure 3). But where does the topic sentence itself come from?

Figure 3: Thematic Links in the Paragraph

The next larger unit of text — the construct which is a combination of components called paragraphs — may be a subsection, a section, or a chapter. For simplicity, let’s call it a section. Every section should begin with what amounts to a topic paragraph — one that sets out the scope or purpose of the section. The topic sentence of each paragraph should then be derived (directly or indirectly) from the topic paragraph.

Of course, the sections combine into a larger unit called a chapter, and the chapter must have its topic section. In practice, the topic section may not be separately labelled, and it may consist of only a single paragraph; but it will certainly precede the first "real", information-bearing section.

This leads inevitably to the question: where does the chapter get its topic section from? The answer will vary in detail, but will be consistent in principle: the topic section will derive from something central to the whole book. That "something central" may be expressed in a preface, an introduction, or simply the book’s title.

Now the book’s title can be thought of as a label given to the entire text. In the previous paragraph, I referred to sections as being "separately labelled". At that point, of course, I was thinking of headings (whether numbered or not). A label — a heading or title — can be thought of as a condensed statement of the topic of whatever textual unit we are talking about. If you look carefully at the table of contents of a well-organised book, you will see that it reflects the thematic links between the book as a whole, each chapter of the book, and each section of each chapter. If each heading had been written out "in full", as the topic of the relevant unit, we would be able to trace the links quite easily. Such a table of contents would be rather unwieldy, so we don’t do it (though eighteenth-century novelists often did), but we use the condensed headings as a summary representation of the overall semantic structure.

Once we have defined the topic of each section, we can then relate each paragraph’s topic sentence to that section topic. The complete outline, down to the level of individual paragraphs, can — should — display thematic unity. See Figure 4 for the complete semantic structure of a tightly-organised book.

Figure 4: Semantic Structure of a Book

Rhetorical Structures

In present-day Australia, "rhetoric" is something of a dirty word: we generally interpret it as "the trick of taking the audience for a ride". In classical Greece, however, it was "the art of constructing an argument". To the Greeks it was an important skill, and medieval scholars regarded it as one of the "liberal arts". In modern America, the word retains its original meaning, and the subject is taught in schools and universities. The fact that rhetoric is in bad odour in this country is our loss.

The fundamental principle of rhetoric is the development of a coherent line, or "thread", of argument. The rhetorician starts with a set of principles — which may be subjective or axiomatic, explicitly stated or tacitly assumed — and develops logical consequences which lead inexorably to the required conclusion. In technical discourse, we are not concerned with persuasion (though some forms of functional text are), but we are concerned with logical consequences. We are concerned with developing not a persuasive argument, but an informative argument, or

explanation: we are concerned with building a coherent picture in the reader’s mind. Clearly, thematic links contribute to that coherence in one sense, but they do not necessarily reveal logical relationships. That is the task of rhetoric.

Logical Links

There are six kinds of logical link between items of information: Additive, Alternative, Adversative, Causal, Circumstantial, and Equivalent. They work like this:

If two items are independently true, but have a cumulative effect, they are in an additive relationship.

There are 1000 millimetres in a metre.

There are 1000 metres in a kilometre.

If only one of a number of items is true or applicable, they are in an alternative relationship.

You can install this software from a diskette.

You can install this software from a CD-ROM.

If two items are true, but there is (or appears to be) a contrast or conflict between them, they are in an adversative (sometimes called contrastive) relationship.

The standard editorial reference for Australian writers is the AGPS style Manual.

Writers aiming at international markets should refer to the Chicago Manual of Style.

If one item causes or is caused by the other, they are in a causal relationship.

[Brand X] photograph paper is insensitive to light in the wavelength range [nnn] - [ppp] Angstrom.

It should be handled only under the [brand Y] [model Z] safelight.

If one item simply gives more detailed information about the other, they are in a circumstantial relationship. Typical circumstantial relationships are spatial and chronological.

The power switch is at the top right-hand comer of the front panel.

Immediately to the left of the switch, there is a power warning light.

If one item is essentially a clarification of the other, they are in an equivalent relationship. Typical equivalent relationships are illustration and restatement.

Australian taxpayers are required to complete an annual tax return.

They must tell the Tax Office about their income and deductible expenses.

It is usually difficult to avoid expressing circumstantial relationships (though the expression may be unclear), but it can be quite easy to avoid expressing other kinds of relationship. The temptation must always be resisted: all logical relationships must be clearly expressed.

The expression of logical relationships can usually be done in any of three ways: using coordinating conjunctions, subordinating conjunctions, or connective adverbs. The following example of an adversative relationship illustrates all three:

Coordinating conjunction:

The 13cm disk is larger, but the 8cm disk has a greater capacity.

Subordinating conjunction:

The 13cm disk is larger, although the 8cm disk has a greater capacity.

Connective adverb:

The 13cm disk is larger. However, the 8cm disk has a greater capacity.

In the first two (conjunction) cases, there is only one sentence. We can generally regard the part before the conjunction as the topic, and the part after the conjunction as the comment. In the third case, things get rather more complicated. To begin with, of course, we have two sentences. In the first sentence, The 13cm disk is the theme and is larger is the rheme. In the second sentence, as it stands, However is the theme and the 8cm disk has a greater capacity is the rheme. More interestingly, we have some options — four options, in fact — about where we put however. Each of the four has different implications for theme and emphasis:

Sentence initial — However, the 8cm disk has greater capacity —makes however thematic, and puts the emphasis (the "end weight") on the greater capacity.

After the subject — The 8cm disk, however, has greater capacity — makes the 8cm disk thematic, and again puts the end weight on the greater capacity.

After the verb — The 8cm disk has, however, greater capacity — has the same thematic and end-weighting arrangement as the second example, but shifts the tonic stress from 8cm to has.

Sentence final — The 8cm disk has greater capacity, however — retains the 8cm disk in theme position, but puts the end weight on however — on the logical relationship.

No doubt each would be appropriate in one situation or another (though the second has the special merit of parallelism, and there are grounds for regarding the third option as merely a stylistic variant). The important point is that awareness of the thematic and weighting effects enables us to make a principled, rather than random, choice.

Transitions as Logical Relationships

It can be seen that, in most cases, the links between one sentence and another have both a thematic aspect and a logical aspect. The link may be indirect, by way of a "common ancestor" or an intermediate node.

The same thing can be said of paragraphs: they, too, are related both thematically and logically. We have already discussed thematic links, but what about logical links?

In most cases, we write an explicit link, called a "transition sentence", to take us from one paragraph to the next. The exceptions are where the two paragraphs are a significant distance apart in the hierarchical structure of the text — in which case, a high-level heading will intervene. A high-level heading serves as a visual indication to "rule off" one line of argument, and signals the start of another line. If we don’t have such a visual indication, we have consecutive paragraphs that are in some way members of the same line of argument, and we use the transition sentence to show that shared membership.

Picturing our text as a tree structure, as in Figure 5, we can see that thematic links tie paragraphs together by their tops. But paragraphs on the printed page do not form a tree structure: they form a linear arrangement of text. Read in their printed order, they are arranged head-to-tail. The function of the transition sentence is to tie the tail of one paragraph to the head of the next. This function is shown in Figure 6.

Figure 5: Head-to-head Thematic Links

Figure 6: Tail-to-head Transition Links

In most cases, two consecutive paragraphs are related in one of the following ways:

The second paragraph reinforces the first, by presenting more information with the same general import.

The second paragraph offers an alternative to the first, by presenting other information that is only "true" if the first is "false".

The second paragraph restricts the scope or effect of the first, by presenting information about limits or special conditions.

The second paragraph explains the cause or consequences of the first.

The second paragraph provides more details about some aspect of the first.

The second paragraph restates or illustrates the first.

These are, of course, the same logical relationships as we have seen before: additive, alternative, adversative, causal, circumstantial, and identity. The ideal transition sentence is one that makes the logical relationship clear — one that says something like "there’s more to come", "there's another way", "it’s not quite that simple", "this is not accidental", "this has effects you need to know about", "let’s look at this in more detail", or "here's another way to look at it".

Cohesive Structures

So far, we have seen how the information content and logical development of a text are governed by principles of combination. But, of course, we don’t read information or explanation: we read words. Information content and logical development are interpretations the reader places on the text. If the text is disjointed at the level of words, phrases, and sentences, then the carefully-constructed semantic and rhetorical structures simply won’t be apparent.

A great deal of work has been put into understanding textual cohesion. There is wide agreement about the key factors: text possesses cohesion partly because of internal links ("cohesive ties"), and partly because of external correspondences. Both are important in functional or technical text.

Endophoric & Exophoric Links

Perhaps for the sake of dressing the subject in robes of authority, some imposing Greek-derived words have been coined for cohesive aspects of text. Internal links are called endophoric; external links are called exophoric. To complicate matters further, internal links (endophora) may be anaphoric or cataphoric. So much for the words: what do they mean?

An anaphoric link is the use of a "determinative" — a pronoun, demonstrative, or article — to refer to something previously mentioned. In the sentence pair

There are two kinds of diskette.

They differ in size and capacity.

they in the second sentence is anaphoric to two kinds of diskette.

A cataphoric link is the use of a determinative to refer forward, to foreshadow something about to be mentioned. In the sentence pair

Here is the next step.

Take the long screws and insert them in the holes near the corners of the uprights.

here in the first sentence is cataphoric to the whole of the second sentence. In the first case, two kinds of diskette is exophoric; in the second case, the long screws, the holes, the comers, and the uprights are all exophoric.

Reality as Referent

Endophoric links can be connected to form cohesive chains. These chains have a vital characteristic: somewhere, one link in the chain must be exophoric. That is, no matter how often we refer to "it", "that", "they", and so on, we must ultimately find a reference to something outside the text — "two kinds of diskette", "the holes in the corners", or whatever. In general, "outside the text" may mean "something in the writer’s imaginary world"; in a functional text, of course, we must end up with something "real" — though it does not have to be concrete: we might be referring to a theory, a principle, or a process.

Cohesive structure, then, is the combination of cohesive ties into cohesive chains which are anchored in reality. How can we analyse or control such a structure? What significant properties does it have?

The two limiting properties of cohesive chains are length and number. The reader must keep track of every current chain, always bearing in mind its real referent. This task is made far more difficult if the chains are allowed to grow too long, or if there are too many concurrent chains. The key to keeping chains short is to keep bringing in exophoric references: these can be combined with endophoric references in the form of "reminders" ("these screws", "this process"), or they can be simple exophora ("the long screws", "the polymerisation process"). The key to reducing the number of concurrent chains is to focus on one thing at a time; where multiple concurrent chains cannot be avoided, they can at least be kept tangle-free by using parallel grammatical structures.

One final point about exophoric references: it’s important to be consistent with terminology. Using different terms for the same thing can mislead the reader into thinking that a new or different chain has been introduced. That is not to say that the reader is conscious of the chains, but that the structure does affect the reader’s processing of the text.

Effects of Structure

We have now identified at least the fundamental characteristics of the three aspects of structure: semantics, rhetoric, and textual cohesion. Before moving on, let’s consider the effects of good and bad structure in each of those aspects.

Semantic Effects

A strong semantic structure ensures that each new item of information fits readily into a coherent framework; that each new item becomes part of the framework, so that the whole information structure grows in a rational and orderly way.

A weak semantic structure can leave a new item of information floating, unless and until a passing hook happens to catch it; new items do not always or immediately form part of the framework, so the information structure grows by an untidy process of accretion. Poor semantic structure leaves the reader asking "Where does this fit?"

Rhetorical Effects

A strong rhetorical structure ensures that each new item of information is justified; that it is there for a reason, so that the reader is led by the hand through an inevitable series of steps.

A weak rhetorical structure can leave a new item of information to sink out of sight, unless by chance it falls into a net meant for some other purpose; new items of information are not always given a role to play in the development of the story, so the reader is distracted into irrelevancies. Poor rhetorical structure leaves the reader asking "Why are you telling me this?"

Cohesive Effects

A strong cohesive structure ensures that each item of information is identifiable; that it has a past and a future, so that its place in the unfolding text is always clear.

A weak cohesive structure can leave an item of information to be swamped, with little chance of being separated from other items; textual references are often confused, so the reader must work at untangling knots. Poor cohesive structure leaves the reader asking "What is going on?"

Structural Integration

There we have our three kinds of structure. But I said earlier that they are not totally independent, so the question arises: how are the three kinds related? Are there conflicts between them, so that we must lose strength in one respect in order to gain strength in another? Or are there consistencies between them, so that we can achieve heightened structure in all respects at once?

Fortunately, the answer is "yes" to consistencies, "not really" to conflicts. There are cases when what looks like a compromise is called for, but closer examination reveals that it’s not a compromise at all. To take a simple example, we often have to choose between putting a connective

adverb in sentence-initial (thematic) position, or putting it somewhere else so that the subject is thematic. This looks like a minor conflict between semantic and rhetorical structure. In fact, though, it’s simply an overlap: if we have foreshadowed the logical relationship, we can make either the adverb or the subject thematic; if we haven’t foreshadowed the logical relationship, we should make the subject thematic.

But this absence of real conflict does not, itself, mean that the three kinds of structure are consistent: perhaps they are just different — not really related at all. It is certainly true that there are fundamental differences in the nature of the three kinds of structure, as shown in Figure 7: semantic structure is vertically hierarchical (based on larger units containing smaller units), rhetorical structure is horizontally hierarchical (based on earlier units controlling later units), and cohesive structure is linear (based on the identification of later units with earlier units). Does this mean that the three are independent?

Figure 7: Differences in Structural Perspectives

In fact, it means exactly the opposite. We read text in a linear fashion, so we need cohesive structure to maintain textual unity. As we read text, we try to follow the logical relationships it expresses, so we need rhetorical

structure to reveal the argument. As we follow the argument, we try to build a coherent mental representation of reality, so we need semantic structure to provide a framework for that representation. The three forms of structure have different contributions to make, but they support and reinforce each other.

Let’s see exactly how the three aspects of structure can work together to achieve effectiveness in a functional text, Remember, first, that effectiveness is determined by four features: information must be easy to find, easy to understand, accurate, and sufficient for purpose. Accuracy and sufficiency together determine whether the material is easy to use, in the context of getting a job done. So we are looking for ease of retrieval, ease of comprehension, and ease of use.

Retrieval

It is universally recognised that the primary key to ease of retrieval is the availability of efficient access mechanisms. These mechanisms include the table of contents, the index, and a variety of graphical and typographical techniques — placement of headings, clear expression in headings, and so on. We have already seen that the table of contents and the headings are high-level manifestations of semantic structure: in their guise as document outline, they are the skeleton formed by thematic linkages, so the semantic structure of the text is itself critical in determining ease of retrieval.

But we must realise that, in many cases, the reader does not want just one small element in isolation: the information is to be used in some kind of "situational context", and the reader needs to be sure that the information retrieved is appropriate to that situation. This means that the reader must be able to see "beyond the edges" of the information unit: to see how it fits with adjacent units, to see what mutual implications it and those other units have for each other.

Beyond this, the reader needs to have confidence that all the required information is in one place. There is a difference between accurate and sufficient information being in the book somewhere, and that same information being presented as a single unit or substructure.

Of course, thematic linkages within the substructure will ensure its semantic unity. But, once again, the reader must first deal with the words on the page. Rhetorical linkages will help the reader to connect all the elements in the substructure; cohesive linkages will help the reader to keep track of the separate elements themselves. The three aspects of structure combine to ensure that the information is not only retrieved easily, but that it is retrieved in one "chunk" that is complete — and completely processable — in itself.

Comprehension

The primary keys to case of comprehension are rhetorical structure and cohesive structure. These determine how easily the reader can "tell what we are talking about" and "see what we are getting at". Explicit logical relationships enable the reader to understand not only "why we are telling you this", but also "what it means". Clear cohesive ties enable the reader to connect all references to the same element.

At this point, it’s worth digressing to consider how lengthy or convoluted sentences cause problems in comprehension. First, sentences are themselves structural elements. If a sentence is unwieldy, the reader must work at understanding it; but, having understood it, the reader can then fit it into the developing semantic and rhetorical structures. Second, and more important, a complex sentence is complex or unwieldy not only because it is hard to digest in itself, but also because it obscures logical relationships, manipulates too many concurrent chains, or both. The rationale behind the simpler sentence, then, is not only that it presents fewer problems on its own account, but also that it enables us to isolate logical relationships and keep our cohesive chains untangled.

In short, comprehension "happens" at more than one level. At the lowest level, the reader must be able to work out what a sentence is saying. This is largely dependent on cohesive structure, though semantic structure also has an important role here. At the next level, the reader must be able to work out the sentence’s contribution to the developing argument or explanation. This is the function of rhetorical structure. At the highest level, the reader must be able to fit the new information into a growing appreciation of the whole subject-matter. This is the function of semantic structure. The three kinds of structure thus make separate but mutually-dependent contributions to comprehension.

Use

The primary keys to ease of use are sufficiency of information and sequence of information. I do not for a moment suggest that the kinds of structure I have been talking about directly determine either sufficiency or sequence: these are determined by task analysis and information needs analysis. But we have seen how semantic, rhetorical, and cohesive structure can underpin the unity of related material. Between them, they help the reader grasp what should be, at one and the same time, a "piece" of information, a "piece" of explanation, and a "piece" of text. These pieces may go by different names, but they should be coextensive and coterminous — they represent three ways of looking at and responding to the same passage. Our three kinds of structure are therefore very important in allowing the reader to segment the material into useful and useable chunks. While ease of use is partly determined by the content and sequence of the chunks, it is also partly determined by the reader’s ability to identify and handle the chunks themselves.

Conclusion

The three kinds of structure are all "born" as the text is written. But they are "conceived" at three different stages. Semantic structure is the outcome and expression of the overall design — the organisation of information. Rhetorical structure is the outcome and expression of the approach to argument and explanation. Cohesive structure is the outcome and expression of clear writing. We both write and edit in a multi-layered fashion, so we do not have to keep an eye on three aspects of development simultaneously: concurrently is a more exact term. As we write and as we edit, we should look for thematic links, logical relationships, and cohesive ties — but, because they have different manifestations, we can work on them separately. It is the reading process that cannot separate them: if we can create and integrate the three kinds of structure, the reader will reap the benefits — ease of retrieval, ease of comprehension, and ease of use.

FURTHER READING

Halliday, M.A.K. (1994), An Introduction to Functional Grammar (2nd edn). London: Edward Arnold

Halliday, M.A.K. & R. Hasan (1976), Cohesion in English. Harlow: Longmans

Halliday, M.A.K. & R. Hasan (1985), Language, Context and Text. Geelong, Vic: Deakin University

Peters, P.H. (1985), Strategies for Student Writers. Milton, Qld: John Wiley

Strunk, W. & E.B. White, The Elements of Style (3rd ed, 1979). New York: Macmillan.

Williams, J.M. with G.G. Colomb (1990), Style. Chicago: University of Chicago Press

Tujuan Pembelajaran

Setelah mempelajari materi dalam website ini diharapkan pembaca dapat:

1. Mengidentifikasi berbagai jenis teks fungsional pendek.

2. Menentukan gambaran umum isi berbagai teks fungsional pendek.

3. Menemukan informasi faktual dari berbagai teks fungsional pendek

4. Menemukan informasi tersirat dari berbagai teks fungsional pendek.

5. Menentukan makna kata berdasarkan konteks.

1. Reading Skill

  5.2. Merespon makna dalam teks tulis fungsional pendek sederhana secara akurat, lancar, dan berterima yang berkaitan dengan lingkungan sekitar

Short Functional Texts

Prohibition in a Public Place Informational Notice

Announcement Informational Notice

1. Mampu mengidentifikasi berbagai jenis Short Functional Text.

2. Mampu menemukan gambaran umum isi Short Functional Text.

3. Dapat menemukan informasi faktual dari Short Functional Text. 

4. Dapat menentukan informasi tersirat dari teks fungsional pendek. 

5. Mampu mengidentifikasi makna kata berdasarkan konteks dari teks fungsional pendek. .

Image Gallery

Guidance / Instruction

Guidance / Instructional Procedure

Announcement  

Short Functional Text

 

Short Functional Text adalah teks pendek yang berisi perintah, pengarahan, sesuatu yang harus dilakukan atau tidak boleh dilakukan yang dapat berupa larangan (prohibition), undangan (invitation), Kartu Ucapan (Greeting Cards),pesan pendek (short message), daftar belanja (shopping list), peringatan (notice), pengumuman (announcement), dan lain-lain yang mengandung makna dan digunakan dalam komunikasi sehari-hari.

Sedangkan teks essay yang berbentuk descriptive, narrative, recount, report, dan procedure merupakan text panjang yang bisa dikategorikan ke dalam Long Functional Text (Istilah ini tidak baku/tidak lazim digunakan).

Some Example of Short Functional Texts

Invitation Greeting Cards Notice: Guidance Announcement

Invitation

1. Function / Purpose : To invite someone to attend an occation.

2. The Structure/Parts : The Addressee (The person invited)

Salutation

The message (the content of the messag)

The Sender

3. The requirements :a. It should have an accurate addressee

b. It gives clear time, place, and activity

c. It provides sufficient information about the inviter.

d. Express that the writer is looking forward to seeing person

e. If there is a dress code, state it in the lower left-hand corner

 

Read the following text and answer the question

Dear Friends,

We request the pleasure of you in the candle light party

for the 10th anniversary of our marriage at garden Resto

on February 20, 2009 at 19.00

Dress code: Casual Red

Thanks

Rince

1. Why does Rince write the text?

2. Where will the party be held?

Reading Activity

1. What kind of text is this?

2. What is the text about?

3. What does the word honour mean?

Greeting Cards functions as an expression of sympathy and care to others.

1. The purpose : a. To congratulate someone' achievement

b. To express sympathy on someone's

c. To motivate someone on gaining achivement

2 . The Important points

a. Clarify a clear purpose

b. Use a appraisal diction

c. Accurate addressee

Read the following texts and answer the questions

1. Who is the best team at school?

2. What kind of text is that?

3. What does the word your in the text refer to?

Reading Activity

1. Why does Tya send the text?

2. What does the word  wishing in the text mean?

3. What is the text about?

The Functions

1. Prohibition notifies people not to do something. People may find this kind of notice in a public places.

2. Caution or warning warns people to be careful in handling something. Ignoring the notice may cause injury or breaking the facilities.

3. Guidance gives information to people to do something appropriately.

4. The informational notice provides information that could be useful for people.

Read the texts and answer the questions

1. Where doe the notice exist?

2.  What does the word expectant mean?

3. What should the people do  according to the notice?

Reading Activity

1. What is the purpose of the notice?

2.  Who should follow the instruction?

3. Where do you probably find this notice?

Read the text and answer the questions

1. Where do you find such a notice?

2. What should the driver do before turning left?

3. Should we wait the lamp turn to green?

Reading Activity

1. What should the passenger do to their baggage?

2. Where do you find such a notice?

3. What should people do when spotting an unattended baggage?

A. The Functions

1. Announcement provides complete and clear information about certain events or ocation

B. The followings are some tips in writing announcement

1. Straightforward and ease the readers to get information quickly

2. Keep it short, inviting, and to the point.

3. Clear and complete

4. For a bad news, make a direct and no-nonsense statement.

Read the text and answer the questions

1. Who writes the announcement?

2. What is the main purpose of the announcement?

3. Who will receive the registration?

Reading Activity

1. How many hours the shop open during clearance time?

2. What is the purpose of the text?

3.  How much discount do the  customer  who buys  29" colour TV/

SMS (Short Message Services) Memo While you were out

A. The Functions

1. To send an important message to other people

B. Some Tips to write a short message

1. Clear addressee (someone who receives the message)

2. Straight forward

3. If it is an instruction state it clearly.

Read the text and answer the questions

1. Who leave the message?

2. Who wrote the message?

3. What should  Mr. Winfield do ?

Choose best alternative.

1. Who writes the message?

       

a. The principal of SMPN 1 Sleman

b. The Director of Computa

c. The principal of Computa

d. The customer of Computa

2. Which statement is correct based on the text?        

a. SMPN 1 Sleman will celebrate its 25th anniversary

b. The customers are invited due to the loyalty

c. Computa invites the Director to have a reception

d. Mr. Ary writes an invitation for the Director

3. What is the function of the notice?

       

a. To warn the visitors that the floor is sliperry.

b. To prohibit the visitors not to walk on that area

c. To tell the visitors that there are water in that area

d. To guide the visitors how to keep the floor wet

4. Where do you probably find such a kind of notice?        

a. In a street

b. In a hotel

c. In an aeroplane

d. in a bus

5.What should Rejeki do after reading the memo?

       

a. Wait the burning process and keep all burnt CDs.

b. Unplug the cable power of the computer.

c. Shut down the electric lines.

d. Keep the CDs and catch the bus quickly.

6. Which statement is INCORRECT based on the memo above?        

a. There was one CD to burn in the teacher’s computer.

b. Sri Rejeki sent a message to Harwan to burn CDs.

c. Harwan was quite late to catch the bus.

d. Sri Rejeki was quite late to burn the Cds

7. Whart does the sign mean?

 

       

a. We may not turn left when the traffic light is red.

b. We may not stop when the traffic light is red.

c. When the traffic light is red, we must stop before turning left.

d. When the traffic light is red we must stop and wait until it turns green

8. Where do you probably find the message?

 

       

a. In a supermarket

b. At school

c. in a Bank

d. in a street

9. Why does each class prepare its team?

 

 

 

 

       

a. To choose the best team for competition

b. To celebrate the national sport day.

c. To prepare the committee of the sports day

d. To have registration to Pak Agung

10.How many sports events will be competed?        

a. two

b. three

c. four

d.five

Choose the best answer.

1. What does the sign mean?

 

a. When the traffic light is red we must stop and wait until it turns green

b. When the traffic light is red, we must stop before turning left

c. We may not turn left when the traffic light is red.

d.We may not stop when the traffic light is red.

 

2. What should Rejeki do after reading the memo?

a. Shut down the electric lines.

b. Wait the burning process and keep all burnt CDs.

c.Keep the CDs and catch the bus quickly.

d. Unplug the cable power of the computer

3. What is the function of the notice?

a. To guide the visitors how to keep the floor wet

b. To warn the visitors that the floor is slipery.

c.To tell the visitors that there are water in that area

d. To prohibit the visitors not to walk on that area

4. Why does Meikha write the greeting cards?

a. To congratulate on someone's birthday.

b. To greet someone on a new year

c. to express sympathy for bad news

d. to congratulate on someone's enggagement

5. Who is Etik Sulistyawati? 

 

a. A newly born baby

b. A newly marriage couple.

c. A new mother

d.A new  sister