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Functional Approach to Teaching Chinese as a Foreign Language. Lening Liu Columbia University in the City of New York Univ. of Nottingham July 3-5, 2013. 语言和语法究竟为何物？. What is language ？ What is grammar? - PowerPoint PPT Presentation
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Functional Approach to Teaching Chinese as a Foreign Language
Lening LiuColumbia University in the City of New
York
Univ. of Nottingham July 3-5, 2013
语言和语法究竟为何物？
1. What is language ？ What is grammar?
a. Nativism: Language is one of the results of human evolution. For modern mankind, it is something genetically “hard wared” in their brain. Chomsky sees it as a kind of “competence” that is governed by rules and linguistic rules are algebraic procedures for combining words and morphemes that do not themselves contribute to meaning. All human languages share a core, namely so-called “universal grammar.” The difference among human languages is only the result of parameter setting.
b. Functionalist: language is the means by which human societies organize their activities by communicating among their members. The difference among human languages is not the result of parameter setting, but different societies various communicative regularities which reflects the social and cultural conventions.“grammar is to be seen as the codification of socially and historically situated set of such (communicative) regularities, endorsed and hence fixed through institutions such as education and writing.” Hopper （ 1987 ）
This tradition sees grammar as the product of language use. As Wittgenstein observed: language is like a tool-box, an inventory of linguistic constructions. Language use is like a chess game, every move is negotiated between players. “The essence of language is its symbolic dimension, with grammar being derivative…the grammatical dimension of language is a product of a set of historical and ontogenetic process referred to collectively as grammarticalization. When human beings use symbols t communicate with one another, stringing them together into sequence, patterns of use emerge and become consolidated into grammatical constructions.
This approach conceives linguistic constructions as themselves meaningful linguistic symbols-----since they are nothing other than the patterns in which meaningful linguistic symbols are used in communication.” (Tomasello, 2003). Someone uses a piece of language with a certain communication intention, and so we may say that that piece of language has a certain function (meaning).
One’s linguistic competence with a natural language
consists of the mastery of all its items and structures. They
include the highly canonical (core), the highly idiosyncratic
(periphery ), and many things in between, such as ritualized
greetings, idioms, metaphors, and non-canonical phrasal
collocations. In other words, the mature linguistic
competence, then, is a structured inventory of constructions,
some of which are similar to many others and so reside in a
more core-like center, and others of which connect to very
few other constructions and so reside more toward the
periphery.
Functionalism views language in terms of form-to-function
and function-to-form mappings. It claims that language
serves communication and form serves function. It,
therefore, always work on multiple levels of language.
There is no formal separation of the traditionally recognized
subcomponents in language, i.e., morphosyntax, semantics
and pragmatics (Cooreman and Kilorn, 1991)
Grammar is the product of language use and grammaticalization:
Grammaticalization: grammar arises from discourse and pragmatic motives.
grammaticality: from ungrammatical to grammatical occurrence of individual grammatical structures: from
pragmatic pattern to grammatical patterndiachronically ： loose collocation to integrated structure Givon ( 1979, 1894) Lehmann (1982, 1991)
Mary is going to New York. Mary is going to marry Peter. (be going as futurity
marker)
History of 就 , its evolution.
Source meaning: motion verb, to approach
1. 婚姻 之 故 , 言 就 爾 居。 marriage PRT reason PRT JIU you reside
“Because of our affinity by marriage, I came to reside with you.”
<Book of Songs> (600 B.C.)
2. 王 就 見 孟子。 king JIU visit Mencius
“The king came to see Mencius.”
<Mencius> (300 B.C.)
3. 主人 晨 起 , 見 赤 衣 人 master morning get up see red-clothes person 數 千 圍 其 家 , several thousand surround POSS house 就 視 則 滅。 JIU look then disappear
“The master got up in the morning and saw thousands of people in red clothes surrounding his house, once he got close to take a look, they all disappeared.
<Journey of God Searching> (263-420, A.D.)
4. 見 使者 , 就 請 之。 see envoy JIU invite PRO“Upon seeing the envoy, (he) went over/immediately to invite him.”
Figure 4. First structural reanalysis of JIU
[Subj. vp[V1 就 + V2 +Obj.]]
[Subj. vp[ 就 [V + Obj]]]
5. 是 夕 兒 忽 得 驚風 病 , this evening son suddenly get infantile convulsion 家 人 次 日 置 黃 幡 family member next day make yellow flag 一 合 於 彼 龛 兒 就 脱然 平貼。 0ne-CL on that niche son JIU thoroughly recover
“That evening, their son contracted infantile convulsion as a result of fright. The next day, the family members made a pair of yellow streams and put them in the niche. The child then recovered completely. ”
<Records of Farces> (1123-1201 A.D.)
Figure 5. Further structure reanalysis of JIU
[Subj. vp[ 就 [V + Obj]]] [Subj. + 就 vp [ V + Obj.]]
[Subj. + 就 vp [ V ]]
Figure 6. Human cognitive metaphor.
space time cause condition
6. 旦 昨 欲 出 謁 , 曾 借 just yesterday want go-out visit ASP borrow
帽子 , 既而 不 用 就 還。 cap afterward NEG use JIU return
“(He) just borrowed a hat yesterday when he
was going out to visit (someone), but since
he found that he could not use it, he return it
soon afterward.”
<Records of Farces> (1123-1201.A.D.)
7. 若 心 粗 只 從 事 皮膚 上
if heart careless only from thing skin upon 戳 過 若 此 行 權 便 就 錯 了。 sweep past like this use power then JIU wrong ASP
“If (one) is careless and only makes superficial observations, and uses his power likewise, then that is wrong.”
<Analects of Zhuzi> (1127-1279)
8. 甲：昨天 晚上 我 看見 你 了 yesterday night I see you ASP
跟 一 個 男 的 with one-CL male NOM
乙：昨 天 晚上 我 就 沒 出 門。yesterday night I JIU NEG exit door
“A: Last night, I saw you, with a man.
B: I did not even walk out my door last night.”
<Editing Office Story> (1989)
汉语由 synthetic language to analytical language?
Language ，轻动词的产生 Causative: 斫而小之 春风又绿江南岸Putative: 吾妻美我者，私我也
登泰山而小天下Purposive ：死国可乎？Denominative: 君子不器进行： Researchers studied the causes of the greenhouse
effects.
研究人员对温室效应的成因进行了研究。 科研人员研究了温室效应的成因。
What has been said by masters of language use:
王安忆：一个特定的故事只有一个特定的、最合适的讲法，即结构。这就像一个特定的情况只有一个形容词能最准确地描述它的状况。小说家的本事高低就在于能否为一个特定的故事找到最适合讲述它的结构。
汪曾祺：语言是有内容的，写小说就是写语言。汉字（词 语）无一字无来历。
陈四益：但凡“无题”，其实都有题，无非是不宜题，不便题或无须题。因此，越是“无题”，越引人遐想。
The Theory Cognition Learning Representation
Universal Grammar
Autonomous induction
Linguistic: nativism, modularity
Implicit abstract deduction
symbolic and unconscious
Associative-cognitive
Skill acquisition
Psychological: general cognitive architecture
Implicit induction association
explicit deduction automatization
Unconscious
declarative, then procedural
Input processing
theory
Processability
Concept-oriented
Interaction
framework
Psychological, underspecified
Explicit-implicit interface?
Unspecified
Explicit-implicit interface?
UG? Functional universal
Functional universal
Both conscious and implicit
Socialcultural theory
Social: relational,
situative
Conscious, goal-driven, mediated
Conscious, inter-mental, then, intra-mental
The Theory Effects Optimal Feature Instructional design
Universal Grammar
Autonomous induction
No effect possible on the subconscious core knowledge
Implicit abstract deduction
None offered
Associative-cognitive
Skill acquisition
Beneficial
Explicit and implicit learning interface
Helping explicit knowledge become proceduralized
None offered
Cycle of carefully sequenced explanation and deliberate practice
Input processing
theory
Processability
Concept-oriented
Interaction
framework
beneficial
Limited effects, cannot override universal forces
beneficial
Comprehension exercises
Consider developmental learner readiness when choose targets
Attention attracted to language form in the course of meaningful task performance
Processing instruction
None offered
Focus on form, task-based language teaching
Socialcultural theory
beneficial Learning environment should foster meaningful events and other assistance
None offered
早期的 SLA 理论1. 行为主义的语言习得理论—基于行为主义的心
理学理论和结构主义语言学，试图单纯从外部环境对动物和人类的行为给予解释，不涉及思维事件和内部过程（ mental events or internal process ）。
应用于语言教学：专注于教室内的语言教学。 “ 美国陆军法—听说法” “ US Army Method
—Audio-Lingual Method” 习惯的建立：刺激 - 反应，频率的重要性，行
为条件（ reinforcement and punishment) ，第一语言的作用（迁移，对比分析）。
教学要领 : 提供正确的句型或模式，大量的重复，避免错误并提供合适的反馈。
对行为主义语言习得理论的批判：幼儿语言能力的习得不可能由模仿和重复获得，语言特征的习得有其自己内在的顺序。语言学习不同于其他知识的学习，它由与生俱来的语言机制引导。 SLA 在很大程度上与母语习得没有区别。（ Creative Constructive Hypothesis. Dulay &Burt, 1975)
2. 监控器理论（ Monitor Theory, Stephen Krashen): 首个 SLA 理论。虽然 Krashen本人从未明说，他的理论显然与乔姆斯基的普遍语法理论暗合。其结论是： SLA 与孩童的母语习得没有大的区别。
a. 习得与学习理论（ The Acquisition- Learning Hypothesis)
b. 监控器理论 (Monitor Hypothesis) c. 自然顺序理论 (The Natural Order
Hypothesis)
d. 输入理论 (The Input Hypothesis, i + 1)
e. 效力过滤器理论 (The Affective Filter
Hypothesis)
功能主义的 SLA 理论： 1. 概念取向的理论
功能主义者认为，语言是为交际而存在的，没有语言的使用者便没有语言。功能主义者关注于形式 -功能和功能 - 形式之间的对应（ mapping) 。应用于 SLA ，功能主义者调查中介语中间的这种对应，以及随着时间的推移这种对应的变化。功能主义的基本立场是对意义和功能对语言结构和语言习得的核心地位的强调：语言服务于交际而结构服务于功能。功能主义者主张打破传统的句法、语义和语用之间的界限，在多个层面对语言进行描写。
概念取向理论的出发点是学习者表达概念 (如时间、空间、形态），或一个大概念下某个意义（如时间概念下的过去与未来）的需要。它调查学习者为表达这些概念或意义所使用的方法和手段（ means) ，专注于单向的形式 -功能的对应，具体来说就是从功能到形式的对应。
应用于 SLA ，概念取向理论认为成人在学习第二语言时可以提取建立于以往语言经验和认知经验的全部语义概念，不必重新学习。因而，成人的二语学习不同于孩童的一语习得。他们只需学习对概念和意义的具体表达手段。而这些具体表达手段，也就是语言形式，正是概念取向理论的焦点。
如对“将来”这个概念的不同表达手段：副词，形态，词汇特征（ want, need to)等。概念取向理论关注这些语言手段在学习者中介语中的发展和平衡。
这样一种对习得过程的描写与语法化理论不谋而合，均遵循一个从语用、语篇到句法、词法的过程。
2. 技能习得理论： (DeKeyser, 2001, 2006; Carlson,2003; Anderson, Leliere &Q, 2004) 。该理论的要点 :
语言教学的实质是语言技能的培养，而语言技能的获得与人类其他技能的获得并无区别： the learning of a wide variety of skills shows a remarkable similarity in development from initial representation of knowledge through initial changes in behavior to eventual fluent, spontaneous, largely effortless, and highly skilled behavior, and that this set of phenomena can be accounted for by a set of basic principles common to the acquisition of skills (DeKersy, 2007).
一般来说，技能的获得需要经由三个阶段 : 认知（ cognitive ） , 联系（ associative ）和自动化 （ autonomous ） (Fitts and Poster, 1967), 或称作陈述（ declarative ） , 程序（ procedural ）和自动化（ automatic ） (Anderson, 1993; Anderson, Bothell, Byrne, Douglass, Lebiere &Qin, 2004) 。
体现在教学上就是所谓的三 P 教学法：导入、练习和产出（ presentation, practice and production ） (Byrne, 1986).
学习的力量法则：（ Power law of learning): 成人由陈述性知识到程序性知识的或得过程极为快捷，而由程序性知识到自动化能力的形成则需长期的、大量的练习。
学生的反应时间和错误率均随练习的增加而递减。教师应以抽象规则和明确例子的结合帮助学生实现从陈述性知识到程序性知识的转变。
技能习得理论的适用范围：由于它对学习初始阶段显性和陈述性知识的强调，技能习得理论最易于应用于： (a) high-aptitude adults learners engaged in (b) the learning of simple structures at (c) fairly early stages of learning in (d) instructional contexts.
As learners enter more advanced stages of
learning, the likelihood of implicit learning of
frequent and relatively concrete patterns in
the grammar increase substantially.
3. Usage-based Language Acquisition
If there is no clean break between the more rule-based and
then more idiosyncratic items and structures of a language,
then all constructions may be acquired with the same basic
set of acquisitional processes----namely, those falling under
the general headings of intention-reading and pattern-
finding. If linguistic constructions are meaningful linguistic
symbols in their own right, then children can use function or
meaning to assist in their acquisition, just as they do in
their acquisition of smaller linguistic constructions such as
individual words. (Tomasello, 2003)
The usage-based acquisition theory may be summarized in
three emphases: First, it is thoroughly functionalist---based
explicitly in the expressions and comprehension
of communicative intentions (intention-reading). Linguistic
representation should contain information about how
language used to direct people’s attention to events and
entities in the current joint attentional frame. Second, it is
construction-based. It means that, one, the focus is on
whole utterances and constructions which are most direct
embodiment of a speakers communicative intentions, not
isolated words and morphemes; two, the focus is on use of
particular words, phrases, and expressions, as concrete
linguistic entities. Third, it is usage-based: language
structures emerge from language use, both historically and
ontogenetically.
甲 : 你好 ! 乙：你好！ * 我很好。(greeting, unchangeable situation)
甲：你好吗？ 乙：我很好！ (questioning, changeable situation)
What’s the difference among 门外有一棵树… , 门外种着一棵树… and 门外种着树… ?
汉语语体及其语言形式的考察语体错位：丈夫对太太说：今日晚饭需要调整。语体和语法：胡适求学于哥伦比亚大学多年。
？胡适学习在哥大很多年。
宏观考察：（张振生， 2011 ） Multi-dimension, multi-feature analysis of register variation (Biber,
1988)frequency distribution of features in registerscorrelation between featuresextraction of a small number of dimensions
Lancaster Corpus of Mandarin Chinese McEnery & Xiao (2004) 1,000,000 words (1988-1992) ， balanced, 15 registers
15 Registers in Lancaster Corpus
Register LabelsNews reportage NewsRepNews editorials NewsEdNews reviews NewsRevReligion Religion
Skills, trades and hobbies HobbiesPopular lore PopLore
Essays and biographies Biography
Reports and official documents Official
Science (academic prose) AcademicGeneral fiction FicGen
Mystery and detective fiction FicDecScience fiction FicSci
Adventure/martial arts fiction FicMartRomantic fiction FicRomHumor Humor
60 features ：
POS: N, V, ADJ, ADV, P, POST, CLAS, CON, NN, VV, etc.Sub-class of POS: ATTR, aV, vN, etc.Particles: le, zhe, guo, PART., etc.Construction markers: ba/jiang, bei, shi, deN/deV/Vde, etc.Individual pronouns: 1s, 1p, 2s, 2p, 3f, 3m, 3pIndividual lexical items: jx, etc.Word components: PRE, SUF, Semantic categories: TIME, PERS, PLACEPunctuations: ？、！、《》 (<) 、‘、 (\)’‘；’‘）’Misc. : Idiom, ONO, ABBR, DESC,
Distribution of features on 2 dimensions
把
vs.
将
The two dimensions in written Chinese
Dimension 1: ‘Literate’ (Biber), ( 正式度 )narrative vs. expository concrete vs. abstract fragmentary vs. integrative unpolished vs. polishedsubjective vs. objective
Dimension 2: ‘literary’ (典雅度 )
Features related to literary Chinese
monosyllabic POS ： n, v, adj, adv
individual words ： yi, suo, wei, zhi, yu_, yu/
construction marker ： jiang (vs. ba)
Dimension 1: non-literateliterate
Dimension 2: Literarynon-literary
微观的： Passive voice in Chinese Author: Feng Jicai 冯骥才 Title:《抬头老婆低头汉》 Genre Type: Narrative Total Characters: 10,650 Sentence Type Number of
occurrences Ba 把 36Jiang 将 2 Na 拿 1Bei 被 3Non-Syntactic Passive 3
Author: He Tian 何恬Title:《世界主义和地方主义 》Genre Type: Expositive Total Characters: 7,289
Sentence Type Number of occurrences
Ba 把 0 Jiang 将 19
Bei 被 11Shou 受 6Zao 遭 1
Non-Syntactic Passive 2
功能主义各家理论共享的教学原则 :1. 以学生为中心、意义驱动（ meaning-driven) 的语境化
教学。以意义表达和完成交际迫使学生寻求所需的语言形式，实现语言形式和其功能的 mapping.
2. 导入：从明确的语境和隐性的语言结构到明确的语言结构。学生在教师的引导下归纳 (induction) 。
3. 练习：课内与课外多样化地练习，从明确的、显性的语言结构到下意识的、隐形的语言能力。学生在与教师及同学的互动中的推理 (deduction)
4. 产出：学生产出能力的培养始终是教学的焦点，接受能力的培养主要在课堂外进行。要想方设法为学生创造语言使用的机会，提供更多的个别辅导。课堂教学要与“遭遇性学习”相结合
The Pedagogical Implications
1. Teaching grammar in concrete context. It means to re-create the contexts in which linguistic structures are formed so that the semantic and pragmatic functions (intentions) encoded in these structures could be read by students inductively or “noticed” by the instructor explicitly.
2. students map linguistic forms and their functions and enable themselves use the linguistic structures appropriately. To do so we have to pay attentions to the relationship between registers and grammar. Registers: 4W determines register and register determines the selection of linguistic forms, as result, we got different genres. This means we should practice so-called
“register-oriented teaching”:The purpose of language instruction is to enable learners use the target language APPROPRIATELY. This goal can’t be achieved if students can’t differentiate registers. The characteristics of different registers are reflected in the selections of linguistic forms, should it be vocabulary, sentence types or textural structures. When it comes to select teaching materials, we should follow a certain order, in terms of register. At the elementary and intermediate level we should use standard and literate registers, not the literary ones. At third year level, which serves as a transition from colloquial expression to the literate registers, we should choose relatively neutral registers and increase the degree of the formality gradually. At the superior level, the so-called literary genres could also be used.
a. Instruction at lower levels:“ 结构、功能、文化” 三个层面的教学理念。 Teaching Chinese at
structural, functional and cultural three levels.
Feng (2012): “三一语法” :初级语法当以日常口语（日常体 / 非正式体）为习得对象、以“三一语法”为理论体系。什么是三一语法？1 ）句子的形式结构 2 ）结构的功能作用 3 ）功能的典型语境 , 三位一体
Feng proposed so-called “three-in-one” grammar for early stage of Chinese instruction. He specifies “culture” as “context”. We consider context as the situation determined by 4W, namely speaker’s registers. In this sense, We are in agreement with Feng. We should start with expressing meaning (setting register and creating context) and then select the appropriate linguistic forms for such purpose and highlight their functions, both semantic and pragmatic, in the actual language use.
For instance: the disposal construction in Chinese, so-called “把 construction”:
[Form] A 把 B V-R/PP （ 1 ） B needs to be definite NP；（ 2 ） V needs to be action verb；（ 3 ） V needs to be followed either by a complement, mostly directional or resultative, or a locative PP.
It is often used in imperative voice. [Function] Ba Construction is used to express
（ 1 ） position-changing movement of objects 物体的移位；（ 2 ） results caused by an action 行为引发的结果。
[Typical contexts] situation concerning changing position of objects and results of an action:
（ 1 ） moving or cleaning room. 把床放在房子中间 (Please put the bed in the middle of the room)；
（ 2 ） describing the scenes of natural disasters or accidents. 风把树吹倒了 （ Wind took down
the trees). But a more appropriate pedagogical context might be: to
re-arrange the classroom.
Another example: 教授“过敏”这个话题和与之相关的语言形式：又…又… ., 对… . 过敏 , 形容词：红，肿，痒；动词：去医院，做试验，打针，吃药。
导入：“什么是过敏” vs. “你的眼睛怎么了？”
b. Instruction at upper levels: 高中年级教学，我们主张“语体集中教学”，即在某一段时间里集中教授一种语体，使学生真正掌握得体使用该语体的能力。主要以正式语体为习得对象，逐渐增加正式度。 超高年级适当照顾典雅语体，但仅限于阅读，不要求产出。At the middle and upper levels, we propose a “register
(genre) based teaching”, namely concentrating on a certain register at a certain time and for a while to make sure students could use the register appropriately. At this level, we focus on literate (formal) registers, increasing the level of formality gradually. At the superior level, it would be alright to introduce some literary registers such as religious documents and letters of Chinese scholars, but only for reading training. We shoudn’t expect students to produce such genres.
3. 突显汉语词语搭配的能力，通过搭配形式教授语义和语用功能复杂的语言成分。实行语块教学。 Respect the fact that Chinese favors collocation and tolerates linguistic variants. Teaching grammatical markers in collocation. Practicing chunk teaching. For instance,
Chinese aspect marker 了 is difficult for students. But it often appears in collocation with a number of adverbs.
已经……了。 already… 了 要……了。 will… 了
快……了。 be about to… 了太……了！ too… 了。太热了！（ It’s too hot!)
4. Focusing on fostering students’ productive abilities. Breaking the boundaries between 4 skills, particularly bridging the speaking and writing.
吃在中国
有人说：日本人用眼睛吃饭，中国人用舌头吃饭，美国人用肚子吃饭。由此看来，日本人注重吃饭的形式，中国人重视饭菜的味道，美国人重视吃饭的内容。即使你不同意这样的说法，你也得承认：从吃饭的方式上，我们常常可以看出一个国家的文化特点。
中国人对“吃”的重视和讲究可以说在世界上数一数二。比方说，中国人见面说“你好？”，也常说“吃了吗？”。好朋友聚会常常要大吃一顿，也有很多人喜欢在饭桌上谈生意。请人帮忙办任何事情都要先请客吃饭，而且饭馆要上档次。有时候，一顿高级
宴席的价格超过了一个普通人一年的工资收入。中国饮食文化的丰富多彩还表现在什么都可以吃。有一种说法是“天上飞的除了飞机什么都能吃，地上
有腿的除了桌椅什么都可以吃。”中国菜的做法也很多，有煎炒、红烧、清蒸等。很多人觉得奇怪，中国人这么讲究吃，为什么胖子不多呢？中国地方很大，每个地方的饮食文化很不相同。要是你有机会去中国，一定要品尝各地的美食。
有人說：日本人
中國人美國人
由此看来，日本人注重……，中國人重视……，美國人……
從 的 方式上，我們可以看出… 文化特點
即使你 這樣的説法，你也得承認：
中國人對 的重視 & 講究可以說在世界上
請人幫忙辦任何事情都…
比方説，在中國，
而且，飯館 要 上檔次
有時，一頓 的價格超過一個…一年……
中國人見面說……，也常說……
好朋友聚會常常要……也有很多人喜歡……
有一種說法：天上…除了
地上有腿的除了 都…
中國飲食文化的豐富多彩還表現在……
（煎炒 ）
中國菜的做法…… （清蒸）
很多人覺， … 講究吃，為什麽 不多？
紅燒
要是你有機會……，一定要
中國地方……，每個地方的 ……
…… ，至于……
香港中文大学汉语语言学及语言获得 2012级
李爽
练习课
话题 A ,
知识点知识点
至于B ，
至于B ， 相关话题
B 。 B
我会打篮球和羽毛球，至于网球，我一点。 我会打篮球和羽毛球，至于网球，我一点。
As for
我爱吃 _____ ，至于 _____ ，我不怎么爱吃。
饺子 汉堡包 火锅
面条 烤鸭 寿司
我认为小孩子应该学 _____ ，至于 _____ ，可以长大后再学。
艺术艺术 体育运动体育运动科学科学家务家务
我想去旅游，至于 _________ ，我还没想好。
什么时候去什么时候去 怎么去怎么去 和谁去和谁去去哪儿去哪儿
买 ____ ，我觉得 ______ 最重要， 至于 ______ ，我觉得并不重要。
外观外观 质量质量 价格价格 品牌品牌
zhāopìn 招聘 (Recruiting)
zhāopìn 招聘 (Recruiting)
教育背景 Educational Background
教育背景 Educational Background
工作经验Working Experience
工作经验Working Experience
性格Characteristics
性格Characteristics
潜力Potential
潜力Potential
我认为 _______ 最重要，至于 ______ ，我不做要求。
6. Teaching Chinese characters truly as means of writing Chinese language.
a. teaching characters as secondary linguistic symbols not as something in their own rights.
b. teaching characters as means of “composing speech”, not independent “表意符号” ; making students produce “written products.”
c. teach students perceive characters as entireties, not as the combinations of parts.
d. the exercise book for character reflects the
ideas above and integrated with the learning
of vocabulary and language use.
7. Teaching Chinese culture through language materials
Learning language is learning culture, and learning
culture has to go through language. One can’t
separate the linguistic forms from the cultural
elements that they carry.
What are the functions of language?
To communicate, to embody cultures, to identify yourself.
Do we have to teach language always as an entirety? Not
necessarily. Actually, we can’t.
Teaching Chinese to minorities in China, teaching Chinese
to overseas Chinese and teaching Chinese to foreigners
should emphasize different aspects of the language. And
this could be done and should be done by providing
different language materials, namely could be done
implicitly.
What is the direct goal for a language class?To teach language by provoking students’ cultural curiosity or to teach culture through language? The teaching standards in California State has given this issue the right answer: teaching linguistic relevant cultural knowledge, so called “small culture”.Chinese society is highly secular and has very few social taboos. Who, then, will offend 13 billion Chinese people and because of what? Only those who would do it on purpose or those who have poor linguistic knowledge!
？请问老头儿，您今年多老？
What causes the breakdown in communication? Cultural knowledge or linguistic competence?
中国篮球队连败数场。 中国篮球队连败数队。
The deep cultural difference is hidden in linguistic forms: The bed has been slept. ？床被人睡了。 张家姑娘被人睡了。
How to translate 梅花香自苦寒来？
Two tendencies in teaching Chinese culture
in a language class ： a. oversimplifying
Chinese culture as symbolic pieces such as
功夫，熊猫，中国结 or emphasizing its
“uniqueness” (长城，家庭观念） and
stereotyping Chinese people. 中国人爱财，却取之有道。北京男人都是大老爷们儿。是中国人就会点儿拳脚。
东北人都很野蛮，爱喝酒。四川姑娘很漂亮。b. Over-reading the meaning behind linguistic forms
at the wrong time and the obsession of “culture of Chinese characters”.( 汉字文化）
行不行 东西 红 vs. 赤 蓝 vs. 青 诗 汉语对亲属称谓分类比英语细说明中国文化对其社会空间更敏感？
A more appropriate approach should be to emphasize the common values we share with other peoples and cultures and cherish the cultural diversity.求价值之同，存表现方式之异。
For instance: AA 制 和轮流坐庄 感恩节 和 春节
suggestion: teaching culture through
language materials and linguistic forms;
Making the textbook language linguistically
rich and culturally appropriate by focusing on
the suitability of teaching materials for
different students and emphasizing
different aspects of the language to different
students.
教材为教学服务• 教材应具有三个基本点：（ 1 ）在语言框架中编排学生应学的、能反映文化差异的语言点；
（ 2 ）在文化框架中找到激发学生学习的兴趣点；
（ 3 ）为老师的课堂教学提供启动点，促进语言点和词汇的学习。
朱永平 （ 2012 ）
语言 /文化的两个框架
文化框架(兴趣点 )
语言框架( 语言点 /启动点 )
语言差异
文化差异
个性差异
1. 语言的适用性（可说性）
2. 语言的操作性 （可教性）
3. 语言的复习性（可练性）
1. Teaching culture through linguistic forms:
？街上有很多老中国人跳舞。 (focusing on Chinese word order would help students avoid offending elder Chinese people)
蜀道再难，有成都作终点，也是风雅。
“独身”一词的含义并不明确。在初级阶段的中国，独身的实践也是初级阶段。他们居父母的屋，食母亲的饭，与兄弟姐妹为邻，并未真正独立起来。也许“身在曹营心在汉”，但吃人嘴短，人格也就张扬不起来。到头来，凡事还要和人商量，凡事还必须有个解释。母亲的泪水，也许比林黛玉的更沉重；父亲的威严可能比武松的拳头更冷峻。《过渡之美》韩少功
2. Focusing on the suitability of teaching
materials for different students and
emphasizing different aspects of the
language to different students.
Beginners vs. advanced learners
Principle: 由浅入深，循序渐进from “communicative culture to “content cultural”;
from standard forms to “more authentic forms”.
Personally, I consider “communicative culture” universal. Cooperative principle is observed by all educated people. The difference is the forms.
How to express 客气？
不谢 vs. 不会 谢谢 vs. 哪里哪里
progressive reading on the same subject
《大学语文》 《人文天下》1. 中国人的姓名 2. 中国人的家庭 1. 天地人 2. 黄帝的传说
3. 大江南北 4. 十个太阳 3. 孔子 4. 司马迁和《史记》
5. 天和地 6. 成语故事 5. 画蛇添足 6. 走马观花
7. 万里长城 8. 李白学习的故事
7. 人与世界 8. 我
9. 神农和中药 10. 中国菜 9. 寻梦 10. 聪明人和傻子 和奴才
11. 生肖 12. 过年 11. 塞翁失马 12. 琴棋书画
13. 红楼梦故事 14. 少林功夫 13. 王羲之换鹅 14. 曹植的七步诗
15. 孔子 16孟母三迁 15.曹雪芹和《红 楼梦》
16. 天衣无缝
17. 蚕的故事 18. 中国茶 17. 胸有成竹
19. 中国陶瓷 20. 竹子的品格
孔子 孔子是中国历史上最有名的思想家和教育家。他的名字叫
孔丘，由于古代人往往用“子”来称呼受尊敬的人，所以后来大家都叫他孔子。
孔子是山东人，生在两千五百多年以前。那时候，中国还没有统一，有很多小国家。这些小国经常打仗，社会很乱，老百姓生活很困难。看到这种情况，孔子很难过。他到各国去，劝说这些国家的国王不要打仗，要爱护老百姓。他说，一个人要想得到天下，一定得对老百姓好。可是那些国王不听他的话，孔子只好回到老家山东去办学校。他相信，只有年轻人受到好的教育，积极参加社会管理，才能改变这种情况。
孔子主张，不管有没有钱交学费，每个人都应该有机会上学。学生只要交一些干肉，就可以听孔子的课。所以，他的学生特别多，一共有三千多个，其中最好的有七十二个。
孔子很会教书。他常说，一个好老师要不断学习新的知识，对学生要非常耐心，要鼓励学生说出自己真正的想法。
孔子也有很多学习经验。他经常告诉学生：为了学习新知识，要经常复习和使用已经学过的知识。孔子还认为，学习态度一定要诚实，知道就是知道，不知道就是不知道，这样才能真正学到知识。
孔子告诉学生，学习书上的知识当然很重要，可是更重要的是学习怎样做人。他主张，每个人都要爱别的人：年轻人要尊敬老年人，子女要尊重父母，当官的要爱护老百姓。
孔子对很多事情都有兴趣。比方说，他很喜欢美的音乐和诗歌。有一次，他听到了中国最早的音乐，高兴得好多天都想不起来肉是什么味道。
孔子中华文化以孔子的儒家学说为主要核心 * ，所以有
学者说：没有孔子就没有中国文化。老子和孔子虽然都生活在春秋时代，也都是中国的大思想家，但从他们对后代的影响看，老子不如孔子。其他战国时期的学说，也不可能跟儒家比。
孔子出生在鲁国，就是现在的山东省曲阜市，他父亲是个地位不高的官员。孔子三岁的时候他父亲死了，他母亲就带着他搬到了曲阜。据说他从小很爱学习礼节，没有事的时候，就摆些小盆小盘什么的，学着大人的样子祭天、祭祖。
孔子年轻的时候，读书很用功。他十分崇拜周朝初年的周公，对古礼特别熟悉。当时读书人应该学的“六艺”，也就是礼节、音乐、射箭、驾车、书写、计算，孔子都比较精通。
孔子还不到三十岁的时候，名声就慢慢大了起来。有些人愿意拜他做老师，他就办了个学校，收起学生来。孔子很重视教育，对怎么教学生有一套办法，来跟他读书的人越来越多，据说他共有三千个学生。
孔子在教学时，很重视启发学生。他根据每个学生的性格、优点和缺点，给他们相应的教育。子路曾经问孔子：“我听说有一个主张很好，是不是应该马上实行？”孔子说：“还有比你更有经验的人呢，你应该先向他们请教请教再说 * ，怎么能马上就做呢？”过了几天，冉有也来问孔子：“我听说有一个主张很好，是不是应该马上实行呢？” 孔子回答说：“当然应该马上实行。”孔子的两次回答都被一个学生听到了，这个学生就问孔子为什么他两次的回答不同，孔子说：“冉有这个人遇到事情的时候总是不够勇敢，前怕狼后怕虎的 * ，所以要鼓励他勇敢；子路这个人做事太轻率，所以要教他慎重。”
孔子的理想是建立一个仁爱、和睦的大同世界。他认为要实现大同世界，关键是要把仁爱思想灌输给人民。公元前４７９年，孔子去世。他死后，他的弟子继续传授他的学说，形成了一个儒家学派。孔子是大家公认的中国古代第一位大思想家、大教育家。
Heritage learners vs. non-heritage learners
Humanity majors vs. social science majors
《大学语文》 《走近中国》1. 中国人的姓名 2. 中国人的家庭 1. 新学生 2. 上课第一天
3. 大江南北 4. 十个太阳 3. 我的家 4. 请人吃饭
5. 天和地 6. 成语故事 5. 中餐馆 6. 语伴儿
7. 万里长城 8. 李白学习的故事
7. 感恩节 8. 要考试了
9. 神农和中药 10. 中国菜 9. 老朋友见面 10. 春节
11. 生肖 12. 过年 11. 爱好 12. 失恋了
13. 红楼梦故事 14. 少林功夫 13. 约会 14. 中国城
15. 孔子 16孟母三迁 15.快乐的一年级
17. 蚕的故事 18. 中国茶
19. 中国陶瓷 20. 竹子的品格
《感受中国》 《人文天下》1. 有朋自远方来 2. 一路畅通 1. 天地人 2. 黄帝的传说3. 红墙里的星巴克
4. 正在消失的历史
3. 孔子 4. 司马迁和《史记》
5. 打工 6. 拇指族 5. 画蛇添足 6. 走马观花7. 前途？钱途？ 8. 一个都不能少 7. 人与世界 8. 我9. 爱情进入中学课 堂
10. 你网恋了吗？ 9. 寻梦 10. 聪明人和傻子 和奴才
11. 爱情只要八分 钟
12. 常回家看看 11. 塞翁失马 12. 琴棋书画
13. 留守家庭 14. 丁克族 13. 王羲之换鹅 14. 曹植的七步诗15. 中国的小皇帝 16. 代沟 15.曹雪芹和《红
楼梦》16. 天衣无缝
17. 过洋节 18. 超级女声 17. 胸有成竹
19. 三大件 20. 被开除的女大 学生
Chinese teachers must have sharp eyes and good taste in Chinese language and literature. Otherwise, they won’t be able to select or compile appropriate and high quality teaching materials. 余秋雨的文化散文？ 徐慧芬的小小说？ 于丹的文化经典解读？How about 余华的《两个人的历史》，牛正寰的《风雪茫茫》，汪曾祺的《陈小手》，阿城的《平反》，缪哲的散文？
平反阿城
老母姓毌。 单位里的人，都叫她老母。老毌纠正了几次
，说毌发贯的音。记住的就记住了，没记住的反而常常迟疑，老老老的半天，问，您那个字念什么来着？
她就笑了，说，念贯，贯彻的贯，一贯反党反人民的贯。嗨，算了，记不住就叫母吧。
于是，老毌在别人的嘴里就姓了母。老母在单位里人缘挺好。吃午饭了，手上离不开的人就说，老母，帮
我带俩馒头一个一毛五的菜。过半个钟头，老母回来了，十个手指头没有一个闲着，用脚拨开门。屋里的人都说，嚯！帮着把菜碗和馒头接下来。老母甩甩手说，嚯。
下班儿了，老母常常最后走。离开之前，里外看看，遗在抽屉外锁上的钥匙她给拔下来，收在自己兜儿里。第二天上班儿，悄悄地跟人家说，下回小
心点儿。常有这类事儿，大家都很感激老母，以致大家过于放心，把老母当成了钥匙。
老母在大学念的无线电。一个女的回折腾焊锡，烙铁，会跑电料行挑零件儿，大家心里都有点儿奇怪。就好像看女子足球，明知道女的也能踢球，就是觉得女的踢球有点儿怪。女的打排球，打手球，打羽毛球，打乒乓球，游泳，跑，都不觉得怪，不知道为什么。觉得怪是一回事儿，电器坏了，都愿意去找老母修，还帮着传名声儿：我们单位的老母会修无线电， SONY 的？没问题，拿来吧
老母帮不上忙的是国庆，五一。逢节日，单位放假都要排值班儿，早先是防阶级敌人破坏，后来是防偷盗。过节的意思，就是洗洗衣裳，理理乱，多少周年倒在其次。因此大家都不太愿意孤零零地在单位值班儿，于是就轮着来。老母轮不上。
老母是右派。 七九年，有消息了，说中央要给右派平反。大家
都替老母高兴，都说，这下可就都解决了，挺好的一个人，干吗呀，都这么多年了！
到了有一天，进来一个戴眼镜儿的，问，那位姓
毌呀，？大家停下手上的活儿，说，找错了吧，我们这儿没有姓毌的。老母站起来说，我姓毌，大家都叫惯老母了。戴眼镜的大笑，说，怎么能念母呢？母是当中两点，毌是当中一竖。毌姓在古代是复姓，后来分开姓毌姓丘。你们这儿有姓丘的没有？你们是一家人嘛！老毌，你也是，怎么能容忍这样的错误呢！我是组织部的，来，我们谈个事情。
老母和戴眼镜儿的进了里屋。大家都觉得组织部的有学问，明白事儿，于是互相递着眼神
儿，听着，等着。里屋不太隔音。吃饭铃儿响了，就听见老母
的声音：我说了，我就是右派，无反可平。右派是一个派，左派也应该是一个派嘛，也许人数上多一点。 老母出来了，一边拿自己的碗，一边问，谁要带饭？
标点（缪哲）
我的女儿不过十岁，对我文字的本领，却已很鄙夷了。最让她瞧不起的，是我居然不懂得标点，即古人说的“不习句读”。她的标点题，凡来问计于我的，十之五六要错。
标点不光是小学生的苦恼，也是偶尔写一点文章的人，屡屡犯怵的。盖标点是外来的东西，它是比量西方的语言之身定做的衣服，穿在汉语上，则不是短，就是长，不是松，就是紧。比如我上面的话，共有三个句子，但我一逗下来，只末尾用了句号。从英语标点的规则看，就不甚妥
当，但汉语却通。盖英语所谓的“一句”，是多从语法上着眼；汉语则以“意思的完整”为一句。语法上好办：一个英语句子，普通只有一个做谓语的动词；满足这条件，就是一句了。而“意思的完整”却麻烦；写一篇文章，上下句之间，总不能东一榔头，西一棒槌，意思全没有牵连吧？所以把句号的界碑插在哪里，有时就不好定。这就是为什么英语的标点只是“蒙学”，而汉语的标点可以让大人也丢脸。
英语以“语法的完整”为一句，是与其语言的曲折分不开的。如它的主语或宾语，可用一个句子（从句）来修饰，故它的一句，可相当汉语的数句。汉语的主语、宾语，若加修饰，则最好只用一次，否则会乱了。我们举例说。我前面的话，若写成英语再译为汉语，可作：作为外来之物的标点是比量西方的语言之身而定作的穿在汉语身上不是长就是短不是松就是紧的衣服。这是什么话？若理解这一点，则为小学生编教材的人，就该把标点的尺度松一松。因这玩意儿无论怎么着，都很难合汉语之身，尤其是句号。
古人写文章不标点，句子的起讫，以节奏为定，即苏轼说的“行于所当行，止于所当止”，这“当”，我理解为节奏的“当”。古人的文章所以音调和谐，节奏分明，是与无标点分不开的：否则就不知停在哪。拉丁文最初也没有标点，故音调与节奏必须讲究，所以西塞罗说，标点的使用，是彻底毁了拉丁文。但语言越接近口语，音调与节奏就不能太讲求。好的语言的标准，不光有音调与节奏，还有自然不自然。
美国专栏作家路易斯 ·托玛斯有一篇谈标点的文章，写得风趣而中肯，译其中的几节，作本文的结尾：
标点中最讨人嫌的，是叹号。你瞧瞧！它说，我的见解多令人叹服！滥用叹号的人，就好比在客厅里上窜下跳的崽子，强求别人的注意。
与叹号半斤八两的，是冒号。首先，它使人感到被牵着鼻子，迈向你不想去的地方。其次，它把句子逐一标号，首先，其次，如此等等；这言外之意，是你的智力稍欠，不作标号，
你会在文路上走丢了。许多作者使用这一套符号时，还有前无后；他们以一、二、三、四开始，随后就舍了标号，读者只好一路踉跄着，去苦寻五、六、七、八这些当有却没有的标号了。
我最中意的标点是分号。分号表明言犹未尽，还有话待补充。遇到分号，比遇到句号要快意。句号告诉你事情到此为止了，你要没看到你想看到的话，你只好自行一程。而在分号出现的地方，你却有快意的期待；美景在后面，接着读吧。
ConclusionFor a functionalist, grammar is the product of language use. Grammatical structures emerge in historically and socially situated settings. They are meaningful communicative symbols. To teach language effectively, we should teach linguistic constructions in concrete contexts. We should enable students select appropriate linguistic forms for specific intentions (registers). To do so, one must posses good knowledge of functional grammar and certain teaching techniques.
