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From DNA to Proteins
Same two steps produce all proteins:1) DNA is transcribed to form RNA
– Occurs in the nucleus– RNA moves into cytoplasm
2) RNA is translated to form polypeptide chains, which fold to form proteins– occurs at the ribosome
Steps from DNA to Proteins
Three Main Classes of RNAs
• Messenger RNA
– Carries protein-building instruction
• Ribosomal RNA
– Major component of ribosomes
• Transfer RNA
– Delivers amino acids to ribosomes
Differences Between DNA and RNA
1. Sugars – DNA = deoxyribose, RNA = ribose
2. DNA = double strand, RNA = single strand
3. DNA has Thymine as one base, RNA has Uracil instead
A Nucleotide Subunit of RNA
phosphate group
sugar (ribose)
uracil (base)
Figure 14.2Page 228
Base Pairing during Transcription
DNA
DNA DNA
RNAG C A T
C G T A
G C A U
C G T A
base pairing in DNA replication base pairing in transcription
Transcription & DNA Replication
• Like DNA replication– Nucleotides added in 5’ to 3’ direction
• Unlike DNA replication– Only small stretch is template
– RNA polymerase catalyzes nucleotide addition
– Product is a single strand of RNA
• A base sequence in the DNA that signals the start of a gene (TATA)
• For transcription to occur, RNA polymerase must first bind to a promoter (in eukaryotes this requires many transcription factors)
• Once RNA polymerase is bound it will unwind the DNA and nucleotides can be added
Gene Transcription
transcribed DNA winds up again
DNA to be transcribed unwinds
mRNAtranscript
RNA polymerase
Figure 14.4cPage 229
Adding Nucleotides
growing RNA transcript5’
3’5’
3’
direction of transcription
Figure 14.4dPage 229
Once the termination site is reached, the RNA molecule will be released. In eukaryotic cells, the RNA polymerase will actually pass the termination point before the RNA molecule is released.
Transcript Modificationunit of transcription in a DNA strand
exon intron
mature mRNA transcript
poly-A tail
5’
5’ 3’
3’
snipped out
snipped out
exon exonintron
cap
transcription into pre-mRNA
3’ 5’
Figure 14.5Page 229
RNA processing-
1. 5' cap with a modified guanine nucleotide is added.
2. At the 3' end 30-200 adenine nucleotides are added (poly-A-tail).
-These modifications prevent the mRNA from being degraded and signal the ribosome where to attach.
3.There are noncoding regions (introns) that are removed in eukaryotic cells. The remaining regions (exons) are joined together. A particle called a spliceosome removes the introns. Spliceosomes are composed of smaller particles called snRNP (made of proteins and snRNA).
-The average immature RNA is 8000 nucleotides long but the mature mRNA is 1200 nucleotides long.
Genetic Code
• Set of 64 base triplets
• Codon = 3 bases
• 61 specify amino acids. There is "redundancy" in the code or more than one codon codes for the same amino acid. One that codes for methionine also codes for “start”.
• 3 stop codons
Figure 14.7Page 230
tRNA Structure
codon in mRNA
anticodon
amino acid OH
amino-acidattachment site
Figure 14.8Page 231
Ribosomestunnel
small ribosomal subunit large ribosomal subunit intact ribosome
Figure 14.9b,cPage 231
Three Stages of Translation
Initiation
Elongation
Termination
Initiation
• Initiator tRNA binds to small ribosomal subunit
• Small subunit/tRNA complex attaches to mRNA and moves along it to an AUG “start” codon
• Large ribosomal subunit joins complex
Fig. 14.10a-cPage 232
Elongation
• mRNA passes through ribosomal subunits
• tRNAs deliver amino acids to the ribosomal binding site in the order specified by the mRNA
• Peptide bonds form between the amino acids and the polypeptide chain grows
Elongation
Fig. 14.10e-gPage 233
Termination
• Stop codon into place
• No tRNA with anticodon
• Release factors bind to the ribosome
• mRNA and polypeptide are released
new polypeptide chain
mRNA
Fig. 14.10j-kPage 233
What Happens to the New Polypeptides?
• Some just enter the cytoplasm
• Many enter the endoplasmic reticulum lumen and move through the cytomembrane system where they are modified
Overview
Transcription
Translation
mRNA rRNA tRNA
Mature mRNA transcripts
ribosomal subunits
mature tRNA
http://www.fed.cuhk.edu.hk/~johnson/teaching/genetics/animations/transcription.htm
http://www.stolaf.edu/people/giannini/flashanimat/molgenetics/translation.swf
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WsofH466lqk
Gene Mutations
Base-Pair Substitutions (point mutation)
Insertions (frameshift)
Deletions (frameshift)
Base-Pair Substitution
original base triplet in a DNA strand
During replication, proofreading enzymes make a substitution
a base substitution within the triplet (red)
original, unmutated sequence
a gene mutation
possible outcomes:
or
Figure 14.11Page 234
•Results in 1 wrong amino acid•Protein may still function
Frameshift Mutations
• Insertion
– Extra base added into gene region
• Deletion
– Base removed from gene region
• Both shift the reading frame
• Result in many wrong amino acids
Frameshift Mutation
mRNA parental DNA amino acids
altered mRNA
DNA withbase insertion
altered amino-acid sequence
arginine glycine tyrosine tryptophan asparagine
arginine glycine leucine glutamateleucine
Figure 14.12Page 234
Transposons
• DNA segments that move spontaneously about the genome
• When they insert into a gene region, they usually inactivate that gene
Mutation Rates
• Each gene has a characteristic mutation rate
• Average rate for eukaryotes is between 10-4 and 10-6 per gene per generation
• Only mutations that arise in germ cells can be passed on to next generation
Mutagens – things that can lead to mutations
• Ionizing radiation (X rays)
• Nonionizing radiation (UV)
• Natural and synthetic chemicals