FROM BYZANTIUMG R E E K F R E S C O E S A N D I C O N S TO EL GRECO

E d i t o r o f t h e c a t a l o g u e d r M Y R T A L I A C H E I M A S T O U - P O T A M I A N O U

D esign and p ro d u c t io n o f th e ca ta log ue R A C H E L M I S D R A C H I - C A P O N

E nglish tran s la t io n d r D A V I D A . H A R D Y

E d i t o r i a l a d v i s o r D I A N A Z A F I R O P O U L O U

A r t i s t i c a d v i s o r

M O S E S C A P O N

E d i t o r i a l a s s i s t a n t P H A I D R A K A L A F A T I S

P u b l i c a t i o n a s s i s t a n t

L I K A S A K K I

E x h i b i t i o n d e s i g n J A S P E R J A C O B A S S O C I A T E S

D esign adv iso r to th e G re e k M inistry o f C u ltu re A N T O N I S K Y R I A K O U L I S

P h o t o g r a p h s

B R I T I S H M U S E U M A .C . C O O P E R

G . B A L I S ,

B Y Z A N T I N E M U S E U M O F A T H E N S

M. S K I A D A R E S I S

9, 11, 12, 16,30 , 40, 43, 59, 611, 2 , 6, 19, 2 1a , 27, 33, 35,

36, 44, 48, 51 , 52, 55, 58, 66,

67, 68, 69, 703, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 13, 14, 15, 17,18, 20 , 21 b , 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 28, 29 , 31, 32, 34, 37, 38, 39, 41, 42, 45, 46, 47, 49, 50, 53, 54, 56, 57, 60 , 62, 62a , 63, 64, 65 , 71, 72, 73

A d d i t i o n a l p h o t o g r a p h s fo r t h e e x h ib i t io n I K D O T 1K E A T H E N O N . N A T IO N A L B A N K O F G R E E C E

T y p e -s e t t in g I O T O G R A M M A L I D .

( 'o lo u r s e p a ra t i o n M i l I IA11 I D E S B R O S .

S tr ip p in gG . P A P A P A N A G O P O U L O S

P r in tL. K A R Y D A K I S S. K A R Y D A K I S ( C o lo u r p la te s a n d c o v e r )

« ) I 'm / < «Io rk M in i l l i y ill ( u l lm i i Hyzsinliiu· M u s e u m o f A t h e n s

All r iglils ic s c iv e i l . N n p u l ol (liir. p u b l ica t io n m ay be r e p ro d u c e d o r I ra n s m i l lc i l in liny fo rm o r by an y m e n u s , e le c t ro n ic o r m e c h a n ic a l , in c lu d in g p h o lo e o p y , reco i t l in j i o r an y i n l o n n a l i o n s to r a g e a n d

re t r ieva l sy s lc m , wil l ioul p e rm iss io n in wri t ing Ironi the p u b l i sh e r

(I:_) ol· p h o to g r a p h sB r i t i sh M u s e u m 9, I I , 12, 16. A < C o o p e r 30, 40, 43, 59, 61. B y z a n t in e M u s e u m o f A t h e n s a n d a u t h o r s o f th e e n t r i e s 1-K, 10, 13-15, 1 7 - 2 9 , 3 1 - 3 9 , 4 1 , 4 2 , 4 4 - 5 8 , 6 0 , 6 2 - 7 3

Cover illustration: Cat. no. 35 Printed and b o u n d in Greece, 1987

— 6 —

COM MITTEE OF HONOUR

H I S E M I N E N C E A R C H B I S H O P M E T H O D I O S O F T t f Y A T l IK A A N D G R E A T B R I T A I N

T H E R T . H O N . T H E L O R D H A I L S H A M O l S I M A R Y l, I H O N E , L O R D C H A N C E L L O R

M A D A M E M E L I N A M E R C O U R I M in is t e r o f C u l t u r e , A th e n s

H is E x c e l l e n c y th e G r e e k A m b a s s a d o r in L o n d o n ,

M R S T E P H A N O S S T A T H A T O S

P R O F E S S O R C O N S T A N T I N E T r V p A N I S P r e s id e n t o f th e A t h e n s A c a d e m y

M A N O L I S C H A T Z I D A M S o f th e A t h e n s A c a d e m y

T H E RT. H O N l<l ( H A R D I I ' ( I Ml*

M i n i s t e r lo-t t in· A i l s , I i i n t l n i i

11 i s I x c c l l a n c y ( In l i m i t , h

A m b a s s a d o r in A lli i ' i is ,SIR II R I M Y II I( ( M A S . κ ι M O

MR R O C I R DE < IRIP r c i i k ' i i l o l 11 n ' K o v i i l A i i u l r m y

n n i ii i n . lit S I I VI N Kl IN< [ M A N i n P n siili nl ol Hi· ini i> ly lm 1111 I' ι i m u uion ol l l y / i in lm r Nlijj!<

— 7 —

L IS T O F L E N D E R S

A TH EN S B y z a n t i n e M u s e u m o f A t h e n s ; B e n a k i M u s e u m ; C i ty o f A t h e n s M u s e u m ; K a n e l l o - p o u l o s M u s e u m ; 2 n d E p h o r a t e o f B y z a n t in e A n t i q u i t i e s ( K y k l a d e s ) ; R A n d r e a d i s ; . _( P K a n e l l o p o u l o s ; I. Y a n n o u k o s ; P r i v a t e C o l l e c t i o n s . C R E T E 1 3 th E p h o r a t e o fB y * n n l in e A n t i q u i t i e s , I r a k l i o n ; C h u r c h o f S t . M a t t h e w S i n a i t o n , I r a k h o n ; C o l l e c t i o n o f t h e ( ' l u n c h o f S t C a t h e r i n e S i n a i t o n , I r a k h o n . E G IO N M e t r o p o l i s o f K a l a v r y t a a n d E g i a l e i a Church o f Z o o d o c h o s P ig . ( P a n a g i a T r y p i t i ) . ELASSON M e t r o p o l i s o f D e m e t n a s a n d I I n s s o n ; M o n a s t e r y o f th e O l y m p i o t i s s a . IO A N N IN A 8 th E p h o r a t e o f B y z a n t i n e A n t i q u i t i e s , Ml i r o p o l i s o f l o a n n i n a . K A ST O R IA A r c h a e o l o g i c a l C o l l e c t i o n . K E PH A L L O N IA l a o v a t i o s I i t n II y I i x o u r i K E R K Y R A A n t i v o u n i o t i s s a M u s e u m . KOS M e t r o p o l i s o f K o s , M e t r o p o i- „ u , < 'Im pel o f t h e A n n u n c i a t i o n . LARISSA 7 th E p h o r a t e o f B y z a n t i n e A n t i q u i t i e s . L E F K A S ΙΊ,ΙΜ,ς I i l u a r y C o l l e c t i o n . L O N D O N B r i t i s h M u s e u m ; M . P e r a t i c o s C o l l e c t i o n ; P r i v a t e « ,,ll· . l io n . P A T M O S M o n a s t e r y o f S t . J o h n t h e T h e o l o g i a n ; M o n a s t e r y o f Z o o d o c h o s P ig i ,( | , o i i i ; ( ' l u n c h o f A y io s G e o r g i o s A p o r t h i a n o n ( o r D i m a r c h i a s ) , C h o r a . P A T R A 6 t h E p o - i iii.< O l I t y / a u t ine A n t i q u i t i e s . R H O D E S 4 th E p h o r a t e o f B y z a n t in e A n t i q u i t i e s ; M e t r o p o is of K lio il i 's . s i ’AKTA 5 th E p h o r a t e o f B y z a n t i n e A n t i q u i t i e s . SYROS M e t r o p o l i s o f S y ro s , I m o · , A u d i o s , K e n a n d M i lo s ; C h u r c h o f t h e K o i m e s i s tis T h e o t o k o u ( P a n a g i a t o n P s a n a -I,0*5 i m S S A I .O M K K ilfh E p h o r a t e o f B y z a n t in e A n t i q u i t i e s ; M o n a s t e r y o f V l a t a d o n . I IN. i s S .1 I « u in d n l io n o f t h e E v a n g e l i s t r i a . V E R IA 9 th E p h o r a t e o f B y z a n t i n e A n t i q u i -II. / .A k VN I Mo s Z n U y n th o s M u s e u m ; M e t o c h i o n o f t h e M o n a s t e r y o f S t . C a t h e r i n e

C O O R D IN A T IN G C O M M IT T E E

S P Y R O S M E R C O U R I S S p e c ia l A d v i s o r t o t h e G r e e k M i n i s t e r o f C u l t u r e , C h a i r m a n

P I E R S R O D G E R S S e c r e t a r y , R o y a l A c a d e m y o f A r t s , L o n d o n

N O R l ^ A N R O S E N T H A U E x h ib i t i o n s S e c r e t a r y , R o y a l A c a d e m y o f A r t s , L o n d o n

E L E F T H E R I O S I K O N O M O U G r e e k M in i s t r y o f C u l t u r e

V I C T O R I A S O L O M O N I D I S C u l t u r a l A t t a c h e , G r e e k E m b a s s y in L o n d o n

O R G A N IZ IN G C O M M IT T E E

M A N O L 1 S C H A T Z I D A K I S , o f t h e A t h e n s A c a d e m y , C h a i r m a n

M Y R O N M I C H A I L I D I S D i r e c t o r o f B y z a n t i n e a n d P o s t - B y z a n t i n e M o n u m e n t s , G r e e k M i n i s t r y o f C u l t u r e

M Y R T A L I A C H E I M A S T O U - P O T A M I A N O U D i r e c t o r o f t h e B y z a n t in e M u s e u m o f A t h e n s

N A N O C H A T Z I D A K I S P r o f e s s o r a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f l o a n n i n a

R O B I N C O R M A C K R e a d e r in t h e H i s t o r y o f A r t in t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f L o n d o n ,

C o u r t a u l d I n s t i t u t e o f A r t , a n d S e n i o r M e m b e r o f R o b i n s o n C o l l e g e , C a m b r i d g e

L A S K A R I N A B O U R A S C u r a t o r o f t h e B y z a n t i n e C o l l e c t i o n

o f t h e B e n a k i M u s e u m , A t h e n s

A N A S T A S I O S M A R G A R I T O F F I n s p e c t o r o f C o n s e r v a t i o n , G r e e k M in i s t r y o f C u l t u r e

S T A V R O S B A L T O Y A N N I S I n s p e c t o r o f C o n s e r v a t i o n , G r e e k M in i s t ry o f C u l t u r e

A L T E R N A T E S

C H A R A L A M I i O S B O U R A S P r o f e s s o r o f Che N a t i o n a l I 'echnici i l U iu v e r s i l y o f Λ 11u 11·

isiDORO S k a k o u k i sI l e a d o f t h e B y z a n l i iu · M u s e u m s \ e e l i o n C r e e k Miilif lPs ol < i i Ii ih

Ί

P R E S I D E N T S P R E F A C E

T h e art of B yzan tium was one o f the sem inal inf luences on W e ste rn (as on E as te rn ) E u ro p e a n pain ting. O f this n o -one w ho has s tood rap t in adm ira t io n befo re the C im abu e Crucifix, w h en it was show n at B url ing ton H o u se four years ago, cou ld doub t . A n d it is a happ y co inc idence tha t this y ea r should m ark the 1200th anniversa ry of the Council of N icaea which a ff irm ed the en d of Iconoclasm , thus o p en in g th e way for religious p a in t ing to flourish again th ro u g h o u t C hr is tendom .

T h e exh ib i t ion displays, first, the h ighes t ach ievem en ts o f B yzantine artists and (lien show s how , particularly after the fall o f C o n s tan t in op le , the legacy o f B y z an ­tium was d ev e lo pe d an d transfo rm ed , u n d e r W este rn inf luence , par t icu la r ly in C re te . It conc ludes with a, possibly u n iq u e , signed w o rk o f El G re c o , recen t ly d is­covered on th e is land of Syros. T h u s we are constantly rem in d ed o f the in tegra l role of B yzan tine and la te r G re e k artists in the d ev e lo pm en t of E u ro p e a n pain ting .

T h a t we shou ld be privileged to hold this exhibition is du e , first to th e g e n e ro ­sity and c o -o p era t ion of th e G re e k au thor it ies , and in par t icu la r o f th e M in is te r of C u ltu re , M a d a m e M elina M ercouri , an d h e r Special A dv iso r fo r exh ib i t ions , M r Spyros M ercou r is , and the staff of th e Ministry and the B yzan tine M u s e u m of A then s : we m us t th an k them for bringing tog e the r the exhib i t ion , fo r a rrang ing the t r an sp o r t of these prec ious w orks from A th en s to L o n d o n and for the p ro d u c ­tion , at very shor t notice , of this m agnificent cata logue. W e have also bene f i ted Irom th e invaluab le sup po r t of the G re e k A m b a ss a d o r in L o n d o n , H .E . M r S te ­p han os S ta th a to s , and th e C ultura l A t ta c h e , D r V ic tor ia So lom onidis .

W e are deep ly in d eb ted to the ecclesiastical au th o r i t ie s and to the o th e r public and private collections th ro u g h o u t G reec e w ho have ag reed to lend the i r t r easu res I n this exh ib i t ion ; also to those individuals and ins ti tu tions in L o n d o n w ho have favoured us with the loan of m a jo r works. W e are particularly p leased to show in Mils contex t th re e su pe rb w orks recen t ly acqu ired by the British M u s e u m for the national collection of icons.

I mally, 1 m ust express the R oyal A cad em y 's g ra t i tude to the sp on so rs , who irspuiul· d with alacrity to ou r appeal for suppor t . T h ey include com m erc ia l com- Iiii11it (G lax o H oldings, Jo a n n o u & P arask eva ides (O v erseas ) an d M obil Oil i ii ) i-iIik a lional and cultural fo u n da t ion s ( the H ellen ic F o u n d a t io n , the A .G . I I'vrulP. I nm ul.i l ion , the Hellenic C u ltu ra l C en tre ) , an d a n u m b e r o f g en e ro u s Individual·, w ho have p re fe rred to reta in th e i r anonym ity . In ob ta in ing this spon- ,in >.1 ii11 we have en joy ed the unst in t ing sup p o r t of p ro m in e n t m e m b e rs o f the l 11 1 I ........ unit y in I .ondon.

R O G E R D E G R E Y

President, Royal Academy of Arts

A G R E E T I N G F R O M

T H E G R E E K M I N I S T E R O F C U L T U R E

T h i s exhibition u n d e r ta k e s a jo u rn e y in the dazzling, mystical w orld of the art o f B yzan tium , which survived th e fall o f the E m p ire and cam e dow n to the g rea t C re tan pa in te r , D o m e n ik o s T h e o to k o p o u lo s .

Wall pain tings and icons from G reece , giving form to the cultural an d aesthetic concep t ions of a peo p le with a cen tur ies old artistic trad it ion . A trad it ion tha t com bines the classical love for beau ty , sym m etry and h a rm o n y with th e ascetic sp irituali ty of O r th o d o x C hris tianity and E a s te rn richness o f colour . T h e w orks of a p e op le tha t c rea te d m as te rp ieces du ring the glor ious hours of the B yzantine E m p ire ; w ho, in the difficult t imes af te r the fall o f C o ns tan t in o p le , did no t lose h e a r t , bu t con tin ued to c rea te , p roduc ing w orthy co n tinuers an d renew ers o f the t r a d i t io n , and on occasion c rea to rs w ho left the i r m ark on the dev e lo p m en t o f art: a rtists o f the s ta tu re o f El G reco .

T h e exhibi tion is o rgan ized by the B yzantine M u se u m of A th e n s , in co o p ­e ra t io n with the experts o f the R oyal A ca d e m y o f A rts in L o n d o n . It has been e n r ich cd by the inclusion of i tem s now h o used in E n g lan d , in the Brit ish M useum o r in p r iva te collections ow ned by the G re e k res idents o f L o n d o n , w ho readily m a d e th em available in o rd e r to m ak e the exhibition as co m ple te as possible . This is par t icu lar ly w elcom e to m e , since it is my belief tha t par t ic ipa t ion in artistic even ts is of g rea t im p o rtan ce in p rom oting co o p e ra t io n , f r iendsh ip and mutual u n d e rs ta n d in g b e tw ee n nations and be tw een people .

M E L I N A M E R C O U R I

Greek Minister of Culluiv

I \

*

C O N T E N T S

I N T R O D U C T I O N S

19 M. C hatz idak is

22 M . A ch e im a s to u -P o tam ian o u

25 R. C o rm ack

E S S A Y S

29 A . A v ra m c a / B yzan tine G rcece

31 R. B row ning / B yzan tium a n d A n c ien t G reece

35 C. M a n g o / T h e C ult o f Icons

37 K. W a re , B ishop o f D iocle ia / T h e T heo logy and Spirituali ty of the Icon

40 M . C hatz idak is / B yzan tine Wall P a in t ing in G reece

43 M. A c h e im a s to u -P o tam ian o u / B yzan tine Icons

46 Ch. M al tezou / T h e G re e k W o rld and the L a tin D o m in a t io n

48 N. C hatz idak is / Icon Pa in t ing in C re te du ring the 15th and 16th C en tu r ie s

51 M. C o n s ta n to ud ak i-K i trom il ides / T as te and the M a rk e t in C re ta n Icons in“the 15th and 16th C en tu ries

54 L. B o u ra s / W o rk in g D raw ings o f P a in te rs in G ree ceafter th e Fall of C o n s tan t ino p le

57 P L A T E S

58 Byzantine W ood-C arv ings

62 B yzan tine and Post-B yzan tine W all Paintings

68 B yzantine Icons

98 P ost-B yzantine Icons

142 C artoo ns

145 C A T A L O G U E

20(1 M ap of G reece

201 Select B ibliography

2 0 1 A bbrev ia t ions

206 Iconogm phical Index

206 Index of Naim s

I *

G L O S S A R Y

Akra T apeinosis. M a n o f S o r r o w s o r C h r i s t o f P i ty . A p r e d o m i n a n t l y l i tu rg ic a l t y p e o f i c o n in s p i r e d f r o m t h e p a s s io n r i tu a l . I t d e p i c t s t h e d e a t h o f C h r i s t ’s h u m a n n a t u r e a n d t h e l i b e r a t i o n o f t h e d iv in e o n e .A napeson. A t y p e o f r e c l i n in g C h r i s t C h i ld p r e f i g u r i n g C h r i s t o n t h e C r o s s . I t w a s i n s p i r e d by B y z a n t i n e h y m n s .B e m a d o o r s . C f . S a n c t u a r y d o o r s .C hiton. U n d e r g a r m e n t o r tu n ic .C om nenian . B y z a n t in e d y n a s t y r e i g n i n g f r o m 1081 to 1185.D eesis. T h e p r a y e r f o r i n t e r c e s s io n . D e e s i s c o m p o s i t i o n s c o n s i s t o f C h r i s t b e t w e e n t h e s u p p l i c a n t f i g u re s o f t h e V i r g in a n d S t . J o h n t h e B a p t i s t . T h e G r e a t D e e s i s a ls o i n c l u d e s p o r t r a i t s o f t h e tw e lv e A p o s t l e s .D odekaorton . A se t o f t w e lv e i c o n s r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e m a j o r f e a s t s o f t h e O r t h o d o x C h u r c h ( A n ­n u n c i a t i o n , N a t i v i t y , P r e s e n t a t i o n in t h e T e m p l e , B a p t i s m , T r a s f i g u r a t i o n , R a i s i n g o f L a z a r u s , E n t r y i n t o J e r u s a l e m , C r u c i f ix io n , R e s u r r e c t i o n , A s c e n s i o n , P e n t e c o s t , D o r m i t i o n o f t h e V i r g in ) . T h e s e i c o n s f o r m a f r i e z e o n t o p o f t h e i c o n o s ta s i s b e a m .E leousa. T h e V i r g in o f M e r c y .E m m anuel. V a r i a n t o f P a n t o c r a t o r , w h e r e C h r i s t is r e p r e s e n t e d y o u n g a n d b e a r d l e s s .E pistyle. A r c h i t r a v e , t h e i c o n o s ta s i s b e a m .G lykophilousa. T h e V i r g in o f T e n d e r n e s s . A n i c o n o g r a p h i c ty p e in w h ic h t h e f a c e s o f t h e M o t h e r a n d C h i l d t o u c h e a c h o t h e r .H im ation. O u t e r g a r m e n t .H odegetria . T h e m o s t p o p u l a r t y p e o f V i r g in M a r y h o ld i n g th e C h r i s t C h i l d a n d p o i n t i n g t o H i m as a w a y to s a l v a t io n . I t is t h o u g h t t h a t t h e a r c h e t y p e w h ic h w a s p a i n t e d by S t . L u k e , w a s k e p t in t h e H o d e g o n M o n a s t e r y in C o n s t a n t i n o p l e , a n d w a s i n v o k e d f o r t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e city.Iconostasis. T h e s c r e e n s e p a r a t i n g th e s a n c t u a r y f ro m t h e n a v e . F r o m th e l a t e 1 1 th c e n t u r y th e c e n t r a l d o o r s ( s a n c t u a r y d o o r s ) a r e f l a n k e d b y i c o n s o f C h r i s t a n d t h e V i r g in . A b o v e t h e s e i c o n s is t h e e p i s ty l e , o f t e n d e c o r a t e d w i th i c o n s o f t h e G r e a t D e e s i s a n d / o r o f t h e t w e lv e fe a s t s . O n t o p o f t h e s c r e e n s t a n d s t h e c r o s s b e t w e e n tw o sm a l l i c o n s o f t h e l a m e n t i n g V i r g in a n d S t . J o h n ( th e ‘l y p i r a ’).K ardiotissa. A n e p i t h e t o f t h e V i r g i n u s u a l ly r e f e r r i n g to a v a r i a n t o f t h e V i r g i n G l y k o p h i l o u s a , p a r t i c u l a r l y p o p u l a r in C r e t e . I t is t h o u g h t t o d e r iv e f r o m a h ig h ly v e n e r a t e d i c o n k e p t in K a r y e s o f M o u n t A t h o s .K a t h o l i k o n . T h e m a i n c h u r c h in a m o n a s t e r y .K oim esis. T h e D o r m i t i o n o r ‘f a l l in g a s l e e p ' o f t h e V i r g in , o r a n y o t h e r s a i n t , a t t h e m o i n e n l o f d e a t h .L ypira. C f . I c o n o s t a s i s .M aphorion. W o m a n ’s c l o a k w i th f r i n g e s l i f t e d a t t h e b a c k o f t h e n e c k a n d u s e d as a h o o d . M e l i s m o s . T h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f C h r i s t C h i ld in a c h a l i c e , a c c o m p a n y i n g t h e o f f i c i a l inn b i s h o p s in t h e c h u r c h a p s e f r o m t h e 13 th c e n t u r y o n w a r d s .O m ophorion. T h e p r i n c i p a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e l i tu rg ic a l d r e s s o f b i s h o p s . Λ b a n d ol e lo lh Ιοορι I a r o u n d t h e n e c k a n d m a r k e d w i t h c ro s s e s .l’alaeologan. B y z a n t in e d y n a s t y r e ig n in g f r o m 1259 to 1453 (fal l o f ( ' o n s t a n t i n o p l i ).Pantanassa. T h e q u e e n o f all . A n e p i t h e t o f t h e V i rg in .Pantocrator. T h e A l m i g h t y : t h e m o s t u s u a l t y p e o f C h r i s t h o ld in g a g o sp e l in m u h u m I m id III· Ι ιψ w i th t h e o t h e r .P e r i b l e p to s . E p i t h e t o f t h e V i r g i n m e a n i n g ‘l o o k e d at I ro m all sidi",, m l m m il m i I i o i i i i i i i i 0 hv n i l

o b s e r v e r s ’.ΙΊιι-lonion. I t c o r r e s p o n d s to t h e c h a s u b l e o f th e W e s l i ' i n ( Ί η ι κ Ι ι mil h n .nn l lx di n m i l i i l w i thc r o s s e s .I’l a t y t e r a . R e p r e s e n t a t i o n o l th e V irg in a n d t hiU.1 II o ivnp lc ■ l l i r > Inn Ii in 11>< n ’.vnil io l o l tin I n c a r n a t io n .P r o s k y n e t a r i o n . S t a n d fo r i c o n s e x p o s e d to ptiblii in p i i v i i l r vein m l l o nP ro th o s i s . T h e n o r t h e r n p a r t ol th e san i l i iM iy wliufi tin o il iui)i I·η I In il lv lni l l l n i | i y i u i >li poMli ' il S a n c t u a r y d o o r s . T h e c e n t r a ] d o o r s ol (In· i i - o i n w h l i Ii glvi· n n i n i l o lln miiiiI iimiv (iiImi I t e n i a d o o r s )S l k l u i i i o n . A b i s h o p ’s u n d e r g a r m e n t . A lo n g l inn , i r l n l r d to tin iillu l | llie Wi I in < l in n Ii T r l p l y r l i . P o r t a b l e icon c o m p r i s i n g a i v n l i a l pan i ' l nnil tw o lo ld tn i will)'V i rg in o f t h e P a s s io n . R e p r e s e n t a t i o n ol th e V n i ' in nnil < III Ii I will) tw o nrtjhiinf.rl·, i iuTylft|i llie s y m b o l s o f Ihe P a s s io n ./.ikkIi ii 'I ios I’igi. f l ic l i fe -g iv ing s o m v i Λ ty p e ol II· V li | t ln i nn i i ' inp Π ο ιη ιι ι Ίη ι Ι Ιπ ' . l in p rd f o n n ln in w h ic h w a s i n s p i r e d b y B y /a n l in i · h y m n s ,

I /

T h . wall pain t ings and icons h e re assem b led have co m e from G ree ce , at the far end o f E u ro p e , to E n g lan d , the cou n try tha t supp lied the B yzan tine E m p ire with its finest m ercenaries : th e ‘Ing l ino i’. T h e p e r iod w hen the B yzantine E m p i re was at its he igh t ( twelfth to f i f teen th cen tu r ies ) and B yzan tium the w o r ld ’s leading p ow er , is r e p re sen ted only by a few wall p a in t ­ings, anti by lesser k no w n icons o f this period . This is the first t im e , h o w ev er , tha t so m a n y G re e k icons from the following period (f if teenth to s ix teen th cen tu r ies ) have b e en b ro u g h t to g e th e r in L on do n . D u rin g these cen tu r ies , th e te r r i to ry of m o d e rn G re e c e was occupied by two foreign pow ers, the V en e t ia n s an d the O t t o ­m an T u rk s . T h e two c o n q u e ro rs , with the ir very d if feren t h is tory an d cultural origins, inevitably exerc ised an inf luence on their sub jec ts , each a t its own level.

T h e few fragm en ts of d e ta c h e d wall paintings p re sen te d h e re are only a tiny fraction o f those th a t have been rescued from ru ined churches in G re e c e ; n a tu ­rally, these a re no t an a d e q u a te basis on which to form an idea o f th e layou t of (he pa in ted d eco ra t ion o f a B yzantine church , which was o n e o f the ach iev em en ts of the B yzan tine world . T h ey a re , how ever, rep resen ta t ive o f B yzan tin e pa in t ing , (or two reasons: th e techn iq ue in which they w ere e xecu ted , in h e r i ted from the ( l ie c o -R o m a n trad i t ion , en a b le d these wall pain tings to re ta in the i r original , bright co lours for cen tu r ies , desp i te the d am age inflicted on th e m by the w e a th e r mil a tm o sp her ic condit ions . A n d secondly , because the i r style is no t that ol a

local school, but em b races a varie ty of tendenc ies which can be fo un d th rou gh ou t the length and b read th o f the e m p ire , f rom C ons tan t ino p le to th e bo unds ol Asia M inor and from C re te to Italy. W h e n we reflect tha t th e re are roughly two11 ii>iis;mill Byzantine churches in G re e c e , conta in ing an endless variety and ill vi rsily o f d e co ra t ion , we a re b e t te r able to apprec ia te the significance o f what is In i Inips a un iq ue p h e n o m e n o n : h ow ever different all these w orks ol art may lu in ti frns o f techn ique and quali ty , they none the less have som eth ing in co m m on that I ii lifles the descr ip tion o f th e m as ‘B yzan tine ’ and clearly ilisl ingur.hi 's I he in lio in tin· non B y ian l in e . F rom a n o th e r point o f view, these wall pain tings lonsli luU valuable ev idence lor the average level of art in a B yzantine μ ιο ν ι ικ τ mil it I in·, lo be eoiicedeil tha t this was qu i te high, considering that they did not ■ unit in-ui iiiti|oi ii i ban centres.

T h e icon as a form o f ar t was c rea ted and flourished in B yzan tium , in d irect re la tion with bo th public and private worship. N everthe less , it was so closely b o u n d up with public life tha t it a c ted as a catalyst in times o f g re a t political crisis, such as th a t o f the Iconoclasm , which lasted for approx im a te ly a c en tu ry and a half (720-863) with only a shor t b reak . T he significance of a B yza n tin e icon for w orsh ip lay in the likeness it bo re to a specific p ro to typ e . T h e sain t d ep ic ted in an icon h ad to be im m edia te ly recogn izab le , w ithout it being necessary to re a d the inscription. This likeness was an essential condition o f the w orsh ip of icons since w ithou t it the divine grace inh e ren t in th e p ro to typ e w ou ld no t be t r an sm i t te d to the icons. This goes som e way to expla in the constan t repe t i t ion o f c e r ta in types , no t only of p o rtra its , bu t also o f narra tive scenes. In the case o f the la t te r it g u a ra n te e d the historical accuracy and authen tic i ty of the even t n a r r a te d . T h e re is no d o u b t th a t this principle affec ted the iconographic d ev e lo p m en t of the art in a varie ty o f ways. By con tras t , the stylistic deve lo pm en t was no t so strictly confined , th o u g h it too re ta ined its trad it iona l charac ter .

T h e dif feren t forms, shapes and sizes taken by icons w ere in large m easu re d e te rm in e d by the d ev e lo p m en t of the sanctuary screen , which evo lv ed from a sim ple part i t ion to a tall iconostasis. T h e gradual evolution o f the iconostasis and th e practice of adorn ing it with icons m ay account, m ore th an any o th e r fac to r , for th e vast p rodu c t io n o f icons in the B yzantine E m pire .

E ach g ro up o f icons on the iconostasis had a fixed sub jec t and a fixed size, and each individual icon had a fixed posi t ion within the group . T h e sum to tal o f them const i tu tes a concise, hierarchically o rgan ized s ta te m en t o f the O r th o d o x doctr ine: w orsh ip of icons, ri tual , salvation of the soul, incarnation . T h e la rger icons of C hris t, th e V irgin, St. Jo h n the Baptis t and the saints usually b e lo ng to the b o t to m row close to the w o rsh ip pe r , w h ere they w ere convenien tly p laced fo r p u rp o ses of p ro skyn esis (ven e ra t io n ) ; icons dep ic t ing scenes from the life o f Chris t re la ted to th e twelve m a jo r feasts o f the year com e from the row of the D o d e k a o r to n (r i tua l) ; icons with busts o f Chris t , th e Virgin, St. Jo h n th e B ap tis t , angels and apost les belong to the to p row o f th e G re a t D eesis (salvation); finally, the iconos­tasis is c ro w ned by a large Crucifix, and en try to the Sanc tuary is th ro u g h a richly carved p a ir o f d oo rs ( the B em a doors ) deco ra te d with a r e p re se n ta t io n sym boliz­ing th e In ca rna t ion (usually th e A nn u n c ia t io n ) . T hese icons and th e i r a r ra n g e m e n t h ad the i r influence on Ita lian a r t , on the form ta ken by the pa la on th e a lta r , and on E u ro p e a n art in genera l p r io r to the R ena issance , w h ere it can be seen in the grow th o f panel pa in ting on w ood . Similarly, a n u m b er of p a r t icu la r icons, no tab ly Ihose of th e Virgin an d Child in various pos tu res and the A k ra T ape ino s is , o r M an of Sorrow s, served as models for W e s te rn works, p ro d u ced in the m ain for the priva te w orsh ip of Catholics.

I'he ar t o f wall pa in t ing and o f the icon did no t com e to an e n d with th e final d issolu tion o f the B yzantine E m p ire in 1453. C re te and m any of th e A e g e a n islands had a lready been occupied in 1204 by the C ru sad e rs , by w h o m th ey w ere m led for m an y cen tur ies , bu t this did n o t p reven t the G re e k O r th o d o x inhab i tan ts I m m con tinu ing to p ro du ce w ork s of art fo r the ir religious needs.

A llci the fall o f C on s tan t in o p le , a new m a jo r cen tre o f art a rose in C re te , whi i r I he cities p ro spe red u n d e r th e V en e tian ad m in is tra t ion . T h e n u m b e r of p iu i i lu s was swollen by artists seek ing refuge from the centra l a reas o f th e em pire

20 —

c o n q u e re d by the T urks . T h e impressive n u m b er of pa in te rs a t w ork in C re te in th e f i f teen th and six teen th cen tu r ies was evidently a re spo nse to the increased d e m a n d for the ir p ro du c ts , no t only from the ir O r th o d o x custom ers bu t also from the conservative Catholics. T h e sam e forces induced the C re ta n pa in te rs to m ove to o th e r parts o f G re e c e , so m e o f th em p e rm anen tly ; T h e o p h a n e s Strelitzas B a thas , fo r exam ple , se t t led in M o u n t A th o s w here , with the assistance of his sons , he c re a ted som e sup erb ensem b les o f wall pain tings , and en t i re sets o f icons.

R e sea rch in the archives o f V enice in recen t years has i l lum ina ted many aspects of th e pa in t ing and w ood-carv ing o f this p e r iod ; m os t im p ortan t ly o f all, it has en a b le d us to identify with som e accuracy the m a jo r artists o f th e f i f teenth cen tu ry a n d the ir w ork ; m an y of these pain ters h a d e i th e r b een prev iously u n ­kn ow n , o r h a d been e r ro neo us ly da ted . T he resulting f r am ew o rk has in tu rn m ade it possib le to assign to this p e r io d a large n u m b e r o f bo th k n ow n and , until recen t ly , u n k n o w n icons. This exhibition has the privilege o f p re sen ting a large n u m b e r o f these icons, which have no t yet found th e ir way in to the h an d b o o k s . T h e flow ering of icon pa in t ing in f i f teen th-cen tury C re te offers an ex p lan a t ion of the inf luence and ach ievem ents o f this art in the s ix teenth ce n tu ry , which w ere a lready know n.

If called upon to sum m arize the ch a rac te r and quali ty o f C re ta n a r t , o ne might say th a t it k ep t alive the B yzan tine t rad it ion , with g rea t success, a n d was ab le to renew it by reco u rse to Ita lian e lem en ts , th ough it is as tonishing h ow few o f these th e re a re at such a late pe r io d , and after so m any cen tur ies o f coex is tence .

This w as the artistic back g ro u n d from which T h e o to k o p o u lo s (E l G re c o ) e m e r ­ged. L ike o th e r fine C re ta n artists of his day, he lea rned in Irak l ion to p a in t in bo th th e G re e k and the Ita lian m a nn er ; it is c lear from the D o rm i t io n o f the Virgin from Syros tha t even befo re he left C re te (1567) he was able to h an d le bo th styles with im press ive ease. H e never exp la ined why he u lt im ate ly chose th e ro ad to the W est. His pa in t ing in Italy and Spain , how ever, which reveals a com ple te b reak with the art of his fellow C re tans , pe rh ap s supplies the answ er.

M A N O L I S C H A T Z I D A K I S of the A thens Academy

F rom A th e n s (1985-86) to F lo ren ce (1986), an d n ow to L o n d o n . T h e exhibi tion o f G re e k wall pain t ings an d icons f rom B y zan tine an d Post-B yzantine times con tinues its travels in E u ro p e , com ing now to o n e o f th e w o r ld ’s g rea t capitals . It brings with it the f rag rance an d f lam e of the fa i th , the g ran d eu r , the poe try and th e glory of B yzan tium , an d th e s ta tu re and bri ll iance o f H ellen ism after the fall of C onstan t ino p le . ‘This w orld , so sm all , so g r e a t ’ in th e w ords of the p oe t . It con t in ues to travel, tak ing us with it to B y zan ­tium , to G reece .

A m o n g s t the exhibits are the su pe rb carved w o o d en d o o rs from a m o n as te ry in T hessaly , o n e o f the ra re exam ples o f its k ind (cat . no. 1), and a few r e p re s e n ta ­tive wall pain t ings de tach ed fro m churches in G ree ce (cat. nos. 2-6). T h e m ain focus o f in te res t , though , lies in the p o r tab le icons (cat. nos. 7-71). T h e m ajo ri ty o f these a re o u ts tand ing w orks o f the ar t o f O rth o d o x y , and p a r t o f th e rich heri tage o f G reece , g a th e red to g e th e r from d ifferent a reas o f th e coun try . T hey are in m os t cases th e crea t ions o f kn ow n and un kn ow n pa in te rs w ho w o rk e d in the m a jo r artistic cen tres of B yzan tium , o r in the rem o te ou tpos ts of m a in lan d and island G re ece . M any o f them are discoveries and acquisit ions o f the last tw en ty years , no t ye t fully know n to scholarship o r the public at large. In its p re s e n t fo rm , Ihc exhibi tion also includes som e fine icons from the British M u seum (cat. nos. 9,I I, 12 an d 16); a n u m b e r loaned by G re e k s res ident in L o n d o n (cat. nos. 30, 40, Ί3 , 59 an d 61); and o th e rs from the B yzantine M u seum of A th e n s seen a b ro a d for Ihc first t im e (cat. nos. 17, 20 and 35).

T h e icons a ssem bled here , inevitably no m ore th an a rep re sen ta t ive sam ple , il lustrate the ded ica tion to beau ty o f bo th the c rea to rs and the rec ip ien ts o f the ir visible a n d mystical sp le n d o u r a n d spiritual con ten t . T h ey also reveal th e firm classics I founda t ions , and occasionally the anti-classical tend enc ies th a t coexist- t il in IJy iail line , tha t is, E u ro p e a n art . A n art w hose hum an is t ic c h a ra c te r i I f (,νi m inftd ils o r ien ta t ions an d fu n d a m en ta l concern with th e re p re se n ta t io n of lli>- divine .iiul ils spiritual m anifesta tions. T h e icons offer a conspec tus o f the mii|ni and m inor slylislic and aes thetic t ren ds , p re fe rences and ideas ; fo rm u la ted

over the cen tur ies in the artistic cen tres o f C ons tan t ino p le and I hessa lon ike .ind, from th e fi f teen th cen tu ry onw ards , o f C re te , these ideas fell on fertile soil, took ro o t an d bo re fruit b o th in B yzan tine G reece and later. In som e eases, such as in B y zan tine T h essa lon ike and post-B yzan tine C re te , they fo rm ed lan d m arks in the d e v e lo p m e n t of art , inf luencing pain t ing and supplying il with now fa rm s anil ideas in an a rea far w ider than tha t of m o dern G reece .

O n e o f th e im p o r tan t g roups included in the exhibition consists of i< o n s f r o m

n o r th e rn G reece . T h o u g h only a small p ro p o r t io n o f the m any surviving Uy/,in t ine and post-B yzan tine icons o f M aced on ia , m ost of th em from k a s l o i i a , they a r e

in te res t ing exam ples of the d is tinctive technique and style o f tin nil p i o d m i d in

T h essa lo n ik e , K astor ia and o th e r M acedon ian w orkshops . O ik · o f I lit in is a m a s

te rp iece: th e w onderfu l ly expressive double-s ided icon with llu· Virgin I lod<‘)H iri* and C hris t in the type of the A k ra T apeinosis , o r M an o f Sorrows ( r a l . n o . K).

T h e m a jo r p a r t o f the exhibition is devo ted to the C re tan irt of iIn n l i 'c u i l i an d , to a lesser ex ten t , the s ix teen th centuries . It includes signed works by A n ge lo s an d N iko laos Tzafouris , and by N ikolaos l .am b ou d is , an i snigmnln pauil e r f rom S p ar ta w ho p ro b ab ly w o rk ed in C re te , unsigned icon n ll i ihm il to A n ge lo s , A n d re a s R itzos and T zafouris , and s o n * excellent panel* I’Y an o ny m ou s artists. T h ese are typical o f the artistic quali ty and the n pi n o i r e ol lilt eiilli and early s ix teen th -cen tu ry C re ta n pa in t ing , which eo ven 'd a will, ·,ρςι l im n i nti rin}.·. for the religious and aes the tic req u irem en ts of a d em an d ing ami mix I < >i llimlox and C atho l ic c lientele , bo th in C re te and further iheld Λ small Iiul im|<mliml g ro up o f signed and unsigned icons by M idi lei I ' imasknio! p io h ib ly by I m n gios K lon tzas o r his circle, and by o th e r p am lr rs , r ives a p n im <>l ninlufi < i r la n pa in t ing in the second hall' o f the s ix teenth ee n lm y At lit ίιιιιιι· mil· it tun s I In­artistic env iro nm en t that n u r lm e i l (he youni’ OoniunlKt’s II" 'I ' lKopoulos, who la ter b eca m e fam ous as (il G rec o when lie was lollowiui'. llu c.lniiou·. path 111 a I led to the lofty peaks of 1 u ro pean ait Ills icon ol th M o im ino n ol tli Virgin from the A e g ean island of iyyrQs (eat no o ' ) which h signed At t Μ 11N IK (>< Θ Ε Ο Τ Ο Κ Ο Π Ο Υ Λ Ο Γ Ο Λ1 ΙΞΛ( , is the pfidi Ol tli i \ l i ib il ion willi n Hashes of light an d co lour , it reveals the lati nt u IM n genius ol the gri i| ( re lan , tin stMl young m a s te r from C andia .

This su p e rb icon by D o m e n ik o s wil· d isenveied by ( i M iis lm opoiilos , ( in ilor of A n tiq u i t ie s , in 1983, while search ing in llie c h u n In o( SvfOs for In n looms left by refugees from the island o f l’sara. II was imnn dialely b io n i’hl to the B y /an t in e M u seu m of A th en s , w here the authentic, i I y ol I hi in I isl 's signal ιιι i was confirm ed It was th e n c leaned and conserved willi great ■ l.ill by \ I ta ltoyennis , w ho re ­m o ved the la ter repa in tings and undid llu damagi- caused by lime and the ignorance of m en . T h e clum sy, m uch later painting, I Iiul obscured it, mostly at the edges, can still be seen h e re and th e re , notably m llu g roups o f apost les in the clouds.

T h e icon by D o m e n ik o s T h e o to k o p o u lo s is only one o f m any in th e exhibi tion tha t w ere d iscovered , ident if ied , rescued and conserved by the a rchaeolog is ts and res tore rs o f the G re e k A rchaeo log ica l Service. A few of these icons m ay be m e n ­tioned here .

T h e d oub le -s ided icon o f the Virgin H odcge tr ia and St. N icholas (cat. no. 18), an excel len t fo u r teen th -cen tu ry w o rk , was selected from tho se h o u se d by the

— 23 —

A rch b ish o p o f R h od es , Spyridon . T h e process of conservation and c lean ing in the Byzantine M u seu m un covered the original rep re sen ta t io n o f St. N icholas on the reverse side. T h e icon was then sto len bu t, happily, was located and re tu rn e d to G reece .

T h e icon with scenes from the Passion o f Chris t , f rom the B yzantine M o n a s ­tery o f V la ta d o n in T hessa lon ike (cat. no. 22), was sen t by the E p h o ra te of A n t i ­quit ies in Thessa lon ike in 1977 to the C en tre for the C onse rv a t io n of A n tiq u i t ie s , w here the la te r repa in ting was rem o v ed by the d is tinguished c o n se rv a to r Ph. Z a c h a r io u , revealing w hat survives of this m as te rp iece o f m in ia tu re pa inting .

T h e w o rk of the labo ra to ry o f th e B yzantine M u seu m of A th e n s inc ludes the rem oval o f la te r repain tings, which are p reserved and placed on sep a ra te w o o den panels . T h is process has recen t ly b rou gh t to light two m o re icons from the M u s e u m p re sen ted here: in 1981, the excellent C re tan sanc tuary d o o rs (cat. no. 53) w e re c lea ned o f the e ig h teen th -cen tu ry pain ting with which they w e re covered ; and in 1984, the icon of the T h re e C h u rch F a th e rs (cat. no. 17), an o u ts tand in g fo u r tee n th -c en tu ry w ork , was revea led b e n e a th a se v e n teen th -cen tu ry pain ting. T h e difficult, delicate task was carr ied ou t by the re s to re rs S. B a l toy ann is an d A . M argari to ff , with the he lp of the M u s e u m conservation team .

In conclus ion , we w ould like to ex ten d w arm es t thanks to the v arious E p h o - ra tes o f B y zan tine A ntiqu i t ies , m onas te r ie s , churches , m u seu m s a n d public and private collections w ho have been kind eno ug h to lend i tems for th e exhib i t ion , and also to all those w ho have ex p en d ed effort and m on ey to br ing it ab o u t . W e owe a g rea t deal to the ecclesiastical au thor it ies and the peop le o f Syros, w ho co n sen te d to the first a p p e a ran ce ou ts ide G reece o f th e precious icon o f D o m e n i- kos T h e o to k o p o u lo s ; and to the na tiona l and ecclesiastical au thor it ies o f C yprus , th rou gh w hose generos ity we are p e rm it ted to show five of the o u ts tan d in g t r e a ­sures o f th a t is land, including the two g rea t tw elf th-century icons o f the N e o p h y to s M on as te ry . P art icu la r th an ks are d ue to th e G re e k and C yprio t co m m un it ie s , and the G re e k E m b assy , in L on d o n for th e i r m oral and m ateria l su p p o r t ; and above all to th e R oy a l A cad em y o f A r ts fo r th e en thus iasm with which it u n d e r to o k the o rg an iza t io n , with G re e k co o p e ra t io n , an d for its unstin t ing efforts to secure a perfec t se t t ing for the exhibition.

M Y RTA LI A C H E IM A S T O U -P O T A M IA N O U

Director of the Byzantine Museum of Athens

-E /x h ib i t io n s o f icons in G re a t Brita in h av e been few and far be tw een . W orse , they have conspicuously lacked a c o n c e p t­ual a im - they have w ork ed on the principle tha t icons can speak for them selves. O f course icons cann o t sp eak for them selves; no ar t can. T h e a im o f this exh i­b it ion is to do m o re th an to show an ou ts tand ing set o f paintings: it d o c u m en ts the in tegra l ro le o f B yzantine an d la te r G re e k artists in the d ev e lo p m e n t o f E u ro p e a n art. Y e t these icons com e from th e period which saw the decline of the B yzantine E m p i re a n d the rea l ign m en t o f political control in the E a s te rn M e d i te r r a n e a n b e tw e e n the Islamic and C ru sa d e r pow ers. W es te rn pow ers , par t icu lar ly V en ice , d o m in a te d in G reece o ve r m os t o f the t im e, a lthough u lt im ate ly T urk ish ru le was im posed . W ith one excep t ion , the artists of this p e r iod are little k now n in Brita in . T h e excep t ion is El G reco .

O n e fund am en ta l issue o f the p er iod is w hat is an ‘ico n ’. This m ay be an eve ry day w ord bu t how m any p eo p le really know w hat an icon was in the M iddle A g e s o r w hat part icons have p layed in the develop ing his tory o f E u ro p e a n art , p ar t icu lar ly in the R en a issan ce an d a f te r? T he co m m o n es t answ er will p ro b ab ly be in te rm s which imply tha t this fo rm o f ar t was repet i t ive and stylistically u n c h a n g ­ing, m os t su itable fo r supplying the images on C hris tm as cards . T h is exhibition con ta ins en ough variety an d range o f expression to challenge such an answ er. II in tends to tu rn ‘ico n ’ f rom an everyday w ord into an everyday concept.

A dic t ionary defin it ion o f the G re e k ‘e ik o n ’ is ‘likeness, image o r p ic tu re ’, and the w o rd has th e re fo re b ee n u sed - quite justifiably - as a b la n k e t te rm to refer lo any w ork of ar t p ro d u c e d in the G re e k world. B u t som etim es it is m o re useful to limit its use to panel pa in t ings p ro d u ced for m e m b ers of th e O r th o d o x co m m u n ity for church o r h o m e devo tion s and worship . This opens up the possibility ol' a d e e p e r analysis o f the m ean ings o f ‘iconic’ and of the roles in religion and s o u e ty ol I his kind o f image. T h e failure o f Iconoclasm in the eighth and ninth cenliiiii s lo deny the use o f figurative im ages in B yzantium led to the e s tab l ishm en t ol n Ί heology in co lo u r ’. Icons to ok on an integral part in eve ry o n e 's th inking llu v C.naranleed (he historicity ot C hris t and die saints and lliey supplied visytil pm (rails which helped society in genera l anil m onks in part icu lar to n< hii-ve llu mn

25

o i th e im ita tion o f the life of C hris t and th e saints. This exhibi tion also uses the te rm to descr ibe devotional panels p ro d u c e d in C re te and e lsew here in G ree ce a l te r the fall of C o n s tan t in o p le in 1453, a n d it th e re fo re c rea tes a new a rea of d e b a te . T h e se icons are in a com pos ite style with e lem en ts o f the B y zan tin e t r a d i­tion an d of I ta lian R ena issance art , and w ere p ro d u ce d bo th for G re e k a n d I ta lian p a tro ns . T h e y are a new form of religious expression and a new type o f E u ro p e a n art . A re they icons in the sam e sense as earlier?

W ith in the overall chronological a r r a n g e m e n t o f the exhib i t ion , th e first gallery is d ev o ted to the B yzan tine p er iod (with exam ples from the tw elf th cen tu ry up to 1453), a n d this will allow the focus to be on th e n a tu re of th e B y zan tin e icon, w h e th e r p ro d u c e d in such u rb an cen tres as the capital C o ns tan t in o p le o r T hessa lo - nike o r by art ists w ork ing in th e m ore p e r ip he ra l a reas o f the E m p ire . T h e ch a n g ­ing fo r tun es o f the Byzantine E m p ire in this per io d are re f lec ted in its a rt . Since C o n s ta n t in e the G re a t d ed ica ted his new E as te rn R o m a n capital on th e site of B yzan tium on th e B osph o ru s in 330, C o ns tan t ino p le h ad b een th e capita l which co n tro l led ex tens ive regions o f the E a s te rn M ed i te r ran e an w orld . Since the e m p e r o r T h e o d o s iu s the G re a t had dec la red Chris tianity to be the official religion o f the e m p ire in 391, it h ad co n tin u ed as a self-consciously Chris t ian S ta te . B y z a n ­tium was th e re fo re in this p e r iod a declin ing p ow er , su r ro u n d ed by th e exp an d in g Is lamic em p ire of the A rab s and T u rk s , and by the K ingdom s o f the W e s te rn E u ro p e a n C ru sad e rs and by colonizing Ita lian cities. B yzan tium was po la r ized into an e m b a t t l e d em p ire uphold ing O r th o d o x C hris tianity against heresy an d unbe lie f , its m o n a s te r ie s an d churches w ere the sym bols o f its religious co m m itm e n t . In this w orld , B yzan tine icons w ere the sym bolic expression of O rth o d o x C hris t ian belief an d w orsh ip a n d ac ted as m o re th an m ere decora t ion : they re p re se n te d the t ru th w hich this society u phe ld . Since this t ru th was seen as unchang ing , so icons too are significantly trad it iona l in the i r forms an d subjects. Y et this exh ib i t ion rep ea ted ly d e m o n s tra te s tha t within the trad it ions , pa in te rs found o pp o r tu n i t ie s fo r varia tion and innova t ion . B yzantine a r t is obviously too diverse to be label led as m ere ly a ‘s ty le ’; ‘B y z a n t in e ’ refers to the visual w orld o f a w hole com plex cu ltu re .

A n o u ts tan d in g case o f the B yzantine icon is th e do ub le-s ided w o o d e n panel from K as to r ia in n o r th e rn G reece . It could be carr ied in p rocession o r set u p on a s tand in church . This is a c lear case o f how icons could p art ic ipa te in co m m u n a l w orsh ip o n special occasions and also be available fo r p r iva te d evo tions . O n e side show s the Virgin M ary tearfu l and sad , po in t ing to the C hris t Child a n d evok ing his C rucif ix ion; on the o th e r side we see Chris t in D ea th . This is th e sub jec t know n as the ‘M an o f S orro w s’ o r in G re e k A k r a T apeinosis ( ‘U tm o s t h u m i l ia t io n ’, Isaiah 53.8); b u t C hris t is descr ibed in the text on th e icon as the King o f G lo ry ’. T h e icon show s one of th e u lt im ate p a rad ox es o f the re lig ion, th e

hum ilia tion o f C hris t which d e m o n s tra te d all the p ow ers o f G o d . T h is is the ear- Iκ. si know n exam ple of this icon sub jec t , which seem s to have b e e n in v en ted in Lhr twelfth cen tu ry as part o f th e ri tual o f G o o d Friday. It m ay h ave b ee n p ro - d iin ' t l lor a m onas te ry : m on ks w ere im p o r tan t pa tro n s of art in the p e r io d and particularly in te res ted in d ram atiz ing the cerem onia l of E as ter .

I < 111; 111 y im po rtan t for u nd e rs tan d in g th e his torical ro le o f the icon in E u ro p e a n mi γ the ( msHider pain t ing o f St. G e o rg e (now in the collection of th e British M i r , m i Ml ! o u d o n ) . If this is correctly identif ied as a pain t ing by a F ren ch artist

26

w o rk in g in the G re e k E a s t in th e middle o f the th i r teen th cen tu ry , it forms part ol a g row ing doss ier o f ev idence th a t in this per iod W este rn E u ro p e a n artists had d irec t o p p o r tu n i t ie s to study Byzantine icons at first han d a n d tha t the ir artistic p ro d u c t io n was a lte red by the experience . T h e C ru sad e r exper ien ce was only one ca ta lyst in the process th rou gh which the Byzantine w orld , itself in a com plica ted re la t ionsh ip with its G re c o -R o m a n past , was assimilated in to th e E u ro p e a n R ena issance .

W ith the fall o f C on s tan t in o p le in 1453, the cen tre of th e B yzan tine world d is a p p e a re d and the em pire was split be tw een the m a jo r pow ers of th e M e d i te r ­ra n ean . O r th o d o x C hris t ians now had to live u n d e r the new reg im es o f th e O t t o ­m an s an d W este rners . T h e second and third galleries o f th e exh ib i t ion show the effects on ar t in G reece . G eograph ica l ly the largest a rea still u n d e r C hris t ian rule was C re te . T h e V e n e tia n s h ad tak en over the island as p a r t o f the i r colonial e m p ire in the a f te rm a th o f the F o u r th C rusade o f 1204 and they m a n a g e d to keep co n tro l until the fall o f C an d ia (I rak lion ) to the O t to m a n s in 1669. C re te was an is land o f tow ns and villages w h e re O r th o d o x m onas te r ies an d ch urches mingled with V en e tian palazzos and C atho lic churches . R egu la r con tac t was easily possible by b o a t with Venice; it was the ideal p lace for the artistic ass im ilation o f eas te rn and w es te rn E u ro p e a n trad it ions. O n e o f the most obvious W es te rn fe a tu res was the o rgan iza tion o f art ists into a Scuo la di San Luca. C re te was no t u n iq u e in its e n c o u ra g e m e n t of the p ro d u c t io n of ar t in this period . T h e O r th o d o x m o nas te r ie s o f n o r th e rn G reece , as at M e te o ra and on M o u n t A th o s , and o th e r p a t ro n s c o m ­m iss ioned m uch w ork to o , an d th e re was a thriving co m m u n ity on R h o d e s (par t ic ­u lar ly from 1306 w h en th e Knights of St. J o h n of J e ru sa lem ga ined con tro l until 1522 w hen the is land fell to the T urks) . But the artists o f C re te e s tab lished the c h a ra c te r o f th e p e r io d th ro u g h o u t G reece .

T h e n am es o f m any o f these artists are know n an d several signed o r a t t r ibu ted w o rk s are in the exhib i t ion , no tab ly by A ngelos from the f i f teen th cen tu ry and M ichael D a m ask in os f rom the s ix teen th , who was the c o n te m p o ra ry o f El G reco . A fine exam ple o f the f i f teen th -cen tu ry p roduc t ion a f te r 1453 is an icon o f the E n try into Je ru sa lem (f rom th e K anellopoulos C o llec tion ) , w hich show s how m uch o f the B yzantine is re ta in ed in C re tan art , yet subtly a lte red . T h e scene is iden tif ied by a G re e k inscrip t ion in the ‘sky’, and m any stylistic an d iconographic e le m en ts are familiar f rom ear l ie r icons. Y et there a re surpris ing fea tu res : the boy rem o v ing a tho rn in o n e o f the trees , which refers visually to the fam ous classical s ta tu e o f jus t this th e m e ( the sp inario ), the spatial ren de r in g o f the city of J e r u ­salem which rem inds us o f th e circle o f M an te g n a , o r th e reced ing landscape which m ight ev ok e Tuscany . T h e tran sfo rm at ion o f the B yzantine ‘iconic’ ten t iering o f Biblical n arra tive into this exotic w este rn ized narra t ive pa in t ing needs very careful assessm ent. W as it deep ly offensive to the o u t loo k of the O r th o d o x C hris t ian o f the f if teenth cen tu ry? D id the G re e k popu la t io n o f C re te feel that the ir religious faith was being u n d e rm in e d by this v en ee r o f R ena issance nxpiVs s ion? O r did they w elcom e this t ransfo rm at ion o f the past? I low did the V ene tian p a t ro n s o f this type o f ar t react to this kind o f O r i e n t a l i s m ’ in style? fh # sc and o th e r such quest ions still n e ed to be answ ered . It is only in recent yeai that Ih quali t ies o f C re tan pain t ing have been accep ted by art h is torians and ill tl> III to rical in form ation in the archives and elsew here has yet to be IbJJv explo i ted

7

A fu r the r ex am ple of the decora t ive possibilities o f this new type of icon is a large pane l of St. D e m e tr iu s (f rom C orfu ) da ting from the en d o f the s ix teen th cen tu ry . T h e p a t ro n sain t of T h essa lon ike is show n riding on ho rseback in f ro n t of the city he p ro tec ts with the help of G o d . T h essa lon ik e , by this tim e u n d e r O t t o ­man con tro l , looks m o re I ta lianate than B yzantine! F or all the quali ties o f this icon, h o w ev er , it does no t equal the ach iev em en t o f the young El G re c o , b o rn in C an d ia ( I rak l io n ) a b o u t 1541 and bap tized D o m e n ik o s T h e o to k o p o u lo s (d ied 1614).

This exh ib i t ion does no t seek to d o c u m en t the w o rk of Έ1 G r e c o ’, as w e know him b e t te r , in Italy o r af ter 1577 in T o le d o , bu t it does vividly ev ok e the visual en v iro n m e n t in which he was tra ined in C re te , and displays his m ost im p o r tan t early w o rk , th e signed icon (from Syros) o f the D o rm it io n (or K oim esis) o f the Virgin M ary . O n e can see all th e t rad it iona l Byzantine e le m en ts - th e h u m a n w itnesses of he r d ea th and the signs o f the ascent of her soul to heav en ; b u t the pictoria l t r e a tm e n t of this O r th o d o x C hris t ian sub jec t is t r an s fo rm e d into the a t ­m o sp h e re o f V en e t ia n R ena issance art. T w o o th e r w orks are k n ow n from this early p e r io d o f El G reco on C re te (bo th in the Benaki M u seu m , A th en s) . O n e is an icon of St. L u k e pain t ing a po r t ra i t icon o f th e Virgin M ary , and the o th e r is an A d o ra t io n o f th e Magi. T hese w orks establish the ex ten t o f know ledge of B yzan ­tine t rad i t io ns in C re te which El G reco h ad ab so rb ed and show his abilities to tra n s fo rm th em th ro u g h study o f the a tm osph er ic and spatial devices o f c o n te m p o ­rary V e n e t ia n art.

T h e exh ib i t ion d o cu m en ts the beginn ing of the rem ark ab le ca ree r of El G reco . He is surely the m os t challenging artistic figure to arise from it. D o e s his w ork re p re sen t the cu lm ina t ion o f Byzantine art? O r does it rep resen t the b e traya l of Byzantine trad i t ion s? D o es it give a new m ean in g to G re e k a r t? O r is E l G re c o an artist who transcend s the legacy into which he was born? Such ques t ion s can only be a n sw ered w h en the c h a rac te r of the ‘icon ’ is also un d e rs to o d . It is eas ie r to say that El G re c o grew ou t o f the m ixed trad it ions o f G reec e , B yzan tium and V enice than it is to exp lo re all the quest ions ra ised in the identif ication and ex p la n a t io n of lliese trad it ions.

R O B I N C O R M A C K

Courtauld Institute of Art , London

B Y Z A N T I N E G R E E C E

D u r i n g its o n e th o u san d years ' h is tory , the B yzan tine E m pire , th e Chris t ian s ta te of the R o m a n E as t , e m b ra c e d a varie ty of d if fe ren t civilizations and fo rm ed an am algam of diverse creeds and cultures . B y zan tiu m , a s ta te of hu m an n a tions had its capital at C on s tan t in o p le , the m e e t ­ing p o in t o f E u ro p e and Asia. T h o u g h firmly a tta ch ed to the political and social ins ti tu t ions of the L a te r R o m an E m p ire , it evolved the new ecum enica l religion, C hris t ian ity , spoke the G re e k language , and a d o p ted G re e k educa t ion .

In o rd e r to trace the b ou n d a r ie s of G reec e u n d e r the B yzan tine E m p i re , we have to b ea r in m ind th a t th e w o rd ‘H e l la s ’ is a historical te rm , w ith ou t any specific geographica l con ten t . T h e geography of Byzantine H ellen ism coincides n e i th e r with the w ider b o rd e rs o f the E m p ire , n o r with the n a r ro w e r b o rd e r s of m o d e rn G reece . W ith in th e constantly changing borde rs and the varied ethn ic com p os i t ion o f the E m p ire , the fo rm a tion of G reece as an in d ep en d e n t region was in f luenced by the adm in is tra t ive o rgan iza tion , the military organ iza tion and the, n a tu re o f com m unica t ions .

D u r in g the E arly B yzantine period , the G reek lands, wlueh lo r m td pari ul the b ro a d e r adm in is tra t ive fram ew ork o f the s ta le , w ere assii’iu d in tin pm efi ■ tu r a ’ o f Illyricum and divided be tw een the p m v in t i s o f 'M a ced o n ia ' and 'A i h.ica ' m ‘H e l la s ’ they w ere far rem o ved from the cen tre , w here tin decis ions ul great m o m e n t w ere tak en . With the exception ol M acedonia and Us capital I hessalo n ike , which occupied an im portan t position on the m a jo r u n s r ie s ol t o m nium cation b e tw een E ast and W est , the G ree k lands occupied a posi t ion ol sia Oftdify im p ortance . D u rin g this transit ional per iod , even ts of great im port m o has tened the e n d o f the ancient world . T h e p roc lam at io n ol C h iis l iam tv as tin- official religion o f th e s ta te m a rk e d the beginning o f the Early Chris t ian civili/aLion I h it f lourished in the fifth and sixth cen turies . T h e G re ek m ain land and islands a n lull o f bri ll iant, richly d eco ra ted m o n u m en ts . This building activity suggcsls econom ic p rosperity . T h e E arly Chris t ian basilicas are som etim es built over pagan tem ples , so m etim es close to fam o us p agan shrines, and som etim es on the tom bs ol m ar tyrs , as in the case of the large basilica o f St. D em etr iu s in I hessa lom ke , the basilica ol the Ilissos in A th e n s and the basilica at L echaeu m near C or in th .

— 29 —

T h e n a tu ra l d isasters in the middle o f the sixth cen tu ry - the e a r th q u a k e s o f 522 and 551 - an d m o re im portan tly th e incursions o f the A vars and th e Slavs from the en d o f this cen tu ry on w ard s , caused m a jo r upheavals . U rb an life w ent into decline and econom ic activity d im in ished . This was th e beg inn ing o f the critical years o f th e ‘μέγ ιστον χ ά σ μ α ’ ( ‘g rea t c hasm ') in the h is torical r e co rd and the cu ltu ra l evo lu t ion . T h e roo t causes are to be sought in the co lon ization by the Slavs and in even ts of a m ore genera l n a tu re th a t w ere h ap p e n in g in th e E m p i re , such as the conso lida t ion of the naval po w er of the A ra b s in th e M e d i te r r a n e a n , and the c o n se q u e n t collapse of the B yzantine sup rem acy at sea. T h e d is tu rban ces o f the seven th cen tu ry signalled the failure o f the G re c o -R o m a n political, e c o n o ­mic and in te llec tual system.

B e tw een the e n d o f the seventh cen tu ry and the first decades o f the n in th , the provincial adm in is tra t ive system of the E m p ire was re fo rm ed by the in t rod uc t io n o f a new ad m in is tra t ive ins ti tu tion , the ‘t h e m e ’. T h e reasser t ion o f the au th o r i ty of the s ta te w as to m ark a gradual rev ita lization of the a rea , despi te all the difficulties it h ad to face as a result of the invasions by the A rab s and the Bulgars du ring the n in th and ten th cen tur ies . T h e econom ic and d em o graph ic recovery can be d e ­tec ted in th e revival o f the ea r l ie r u rb an cen tres and the founding o f new se t­t lem ents . Local industry f lourished, and the quan ti ty of currency in c irculation increased . In th e coun trys ide , the pow erfu l landow ners occup ied g reat esta tes . A t the sam e t im e , the C h urch was reo rgan ized and th e re was a revival in religious and m onas tic life. T h e cult ivation of le t ters and ar t was a fea tu re o f the p e r io d from th e beg inn ing of the n in th cen tu ry onw ards .

T h e d is tu rban ce of the in te rna t iona l ba lance of pow er in the M e d i te r r a n e a n , the decline of the naval po w er o f the A rab s , and the expansion o f the W es te rn pow ers in to the E as t u she red in a new period . T h e N o rm a n raids agains t G re e k lands at the en d o f the e leven th cen tu ry w ere to be r e p e a te d m o re savagely in the twelfth. T h e a b a n d o n m e n t of the B yzantine M ed i te r ran ean to the m ar i t im e cities o f Italy w as o n e o f the main fea tu res of the last cen tur ies of Byzantine his tory. T h e Latin eco no m ic p en e tra t io n th a t acco m p an ied the dom ina t io n by W e s te rn trade led to th e decline o f B yzantium . T he political and eco no m ic sovere ign ty of the W est cu lm in a ted in the dissolution of the Byzantine E m p ire in 1204. T h e Latin feudal s ta tes - the k ingdom of T h essa lon ike , the D uchy of A th en s , and th e Princi­pality o f A c h a e a - w ere e rec ted on the ru ins o f the B yzantine s ta te . T h e V e n e ­tians installed them se lves at po in ts tha t w ou ld secure contro l of com m un ica t ion s 11v sea: the Ionian is lands, M o d o n a n d C o ro n in the P e lo p o n n e se , C re te and the ( yfilades b ecam e V en e tia n possessions. In 1204, the un ity of Byzantine G reece i .mu tu mii end . The efforts of the B yzantine e m p e ro rs and th e despo ts o f Epirus m l ihe M iiiea resulted in the reco nq ues t of the lost te r r i to r ies , b u t the e n d o f the

111111 11' i iilli i uli iry saw the beginn ing o f the gradua l expansion o f the O t to m a n I in I 11111 III i;0 n(|ii(sst o f G re e k lands. In 1460, the D e sp o ta te o f the M o re a fell

bCO I Ik ImihI· Ί tin· 1 inks and the last re m n a n t of B yzan tine au th o r i ty in G reec e

W ilN ll I III 11 v

A N N A A V R A M E A

Professor at the University of Crete

M)

B Y Z A N T I U M

A N D A N C I E N T G R E E C E

X he visitor who com es fro m viewing the E lgin M arb les in the British M u seu m to th e exhibition of G re e k icons at the Royal A c a d e m y m ay well feel nonp lussed . H as he s tep ped into a totally d if fe ren t w orld , s e p a ra te d from classical G re e c e by an unbridgeab le gulf? T h e difference is real en o u g h . T h e m en w ho built the P a r th e n o n w ould be jus t as d isconce r ted could they visit the exhibition. B yzan tine artists w ere no t slavish copyists of m odels from a d is tan t past . T h ey h ad the ir own trad it ions, the ir ow n values, the i r ow n ideals. Y e t they and the society in which and for which they w o rk ed w e re linked by a co m plex w eb o f con tinu ity with G re e k an tiqu ity , and their w ork c a n n o t be fully u n d e rs to o d unless we b ea r in m ind these links.

F irs t a m o n g them com es the G re e k language. Like o th e r languages it changed o ve r the cen turies . B u t the ra te o f change was slow if we c o m p are it with tha t which led fro m A nglo -S axon to m o d e rn English. A n d the li terary language o f the B yzan tin es rem ained close to th a t o f classical an d post-classical an tiquity . T he l i te ra tu re o f Classical G reec e , o f the Hellenistic w orld , and o f th e F a th e r s o f the C h u rc h w as instantly accessible to any e d u ca ted B yzantine. A n d with th e litera tu re h e ab so rb e d the ideas and values which it expressed. H e m ight well take a critical s tance tow ards som e of these . H e m ight som etim es m isu nd ers tan d them . B u t he was no t cut off by a language b a rr ie r from the world o f his ances to rs , as was th e m edieval Italian o r F re n c h m a n , to say no th ing of his E nglish o r G erm .in co n tem p o ra ry .

T h e B yzan tines , to o , possessed an d w ere aw are o f a political and insti tutional con tinu i ty with the past w hich the W est lacked. In Italy, F rance , Spain , Mi it iin, G e rm a n ic k ingdom s had estab lished them selves on the ruins o f the R o m an I in p ire . T h e B yzantine s ta te was the R o m a n E m p ire , and its citizens i i l l r d l l u m selves R o m a n s . T h e ir ru lers w ere the direct successors o f A ugus tus , I i ij in .uni C o n s tan t in e . T h e ir ins ti tu tions had changed o ve r the c en t im es by e v o lm io n i.iiln i th a n by revolution .

T h e y lo o ked back with familiari ty to classical ( Iraccc In lli ii .< 11 nl 111> re a d H o m e r and Sophocles , D e m o s th e n e s and Aiis tSlle while ρ ιh i .11nnr. nl

II

sc h o o lb o y s p r a c t i s e d c o m p o s in g sp e e c h e s to p u t in th e m o u t h o f P e r ic le s o r A l e x ­a n d e r . H o w e v e r , th e lo n g c e n tu r i e s o f H e l le n i s t ic a n d R o m a n G r e e c e w e r e c lo se r to th e B y z a n t in e s t h a n w as c lassica l A t h e n s , b o th in t im e a n d in e m p a t h y . L u c ia n a n d th e G r e e k n o v e l i s t s , P to le m y a n d G a le n w e re m o r e re a d i ly acc e ss ib le to t h e m th a n w e re A e s c h y lu s o r H e r o d o tu s . It w as in la rge m e a s u r e t h r o u g h H e l le n i s t ic e y e s t h a t th e y p e rc e iv e d C lass ica l a n t iq u i ty .

T h is w a s th e w o r ld in w h ich th e C h r is t i a n C h u rc h g re w a n d s p r e a d . It w as th e w o r ld in w h ich th a t sy n th e s is o f H e l le n ic a n d J u d a e o - C h r i s t i a n c u l tu r e w a s w o r k e d o u t , w h ic h h a s m a r k e d th e c iv i l iza t ion o f E u r o p e th r o u g h th e c e n tu r ie s . T h is fu s io n to o k p la ce in a so c ie ty o f G r e e k c u l t u r e , th r o u g h th e m e d i u m o f th e G r e e k l a n g u a g e , f ro m St. P au l th r o u g h C le m e n t o f A le x a n d r i a to th e g r e a t F a t h e r s o f th e f o u r th a n d e a r ly f if th c e n tu r ic s : A th a n a s i u s , G r e g o r y o f N a z ia n z u s , B as i l o f C a e ­s a r e a , G r e g o r y o f N y ssa , J o h n C h r y s o s to m , C yril o f A le x a n d r i a .

A re s u l t o f th is c re a t iv e fu s io n o f tw o o r ig in a l ly d is t inc t t r a d i t io n s w a s th a t very m a n y e l e m e n t s o f classica l G r e e k c u l tu re b e c a m e in teg ra l p a r t s o f C h r i s t i a n B y ­z a n t i n e c u l tu r e . T h e s e r a n g e d f ro m p r o v e r b s a n d a n e c d o t e s to a p h i lo s o p h ic a l v iew o f th e w o r ld to w h ich P la to a n d A r i s to t l e , th e S to ics a n d th e S c e p t ic s , a n d th e N e o p la to n i s t s o f la te a n t iq u i ty h a d all m a d e s u b s ta n t i a l c o n t r ib u t io n s . T h e s e c lassica l e l e m e n t s , o f c o u r s e , in c lu d e d m u c h th a t w as o n ly sup e r f ic ia l ly , if a t all , r e c o n c i la b le w i th C h r is t i a n d o c t r in e - m a g ic , a s t ro lo g y , p o p u la r r i te s a n d c e l e ­b ra t io n s . In 692 a C h u r c h C o u n c i l f u lm in a te d ag a in s t th o s e w h o c o n s u l t e d f o r t u n e ­te l le r s , c l a i rv o y a n t s a n d s o r c e re r s , o r w h o to o k p a r t in p e a s a n t m u m m e r y in w h ic h th e false g o d s o f th e H e l l e n e s w e re in v o k e d . F ive c e n tu r ie s l a t e r a l e a r n e d c h u r c h m a n o b s e r v e d sad ly th a t such p ra c t ic e s w e re still p r e v a l e n t . A t th e e n d o f llu I'ourlh c e n tu r y J o h n C h ry s o s to m d e n o u n c e d f ro m th e p u lp i t th o s e m o t h e r s w h o h u n g co in s o f A le x a n d e r th e G r e a t f r o m th e i r c h i ld r e n 's n e c k s as a m u le t s . A I l inns ,mil y e a r s l a t e r G r e e k m o t h e r s w e re still d o in g ju s t th a t .

A I tin o i l ie r e n d o f th e s p e c t r u m th e a u s t e r e E le m e n ts o f T h e o lo g y o f th e p a g a n N c o p la to m s t P ro c lu s , willi its v iew o f th e u n iv e r se as an u n c r e a t e d a n d I mu less i i n a n i t i o n f ro m the p r im a l O n e , w a s p r e s e rv e d , c o p ie d a n d r e a d fo r a l im n ind year ifti-r · h r i s t ian i ly hud b c c o n u the so le p e r m i t t e d re l ig io n . In the t well I h c c u lu l V a f t iholar b is h o p w ro ti a r e f u ta t io n ol it b e c a u s e ol th e g ro w in g m tc r ,t it ai <<nsi (I anion;· Ins e o n ti m p o i a n e s . In tin· last y e a r s ol th e B y z a n t in e I m p n e it in p m <1 l i> n n s to s l ’l< l l io n ’s gr mil P la to n ic vis ion ol the w o r ld , in w h ich ( In istiafli ly i o n n d no pi α ι I hi l e c lu ie s w h ich P le th o n gave in I lo r e n c e in 1438 I m d thi im a g in a t io n ol the i u ly I ta l ian h u m a n i s t s , anil led e v e n tu a l ly , t e n y e a r s lifter ( ons i m t m o p l r had lalli n to the ( M tom an 1 u rk s , lo M ars i l io F ic in o s t r a n s l a ­t ion in to 1 it in ol all P la to 's d ia lo g u e ; , w IikI i p ro v id e d th e e s s e n t ia l f o u n d a t io n o f K en a iss i net IM i lo m sm I u m o 's p o r t ra i t bus t by A n d r e a F e r ru c c i d a F ie s o le still s t a n d s in F lo r e n c e c a th e d ra l H e l l i o n ' s m o r ta l r e m a in s w e re b r o u g h t f r o m M is t r a in th e lY lo p o n n e s e bv S ig ism o iu lo M a la te s l a in 1464 a n d r e b u r ie d in a s a r c o ­p h a g u s in th e o u t e r wall ol tin h n ip io M a la te s t i a n o in R im in i . T h e s e tw o R e ­n a is sa n c e m o n u m e n t s a rc a te s t im o n y to th e p e r s i s t e n c e w ith w h ich th e B y z a n t in e s p r e s e r v e d th e p h i lo so p h ic a l l ic i i tag e ol th e i r a n c e s to r s .

B y z a n t in e s w e re a lw ays c o n sc io u s th a t th e i r c iv i l iza t io n h a d tw o r o o t s , H e l l e n i c a n d C h r i s t i a n , a n d o f te n re f e r r e d to th e m . A m a n — o r a n e p o c h — m ig h t lay m o r e e m p h a s i s o n th e o n e o r th e o t h e r , b u t n e i t h e r c o u ld b e to ta l ly r e j e c t e d o r d e n ie d .

E l e m e n t s o f b o th a r e c o n s ta n t ly f o u n d side by s id e , as a k in d o f c l iche o f B y z a n ­t in e t h o u g h t . A n e le v e n th - c e n tu r y a r c h b i s h o p m a k e s a tr iv ia l m o r a l p o in t by l im i t ­ing f r o m H o m e r a n d th e P sa lm s . T h e e m p e r o r A le x iu s C o m n e n u s ju s t i f ie s the s e iz u re o f c h u rc h p la te a t a m o m e n t o f crisis to p a y his t r o o p s by c i t ing th e c \ a m p ies o f D a v id , w h o gave th e c o n s e c r a t e d b r e a d f r o m th e t e m p le o f th e I o u t to Ins s o ld ie r s , a n d P e r ic le s , w h o t o o k t e n t a l e n ts o f s i lver f ro m th e t e m p le o f A th e n a ' f o r a s e c r e t p u r p o s e ’ d u r in g th e re v o l t o f th e E u b o e a n s .

D u r i n g th e i r lo n g m e m b e r s h i p o f th e R o m a n E m p i r e th e G r e e k s l e a r n e d to t r a n s c e n d th e n a r r o w local p a t r io t i s m w h ich o f te n m a r k e d th e m in the Classic il p e r i o d . A s o n e o f th e m r e m a r k e d in a s o m e w h a t idea l is t ic panegyr ic o f K om i R o m a n c i t iz e n sh ip d id n o t b e lo n g to a sing le c ity b u t w as a c o m m o n n a t io n a l i ty fo r th e w h o le civilized w o r ld . T h is s en se o f th e im p o r t a n c e o f b e lo n g in g lo a g r e a t e r po l i t ic a l u n i ty th a n a m a n 's n a t iv e city w as s t r e n g th e n e d w h e n th e U n m a n E m p i r e b e c a m e th e C h r is t i a n R o m a n E m p i r e , th e u n iq u e m s tru m e i i i ot a ilivnn p la n fo r th e s a lv a t io n o f m a n k in d . W h i le W e s te r n E u r o p e d is so lv ed m io a kalc i d o s c o p ic m o s a ic o f s t a te le t s w h ich m ig h t g ro w , f lo u r ish a n d w ithe r a w a v wit Inn n s ing le l i f e t im e , th e B y z a n t in e E m p i r e , th o u g h its f ro n t ie r s η ιηΊ ι ι c.\[ mil .n i on t r a c t , r e m a i n e d a p o w e r fu l , d u r a b l e , s ta b ly a d m in i s te r e d s ta ti ol uiu-<|iii\cn il l< g i t im a c y , a lo n e o f its k in d in m e d ie v a l E u r o p e , a n d c n g a r in ) ' th e ι ιη ΐ |ΐ ι ΐ" . ΐ ιοπΙημ loy a l ty o f th e g r e a t m a ss o f its c i t izens . It n a tu r a l ly iiTfteri11 d m a n s rl i m n ts ol R o m a n p o li t ica l t r a d i t io n . T h e g re a te s t o f th e se w as law Iu-.l nn.in I <>,/,· anil D ig est in G r e e k t r a n s la t io n , anil w ith v a r io u s a d a p ta t io n s , i c m a i i n d an t l io i Itaiivi- so u rc e s o t su b s ta n t iv e law to tin e n d In tin W esl R o m a n law h ad to In i r d i s c o v e re d by (lie D o c to r s ol B o l o p i a in Hi· e le v e n th l e n l u n In tin I list n w in n e v e r los t. B y /a n line so c ie ty , lo r all its m · is ional vtoli in in p im i IpU hv d u n d e r th e ru le ol law. nol ot irhit ra fy i l ix r e e oi In i t ia l i us ion i \ in I il·. la w w as a d i r e c t h e r i t a g e from tlie c lassical w o rld

T h e s e a r e so m e ol the e le m e n t* ol r n n l m m l s tlial m a i l i d the I t y / a n t in c w o r ld , a c o n t in u i ty th a t m v o l v id civajTv use ol n in l i t i a d i t i . iu to mi t new n e e d s . T h e B v zan t ines d id not ρι i sei v· cl ass n ; 1 11 .n In ion m n In m g rd In a Kind ot d e e p f r e e z e , un ti l th e W est h ad n e e d ol n li w as ill ii o w n In m a p ' w h ich ll iey u s e d fo r t h e i r o w n en d s .

H i s t o r i a n s will e x p la in in m o r e de ta i l ind waili η ιο ι ι d i s t i i i i i n g e \ p t h s c how B y z a n t in e a r t i s t s t r e a t e d th e legacy o f a n t iq u i ty it dill· n ut ρ ι-n o d s I will c o n f in e m y s e lf to a few g e n e ra l c o n s id e ra t io n s . I irsi, il w onlil rievei hav e οι λ m i n i to any B y z a n t in e to b u ild a re p l ic a o f th e P a r th e n o n I h it was l· Ii to the < i l izcns o f E d in b u r g h in 1822 - 'a n d th e y ran ou t ol m o n e y aflc i e ie i mi)' tw 'd v e c o lu m n s ' a n d o f N a s h v i l le , T e n n e s s e e in 1920. But they had ill i o n n d i l icm lar m o r e e x a m ­p les o f C lass ica l a n d H e l le n is t ic art th a n we possess . I h en w iy o f lo o k in g a t th e m c h a n g e d w i th c e n tu r ie s . A t first th e i r c o n n e c t io n w ith pai h i c u l tu re e n d o w e d th e s e m o n u m e n t s w ith s in is te r anil th r e a te n in g o v e r t o n e s I In. s t a tu e s in th e H i p ­p o d r o m e a t C o n s t a n t in o p l e w e re b e l ie v e d in lie in h a b i te d by p o te n t ia l ly d a n ­g e r o u s sp i r i t s . In th e c o u rs e o f t im e , h o w e v e r , ai lists tu r n e d to c o p y in g , b o t h in i c o n o g r a p h y a n d in s ty le , th e n a tu ra l i s t ic art o f a n t iq u i ty , w h ich th e y g ra d u a l ly fu s e d w i th C h r i s t i a n a r t is t ic t r a d i t io n s largely o f N e a r I -a s te rn o r ig in . O n e n e e d o n ly lo o k a t th e s ix th -c e n tu ry l i tu rg ica l vesse ls f rom Rilia a n d S tu m a in S y r ia (n o w d iv id e d b e tw e e n th e A rc h a e o lo g ic a l M u s e u m in I s tan b u l a n d D u m b a r t o n O a k s in

— 33 —

W a sh ing to n ) , o r the superb seven th -cen tu ry D av id p la tes from C y pru s (now divided b e tw e e n the N ational M u seum of C yprus and the M e tro p o l i ta n M u seu m of A r t in N ew Y ork ) to see how early and with w hat dis tinction this ad a p ta t io n o f Classical a r t to C hris t ian pu rposes began . T h e classicizing i l lus trations in the m anuscrip t of G reg o ry o f N azianzus ex ecu ted for the e m p e ro r Basil I c. 880 (Paris gr. 510), o r the ten th -cen tu ry Paris Psal ter (Paris gr. 139), o r th e co n te m p o ra ry Bible of L eo the Patr ic ian (V at. Reg. gr. 1) show how p ro fo u n d the inf luence of an t iqu e m odels on B yzan tine art h ad beco m e by th e age o f the M a ced o n ian e m ­perors . E v en such conservative ar t forms as th e m ural d ec o ra t io n of ch u rch es and the pa in t ing o f icons w ere no t im m u n e to the artistic cu rren ts o f the i r time.

A less o bv ious channel of classical inf luence , which has only recen t ly beg un to be ex p lo red , is the use m ad e by B yzantine artists of ea r l ie r l i te rary descr ip tions. This applies in part icu la r to the g raph ic an d vivid descrip tions of Biblical scenes and even ts by the fo ur th -cen tu ry F a the rs , w ho had all been tra in ed in the soph is ti­ca ted te ch n iq ues o f rhe torica l descr ip tion . B u t it may well go m uch fu r the r : the descr ip tion o f a na tura l o b jec t , a landscape , or a w ork o f ar t was o n e o f the exercises p rescr ibed on the schoo l-books from which the B yzantines le a rn e d the art o f self-expression , and for which th ey looked to classical m odels . W h e th e r artists th em se lves read books - which w ere costly objec ts in the M iddle A ges - or w h e th e r l i terary influences w ere mainly tran sm it ted via the i r p a t ro n s , is an in te r ­esting q u es t io n , to which we do no t yet know th e answer.

T h e th ird chan n e l of inf luence is a m o re abs trac t one . P la to was d eep ly m o v e d by a r t , and at the sam e time fea red it for its pow er. H e ban ished ft f rom his ideal s ta te because it was at two rem o v es from the true reality , the w orld o f ideas , of which physical ob jec ts w ere bu t im perfec t copies. T h e p ro b le m of the n a tu re o f artistic r ep re sen ta t io n p reoccup ied his la ter followers, w h om w e call N eo p la to - nists. T h e g rea tes t of these, Plotinus (th ird cen tury A D ) , v e n tu re d to co rrec t his m as te r and to suggest tha t an artist m ight well see b ey o n d the physical o b jec t which w as his m o de l to its ideal n a tu re . In o th e r w ords he recogn ized th a t art could be a c rea t ive activity and no t a m e re m anufac tu re of facsimiles. T h is view of the sta tus an d activity of th e artist c o n tr ibu ted to the a rg um en ts used by the de fe n d e rs o f icons du ring the g rea t iconoclast dispute which ren t B yzan tine society in the eighth an d early n in th centuries . In this way the a t t i tude of the O rth o d o x C hurch and O r th o d o x society tow ards the artist and his w o rk was in p a r t d e ­te rm ined by a ph ilosophical d iscourse which o rig ina ted in classical G re ece . In no dom ain o f B yzantine ar t was this m o re im p o r tan t than in tha t of icon pain ting.

R O B E R T B R O W N I N G

Emeri tus Professor, University of London

.14

T H E C U L T O F I C O N S

. ^ ^ . n O r th o d o x church is un th ink ab le w ithou t its icons in fron t o f which candles are lit, incense b u rn t and o th e r acts of devotion p e r fo rm ed . In this respect the O r th o d o x differ from C hris t ians of o th e r d en om ina t ion s : R o m a n C atholics adm it in their churches b o th s ta tues and pa in ted im ages, b u t d o no t, on the w ho le , address to them m uch in the way of v en e ra t io n ; P ro te s tan ts o f the m o re fundam enta l is t variety eschew all im ages; while Syrian Jaco b i te s a re equally co n ten t to w orship with or w ithou t them .

W h en we enq u ire why it is tha t the O rth o d o x are so a tta ch ed to the ir icons, we d iscover th a t this practice has no foun da t io n e i the r in H o ly Scrip ture o r in the theo logy o f the early F a thers . Its origins m ust be sough t in h is torical trad i t io n an d its de ta i led justification is co n ta in ed in the A cts o f the S eventh Council he ld at N icaea in 787 as well as in the so-called Synodikon o f O r th o d o x y o f 843. T hese en a c tm e n ts rep re se n t the reac t ion o f the E as te rn C hu rch against Iconoc lasm , in t ro du ced by the E m p e ro r Leo III in 730; and Iconoclasm , in tu rn , w as a reaction to w h a t w'as r eg a rd ed in som e q ua r te rs as an ido la trous v en e ra t io n o f im ages for which the A lm igh ty had de livered the Chris t ians to chas t isem en t at the h an d s of the i r enem ies . In o th e r w ords , th e E as te rn C hurch in 843 re s to red w ha t had been genera l p rac t ice before 730; and since the whole quest ion was definite ly se t tled there and th e n , tha t is still w here it rem ains today . T h e O r th o d o x C h u rc h is a C hurch o f trad it ion .

W e try , th e re fo re , to cast o u r minds back to 730 (and earl ier) and w ha t do we find? Relig ious im ages are ev eryw here , in churches , in p r iva te houses , on public m o n u m e n ts , in boo ks , on utensils. S om e are 'n a r ra t iv e ’ im ages in the sense that they re p re sen t an inc iden t, and these m ay be a rran g ed in a sequ ence to tell a story e i th e r f rom the Bible o r f rom the life o f a saint. T h ey serve to ins truct the il li terate in the tru th s o f Chris t ian ity o r act as rem inders o f sacred events . O th e r im ages, h ow ever, a re simply po rt ra i ts and do no t convey any action o r m essage o th e r than a ‘p re s e n c e ’. T h ey may, if se ldom , rep resen t a saint w ho is still alive, m o re o ften a saint o f the pas t - a m ar ty r , an apost le , the Virgin M ary , Jesus Chris t himself. It is the p o r t ra i t icons tha t a t t rac t vene ra t ion . T hey are p ray ed to and w ork miracles. O ccasional ly they speak o r w eep . T hey b leed if s tab b e d by an unbeliever. They float across the sea w ithou t gett ing wet. Like palladia they are ca rr ied into batt le by arm ies. T h ey serve as g u a ran to rs o f contracts . A partic le o f paint or plaster taken from an icon m ay be ingested and cure a disease. In shor t , an icon is perce ived no t m ere ly as a likeness, bu t as a vehicle of su pe rna tu ra l p ow ei. as tli •doub le’ o f the saint r e p re sen ted on it o r the ‘shel l’ in which lie dwells.

There can be no d o u b t tha t such practices w ere ex trem ely w idcspu ad in 11· sixth and seven th centuries . At the time it was aff irm ed that i r o n pann ing was a·, old as C hris t ian ity itself and was an •unwritten trad it ion that St. I uk r Ιι,ιιΙ paiiii

Is

ed a p o r t ra i t of the Virgin M ary a n d th a t C hris t, after im press ing his fe a tu res on a towel had sen t it to King A b g a r o f E dessa . T h e la t te r (a long with severa l o thers) was an im age ‘no t m ad e by han d ' (acheiropoietos) and d e m o n s t ra te d divine sanct ion for the exis tence of icons. T o d ay we no longer believe th a t icon pain t ing w en t back to apostolic times. W e know from archaeological ev idence th a t the early C hris t ians before c. A D 300 cult iva ted — if they did so at all — an ar t th a t was sym bolic ra th e r than literal; tha t po r t ra i ts o f saints began to a p p e a r r a th e r timidly at a b o u t the tim e of the E m p e ro r C o n s ta n t in e and tha t som e c h u rc h m e n did not ap p rov e of th em . A s for the cult o f icons, we cann o t trace it m uch befo re the middle o f th e fifth cen tury . S peak ing historically, w hat the O r th o d o x C h u rch has p e rp e tu a te d is the si tua t ion th a t p revai led in the sixth and seven th ccn turies .

It is easy to describe the cult o f icons as crass supersti t ion and expla in its g row th as the result o f the sp read of C hris tianity to rural po p u la t io n s th a t had been pag an from times im m em oria l and w ere incapable of ad o p tin g a spiritual religion w ith ou t a physical focus of devo tion . T he Iconoclasts , a lthough they lacked o u r h is torical p e rspec tive , clearly reg a rd ed it as idolatry . So did c o n te m p o ra ry Jews. Y et th e p rob lem is no t qu ite th a t simple. W hy is it tha t sub t le theo log ians like St. Jo h n D a m ascen e , like St. T h e o d o re the Studite and the P a tr ia rch N ik e ­pho ro s , w ho w ere certain ly aw are of w h a t strike us as supers ti t ious p ract ices , felt com p e l led to de fend in m any h u n d red s of pages bo th the ex is tence an d - u n d e r certa in sa feguards — the cult of icons, no t as unqualif ied w orship {latreia ) , th a t can be add re s sed only to the Divinity, bu t as ‘honorific or relative w orsh ip ( li/netike o r schetike p ro skyn esis )? W hy w ere they convinced tha t the b an n ing o f icons struck at the very h e a r t of the C hris tian message? I shall not do th e m the d isser­vice o f re -s ta t ing their a rgu m en ts in te rm s they w ould have fo un d alien, bu t shall p e rm it myself one observa tion . T o them as to m ost o th e r B yzan tines the re la tion o f an im age to its m odel (o r 'p ro to ty p e ') was not the sam e th ing as it is to us. If p ressed on this po in t , we w ould say tha t the produc tion of a likeness is a m a t te r of art is try , th a t it d ep end s on a configura t ion of line and co lour w hich c a p tu re s the l ineam en ts and expression o f an individual, no t a genera l ized h u m a n face. A B y­zan tine w ould no t have pu t it in those term s. T o him the re lation was m o re inti­m a te like th a t of a signet to its im press ion , different as to su bs tance , bu t identical as to fo rm o r ‘p e r s o n ’. T h a t is why he re jec ted the s ta tem e n t tha t an icon ot Chris t o r o f a C hris t ian saint w'as an idol. H ow could it be an idol if it re p re se n te d C hris t? A n idol was the p ic ture of a false god, who was really a d e m o n , say A p o l ­lo o r A rte m is . A n image of a holy p e rsonage was no t a m e re ob jec t : it p a r to o k of his na tu re . A n d since we w orsh ip Chris t w ho was m ad e m an and , th e re fo re , ough t to be re p re sen ted so as to m ak e manifest the p len i tud e of his m a n h o o d , it follows tha t we m ust do ho m ag e to his image just as, on a low er p lan e , we offer respect to the im age of an em p e ro r .

'M ost peop le tod ay ' , if I m ay q u o te Edwyn B evan , 'w ou ld feel th a t pic tures and im ages are religiously indifferent: they w'ould ne ither share th e Iconoclastic passion against th em as ido la trous no r the O r th o d o x passion for th em as an e ssen ­tial e lem en t in the Chris t ian cult . W e value pictures on g rou nd s qu ite o th e r thanIII. specifically religious, as giving us an aesthetic p leasu re , w hen they are good u l . not as giving us religious up lif t’. W e are free to en joy Byzantine icons as good

; 111 Init hi so do ing we miss the ir dee p e s t m eaning.

C Y R I L M A N G O Professor at the University of Oxford

.Ui

T H E T H E O L O G Y

A N D S P I R I T U A L I T Y O F T H E I C O N

Δ .- i i - n icon may be a p p ro a c h e d as a w o rk of

a r t , to be app rec ia ted for its aes the tic qualities. B u t those w ho originally p a in ted the icons th a t we see in the p re sen t exhibition , while they strove to m a k e the ir w ork as beau tifu l as poss ib le , never looked on this as the ir sole o r p r im ary aim. T o B yzan tine icon og rap hers , and equally to the ir p a t ro n s , the icon was m uch m o re th a n a p iece o f d eco ra t io n , designed to fulfil an aes thetic function . T h ey saw the icon as p a r t of an act o f p ra y e r and worship. T h e art of the icon is essentia lly a liturgical art. D ivorced from its con tex t within the li turgy, the icon ceases to be tru ly itself.

It is o f course im p o r ta n t tha t the icon p a in te r should be art istically gif ted , and shou ld use his o r h e r aes the tic skills to the full. But it is no less im p o r tan t th a t the icon p a in te r should p rep a re him self for the task th ro ug h p ray e r an d fasting, and th rou gh the sac ram en ts o f confession and H oly C o m m u n io n . A s he pain ts , the ico n o g rap h e r also prays. A n d w hen the icon is c o m p le ted , in c o n te m p o ra ry O r ­th o do x practice it is b ro ug h t into the church and b lessed - only then do es it b eco m e in the full sense a ho ly icon.

T h e spiritual and theological m ean ing of the icon was fo rm u la ted at the seven th E cum enica l C ouncil , a ssem bled exactly twelve h u n d re d years ago in 787 at N icaea , w hen it received sanctification. T he icon, as they saw it, d oes not simply act as a ‘visual a id ’, bu t has a sacram enta l ch a rac te r , serv ing as a channe l o f div ine grace. A t the sam e tim e they w ere m ost careful to m a k e a dis tinction b e tw een tim S , the re lative ‘h o n o u r ’ or ‘v e n e ra t ion ' tha t m ay legitimately be given to icons, and latreia , the abso lu te ‘w orsh ip ' or 'a d o ra t io n ' tha t is ascr ibed to G o d the T rin i ty alone.

Follow ing the teach ing of th e seven th Council , O r th o d o x C hris t ians con tinue up to the p re sen t day to m ak e p ros tra t ions before icons, to kiss th em and to carry them in process ion , to bu rn incense and to light candles and lam ps in front ol them . Y e t in all this they are no t w orsh ipp ing w ood and pain t . In the w ord s o f tin chief d e fe n d e r of icons at the s tart of the iconoclast con tro ve rsy , St. Jo h n ol D am ascu s (d ied c. 749), ‘W hen we v enera te icons’, we do no t offer ven e ra t io n lo m a t te r , bu t th rou gh the icons we ven e ra te the persons dep ic ted . For , as St. Basil says, ‘th e h o n o u r given to the icon passes to the p ro to ty p e ’. C erta in ly in the m il o f icons th e re have often been supersti t ions, exaggera t ions , bu t the average ( >i th o do x lay -person is fully aw are th a t the icon is in no sense an idol.

A t first, h ow ever , this vital dis tinction be tw een relative 'h o n o u r ' and absolute a d o r a t io n ’ was not fully g rasped by the W est. A l tho ug h the papacy eo n se . len lIv

uphe ld the teach ing o f the seventh Council , n o rth of the Alps tin I m pe io i C h a r le m a g n e m isu nd ers to od its s tan dp o in t , imagining that llu- ( . r e e k s delem lei l the ido la trous w orsh ip of icons. He and the theo log ians in hi* ciiftli i j u p ie d position similar to tha t of the m ore m o d era te iconoclasts ifl l lie I asl i mi· n they m a in ta in ed , may be displayed in churches lor the p u ipu ses ul il· Dfalmn hm

'7

sh o u ld n o t b e sh o w n l i tu rg ica l h o n o u r . S u ch w as th e p o s i t io n t a k e n by th e W e s t e r n sy n o d s o f F r a n k f u r t (794) a n d P a r i s (825) . N o t un t i l th e e l e v e n th c c n tu r y w a s th e 787 C o u n c i l g e n e ra l ly a c c e p te d th r o u g h o u t W e s t e r n C h r i s t e n d o m .

'T h r o u g h th e i c o n s ’, says St. J o h n o f D a m a s c u s , a n d his w o rd s p r o v i d e a v a l u a ­b le c lue to th e O r t h o d o x p o in t o f v iew . T o q u o te th e L ife o f S t. S te p h e n the Y o u n g e r ( d i e d c. 764) , ‘th e icon is t e r m e d a d o o r ’. It is a w ay in , a p o in t o f m e e t in g , a p la c e o f e n c o u n te r . T h e icon fulfils a m e d ia to r i a l ro le . B y m e a n s o f th e ic o n , th e w o r s h i p p e r e n te r s th e d im e n s io n s o f s a c r e d s p a c c a n d s a c r e d t i m e , a n d is b r o u g h t in to a l iv ing, e f fe c tu a l c o n ta c t w i th th e p e r s o n o r th e m y s te ry d e p ic t e d . S ta n d in g b e fo r e th e icon o f th e S a v io u r , h e o r she fee ls face to face w i th C h r is t h im se lf . P r e s e n t th r o u g h th e i r ico n s , C h r i s t , th e m o t h e r o f G o d , th e a n g e ls a n d th e sa in ts s h a r e in th e w o rs h ip o f th e living. T h e m e m b e r s o f th e v is ib le c o n g r e ­g a t io n a r e m a d e th r o u g h th e ico ns c o n c e l e b r a n t s at th e t im e le s s l i tu rg y o f h e a v e n ; ico ns a r e o u r m e a n s o f e n t r y in to th e c o m m u n io n o f sa in ts . T h e ic o n - s c re e n a n d th e w alls b e c o m e w in d o w s in to e te r n i ty , a n d th e c h u rc h b u i ld in g as a w h o le is m a d e in to ‘h e a v e n o n e a r t h ' . In th e w o rd s o f St. G e r m a n u s , P a t r i a r c h o f C o n s t a n ­t i n o p le (d ie d c. 7 3 3 ) , ‘th e c h u rc h is an e a r th ly h e a v e n , in w h ic h th e h e a v e n l y G o d d w ells a n d m o v e s ' .

T o a p p r e c i a t e th is s en se o f ‘h e a v e n o n e a r t h ' , w e s h o u ld b e a r in m i n d th a t an ico n n e e d n o t n e ce ssa r i ly b e a p a in t in g o n a s e p a r a te p a n e l o f w o o d . M o s a ic s a n d f r e s c o e s o n th e c h u rc h wall a r c a lso icons . T h e icons t h a t in th is w ay fill e v e ry p a r t o f a L a te B y z a n t in e o r a P o s t -B y z a n t in e c h u rc h - o n th e d o m e , th e a p s e , th e ro o f , th e w all a n d p i l la rs - t r a n s f o r m th e e n t i r e b u i ld in g in to a s in g le , a l l - e m b ra c in g icon o f th e h e a v e n ly k in g d o m . (W h i le m o s t icons a r e tw o -d im e n s io n a l , im a g e s in re l ie f a n d e v e n f r e e s ta n d in g s ta tu e s a r e n o t u n k n o w n in th e C h r is t i a n E a s t , a n d th e s e t o o h a v e a r ig h t to be r e g a r d e d as icons . D u r in g th e ic o n o c la s t c o n t r o v e r s y o f th e e ig h th a n d n in th c e n tu r ie s , n o d o c t r in a l s ign if icance w as a t t a c h e d to t h e d is t in c t io n b e tw e e n tw o -d im e n s io n a l a n d th r e e - d im e n s io n a l re l ig iou s a r t . ) .

O r t h o d o x C h r is t i a n s a r e a c c u s t o m e d to h av e icons n o t o n ly in c h u r c h b u t a lso in t h e i r o w n h o m e s . In e a c h h o u s e h o l d th e r e is t r a d i t io n a l ly an icon c o r n e r o r sh e l f , b e f o r e w h ich la m p s a r e lit, in c e n s e is o f f e r e d , a n d fam ily p r a y e r s a r e sa id . T h is to o is fe l t as ‘h e a v e n o n e a r t h ’, a p la c e o f m e e t in g w i th th e c o m m u n i o n o f s a in ts .

B e s id e s s e rv in g in th is w ay as a m e a n s o f sanc t i f ic a t io n a n d a ‘d o o r , th e icon is i m p o r t a n t m o r e p a r t ic u la r ly in f o u r r e l a t e d w ays. F i r s t , it ac ts as a m e a n s o f te a c h in g . ' I c o n s a r e o p e n b o o k s to r e m in d us o f G o d ’, says St. L e o n t i u s o f C y p ru s ( s e v e n th c e n tu r y ) . A s St. J o h n o f D a m a s c u s p u ts it , ‘w h a t th e w r i t t e n w o r d is to th o s e w h o k n o w le t te r s , th e icon is to th e i l l i te ra te . W h a t s p e e c h is to t h e e a r , th e icon is to th e e y e ’. So th e icon is o f t e n t e r m e d ' th e o lo g y in c o lo u r ' , a n d a c o m p a r i ­so n is m a d e b e tw e e n ic on s a n d th e b o o k o f th e G o sp e ls ; th e icon is th e G o s p e l in im a g e s , ju s t as th e G o s p e l is a v e rb a l ic o n , a n d b o th a l ik e d isc lo se G o d to us. S ig n i f ic an t ly , w e s p e a k o f ' i c o n o g r a p h y ' - n o t th e p a in t in g b u t th e w ritin g o f icons . Π ιο icon fo rm s in th is w ay p a r t o f C h u r c h t r a d i t io n . In an im p o r t a n t s e n s e ico ns nil- no t i n v e n te d b u t r e v e a l e d . T h is m e a n s th a t th e i c o n o g r a p h e r is n o t f r e e to a d a p t o r in n o v a t e as h e p le a s e s , fo r h is w o r k sh o u ld re f le c t , n o t his o w n s u b je c t iv e vis ion bu t th e m in d o f th e C h u rc h . A r t i s t i c c re a t iv i ty is by n o m e a n s e x c lu d e d , Inn il is e x e rc i s e d w ith in p r e s c r ib e d ru le s . ‘W h e r e a s in n o n - i c o n o g r a p h i c a r t , s p i l e s I >i P h il ip S h e r r a r d , ' t h e p ic tu re is g e n e ra l ly c o n c e iv e d as e x p re s s in g th e . t r u s t 's o w n re s p o n s e to o r o b s e r v a t io n o f his s u b je c t , it is m o r e t r u e in t h e c a se o fI I I I· oil iii th ink o f th e su b je c t i tse lf p r o j e c t in g o r re f le c t in g i t se l f o n to th e m a te r i -

IX

al o f th e ic o n . . . th e a r t i s t h a s to b e c o m e o n e w ith w h a t h e is to r e p r e s e n t , in o th e r w o rd s , t h e r e is no d is t in c t io n b e tw e e n a r t a n d c o n t e m p l a t i o n ’.

S e c o n d ly , th e ico n s e rv e s to s a f e g u a rd th e t r u e r e a l i ty o f C h r i s t ’s in c a r n a t io n . ‘T h e w o r d w a s m a d e f l e s h ’ ( J o h n 1.14); G o d d id n o t s im p ly a p p e a r u p o n e a r t h , b u t t o o k a rea l h u m a n b o d y , f o r m e d o f physica l m a t t e r as o u r b o d ie s a re . T h e ic o n o c la s t s , in re fu s in g to m a k e an icon o f C h r is t , im p l ie d t h a t H is b o d y , a n d so H is h u m a n i ty , is s o m e h o w u n re a l . I c o n s , as th e C o u n c i l o f 787 p u t s it , a re a ‘g u a r a n t e e t h a t th e in c a r n a t io n o f th e w o rd o f G o d is g e n u in e a n d n o t i l lu so ry ’ . T h e I s ra e l i te s in th e O ld T e s t a m e n t w e re r igh tly p r o h i b i t e d f r o m m a k i n g an y v isual r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f th e u n s e e n de i ty . B u t C h r is t , w h o is th e ‘im a g e ’ o r ‘i c o n ’ o f th e inv is ib le G o d (C o lo s s ia n s 1 .15 ) , h a s th r o u g h H is in c a r n a t io n m a d e po ss ib le a r e p r e s e n t a t io n a l re l ig io u s a r t . ‘O f o l d ’, s ta te s St. J o h n o f D a m a s c u s , ‘G o d , w h o is w i th o u t fo rm a n d b o d y , w a s n o t d e p ic t e d a t all. B u t n o w , s ince H e has a p p e a r e d in th e f le sh a n d d w e l t a m o n g h u m a n s , I m a k e an icon o f G o d in so f a r as h a s b e c o m e v is ib le ’.

T h i r d ly , th e icon h e lp s to e n s u r e an a f f i rm a t iv e a t t i t u d e to w a r d s th e m a te r i a l w o r ld . ‘G o d saw- e v e ry th in g th a t H e h a d m a d e , a n d , b e h o ld , it w a s a l t o g e th e r g o o d a n d b e a u t i f u l ’ ( G e n e s i s 1 .31). Ic on s s a f e g u a rd n o t o n ly th e a u th e n t i c i ty o f C h r i s t ' s p hy s ica l b o d y b u t a lso th e sp i r i t -b e a r in g p o te n t ia l i t i e s o f all m a te r i a l th in g s . T h e ico n o c la s t s , so th e i r o p p o n e n t s fe l t , s o u g h t to r e s t r ic t th e w o r s h ip o f G o d to th e m in d a lo n e , a n d fa i led to a llow su f f ic ien t ly fo r th e ‘m a t e r i a l i s m ’ o f C h r is t i a n i ty . ‘I shal l n o t c e a se to h o n o u r m a t t e r ’, St. J o h n o f D a m a s c u s p ro t e s t s , ‘fo r it w a s th r o u g h m a t t e r t h a t m y s a lv a t io n c a m e to p a s s . . . D o n o t d e sp i s e m a t t e r , fo r it is n o t d e s p ic a b le ; n o th i n g is d e sp ic a b le t h a t G o d h a s m a d e . T o th in k su ch th in g s is M a n ic h a e i s m ' .

In th e f o u r th p la c e , th e th e o lo g y o f th e icon h a s im p l ic a t io n s fo r th e C h r is t i a n u n d e r s t a n d in g o f th e h u m a n p e r s o n . T h e i c o n o g r a p h e r ta k e s c u b e s o f s t o n e , o r e lse p a in t a n d a p a n e l o f w o o d - th in g s th a t a r e p a r t o f th e m a te r i a l w o r ld a n d th a t , a s G o d ’s c r e a t io n , a re a l r e a d y c h a rg e d w ith th e d iv in e g lo ry - a n d th e n by m e a n s o f his a r t is t ic skill h e r e n d e r s th e d iv ine g lo ry exp lic i t in a n e w a n d d y n a m ic w ay . In th is m a n n e r h e ac ts as p r i e s t o f the c r e a t io n , g iv ing m a te r i a l th in g s a vo ice a n d r e n d e r i n g t h e m a r t ic u la te in p ra i s e o f G o d . ‘T h e c r e a t io n d o e s n o t v e n e r a t e th e m a k e r d ire c t ly a n d b y i t se l f ’ , says St. L e o n t iu s o f C y p ru s , ‘b u t it is th r o u g h m e th a t th e h e a v e n s d e c la r e th e g lo ry o f G o d , th r o u g h m e th e m o o n w o r s h ip s G o d , t h r o u g h m e th e s ta rs g lo r ify H im , t h r o u g h m e th e w a te r s a n d s h o w e r s o f r a in , the d e w a n d all c r e a t io n , v e n e r a t e G o d a n d give H im g lo r y ’. So ico ns r e v e a l to us tin po ss ib i l i t ie s o f o u r h u m a n p e r s o n h o o d . T h e icon p a i n t e r sh o w s us h o w , mack· in G o d ’s ‘im a g e ' o r ‘ic o n ' ( G e n e s i s 1 .26), we h u m a n s can ac t as ‘s u b - c r e a to r s ’ a l te r th e l ik en ess o f G o d th e c r e a to r .

S u c h a r e a m o n g th e r e a s o n s w h y th e s e v e n th E c u m e n ic a l C o u n c i l , tw e lv e cvn tu r ie s a g o , u p h e ld th e m a k i n g a n d th e v e n e r a t io n o f ico n s , a n d w h y icons ; iu still h o n o u r e d in th e O r t h o d o x C h u r c h to d a y . In the w o rd s o f a c o n t e m p o r a r y R u ss ian i c o n o g r a p h e r , L e o n id O u s p e n s k y , ‘it is ab so lu te ly im p o ss ib le to im ag in e an y liiui gical r i te in th e O r t h o d o x C h u r c h w i th o u t th e i c o n ’. A s th e le a d in g G r e e k ienn p a i n t e r o f th is c e n tu r y , P h o t io s K o n to g lo u , has sa id , ' th i s a r t is u m v e is a l j f l j e t e r n a l - no o th e r a r t h a s u s e d su ch s im ple m e a n s , a n d n o o t h e r art has g ia s p -I m u c h ’.

T i n r n m v . i m k a i i i \ i < i s w \ h i

11 i *.I μ ·| i »ι| I ' M u I · t ■ ·

V)

Β Υ Ζ Α Ν Τ Ι Ν Ε

W A L L P A I N T I N G

I N G R E E C E

] 3 y z a n t i n e p a in t in g , e sp e c ia l ly m u r a l p a in t in g , t h o u g h p r e - e m in e n t ly a c o n s e r v a t iv e a r t f o r m , is n o n e th e l e s s a liv ing a r t , w h ic h r e s p o n d s to th e c h a n g in g d e m a n d s o f official c h u rc h d o c t r in e a n d o f p o p u l a r b e l ie f . T o u n d e r s t a n d th is m o r e fu lly , it sh o u ld be r e m e m b e r e d th a t th e d y n a m ic o f p a in t in g is th e re s u l t o f tw o c o u n te r b a l a n c e d te n d e n c ie s . O n th e o n e h a n d s ta n d all th e e l e m e n t s th a t le a d to un ity o f p lac e a n d c o n t in u i ty in t im e , a n d o n th e o t h e r th o s e t h a t le a d to d i f fe re n t ia t io n a n d e v o lu t io n . T h e firs t t e n d e n c y e m b r a c e s the c o n s t a n t , u n c h a n g in g id eo log ica l v a lu e s t h a t f ind th e i r e x p re s s io n t h r o u g h th e i c o n o g r a p h y o f a n O r t h o d o x c h u rc h a n d b e lo n g to th e level o f d o c t r i n e , h is to ry , d e v o t io n a n d r i tu a l . T h e s e v a lu e s u n d e r g o v e ry few f lu c tu a t io n s t h r o u g h t im e , w i th o n ly th e o c c a s io n a l shift o f e m p h a s is . T h e y a re c o n s t a n t s , f i rm ly l i n k e d w ith th e n o t io n o f a c c u ra c y in m a t te r s o f h is to ry a n d d o c t r in e , a n d w i th th e d e m a n d fo r l ik e n e s s , n o t o n ly in th e p o r t r a y a l o f th e sa in ts , b u t a lso in a m o r e g e n e ra l sen se : th e y c o n s t i t u te an e s sen t ia l p r e c o n d i t i o n if th e d e c o r a t io n o f a c h u r c h is to f ind a c c e p t a n c e as a u th e n t i c f r o m th e p o in t o f v iew o f O r t h o d o x i c o n o g r a p h y . T h o s e w h o d r e w u p ic o n o g r a p h ic p r o g r a m m e s a n d th e p a in t e r s t h e m s e lv e s n a t u ­rally so lv e d th e p ro b le m s w ith w h ic h th e y w e r e f ace d by c o n c e n t r a t i n g s t r ic t ly o n m o d e l s w h o s e a u th e n t ic i ty w as in d i s p u ta b le : m i ra c u lo u s icons , e a r l i e r w all p a i n t ­ings , i l lu s t r a te d m a n u s c r ip t s , sk e tc h b o o k s , d e s c r ip t io n s a n d so o n . A m o n g s t the c o n s e r v a t iv e e l e m e n t s sh o u ld b e in c lu d e d th e te c h n iq u e s o f m u r a l d e c o r a t i o n , w h e t h e r w e a r e ta lk in g o f m o sa ic s , o r f r e sc o e s , o r o f a m ix tu r e o f f r e sc o an d t e m p e r a t h a t d e r iv e d f ro m G r e c o - R o m a n p a in t in g . T h e s ty les o f p a in t in g , to o , c o n t i n u e d to th e e n d to ex h ib i t th e bas ic v a r i a t i o n s w i th in th e m a in t r e n d s t h a t h a d a l ic . id y e m e r g e d in la te a n t iq u i ty . It s h o u ld b e a d d e d h e r e th a t o n e o f th e c o n s t a n t p i c c o m l i t ions m a k in g fo r th e u n i ty o f a r t is t ic ex p re s s io n w as its a n t i - r e a l is t i c a n d n m s c e n d c n tn l c h a r a c t e r , t h o u g h it n o n e th e l e s s r e s p e c te d th e h u m a n f ig u re a n d d ie Iiimc s h a p e s o f o b je c ts .

W i(11111 th is c o n s ta n t f r a m e w o r k , p r e s e n t e d h e re in a ve ry s im p l i f ie d fo r m , I l i n e we i e c o u n t l e s s v a r ia t io n s d u r in g th e t h o u s a n d y ea rs , o r m o r e , o f v ita l c re a - i i \ i .11 livilv so n n Him s th e se w e re d e t e r m i n e d by n o n -a r t is t i c f a c to r s , s u c h as th e

Ul

h is to r ic a l c i r c u m s ta n c e s o f th e t im e , th e social c lasses to w h ic h th e p a t r o n s o f a r t b e lo n g e d a n d th e local e c o n o m ic c o n d i t io n s . D r a s t ic in t e r v e n t io n b y t h e po li t ica l a u th o r i t i e s , as in th e case o f I c o n o c la s m , w as r a r e . A t th e a r t i s t ic leve l , in e x p la in ­ing th e v a r ie ty o f e x p re s s io n w e a lso h a v e to t a k e in to a c c o u n t th e loca l t r a d i t io n a n d th e p e r s o n a l c o n t r i b u t io n o f th e a r t is t , w h ic h w as n o t as in s ig n i f ic a n t as it m ig h t s e e m .

G iv e n th is b a c k g r o u n d , w e a r e in a p o s i t io n b e t t e r to u n d e r s t a n d th e d if f i­cu l t ie s in v o lv e d in d e t e r m i n in g th e c o m m o n c h a ra c te r i s t i c s o f th e p a in t in g o f a p a r t i c u l a r r e g io n in th e B y z a n t in e p e r io d , such as th e r e g io n n o w o c c u p ie d b y th e R e p u b l i c o f G r e e c e . T h e firs t d if f icu l ty is th a t th is r e g io n f o r m e d o n ly p a r t o f a w id e r a r e a in w h ic h G r e e k s l ived a n d w o r k e d d u r in g th e B y z a n t in e p e r i o d , a n d m a y n o t th e r e f o r e be r e g a r d e d as a s e p a r a te g e o g ra p h ic a l e n t i ty . S e c o n d ly , th e m a in b o d y o f G r e e c e is d iv id e d by h igh m o u n ta in s , a n d f r a g m e n t e d in to n u m e r o u s is la n d s , la rge a n d sm a l l , s c a t t e r e d a r o u n d th e m a in la n d : th is p r o d u c e s d is t inc t r e g io n s b e tw e e n w h ic h c o m m u n ic a t io n is n o t e a sy a n d w h ic h , m o r e o v e r , in differ­e n t p e r i o d s , d e p e n d e d to d i f fe r in g d e g re e s on th e m a in B y / a n t i n e c e n t r e s of ( on s t a n t i n o p le a n d T h e s s a lo n ik e . In this co n te x t it w*s not p o ss ib le fo r p a in t in g , e v e n in th e a r e a ol m o d e r n Greece, to a c q u ir e a u n if ied C h a rac te r tli.it would set it a p a r t f r o m tha t o f o t l ic r w e g io n s o u ts id e Greece

It is p o ss ib le , h o w e v e r , lo d is t in g u ish c e r t a in m o t e g c n c i il shafnci&i isties d< r iv in g f ro m p rec ise ly th o s e n o n -a r t is t ic fac to rs l i n t we h a v e n o te d O n e ol tin- m o s t in d ic a t iv e is th e c o m p a r a t i v e n u m b e r s ol wall p a in t in g s d c c o i . i t in g m o n u ­m e n t s . T h r o u g h o u t G r e e c e n o less th a n tw o th o u s a n d cycles o f wall p a in t in g s , d a t i n g f ro m th e s e v e n th to th e f i f te e n th c e n tu r ie s , h a v e s u rv iv e d , o f t e n s u p e r i m ­p o s e d o n e u p o n a n o t h e r . T h is is n o t the f ina l c o u n t b u t it is g r e a t e r th a n th a t fo r all th e su rv iv in g cycles in all th e o t h e r B y z a n t in e r e g io n s in E u r o p e a n d A s ia M i n o r , o r in th e n e ig h b o u r in g O r th o d o x s ta te s . M o r e o v e r , d i f fe re n c e s c a n be d i s t i n g u is h e d in th e d e n s i ty o f m o n u m e n t s in d i f fe re n t p a r t s o f G r e e c e . T h e y a re m u c h m o r e d e n se ly c o n c e n t r a t e d in G re e c e s o u th o f O ly m p u s o n e o f th e r e a s o n s fo r th is d i f f e re n c e b e in g th a t in th e a r e a n o r th o f O ly m p u s th e m a jo r i ty o f m o n u ­m e n t s a r e to be f o u n d in th e re la t iv e ly la rge to w n s . In T h e s s a l o n ik e a lo n e we k n o w f r o m d o c u m e n t a r y so u r c e s th a t th e r e w e re m o r e t h a n a h u n d r e d c h u rc h e s a n d m o n a s te r i e s , a n d th e lay e r s o f p a in t in g th a t will h a v e c o v e r e d th e w alls o f th e s e s a c r e d b u i ld in g s will h a v e b e e n m u c h g r e a t e r in n u m b e r . M o s t o f th e m d i s a p p e a r e d , h o w e v e r , d u r in g th e lo n g c e n tu r ie s o f O t t o m a n o c c u p a t io n . In th e s o u th o f G r e e c e , by c o n t r a s t , w i th th e e x c e p t io n o f a fe w to w n s l ike M is t r a a n d Y e r a k i , m o s t o f th e k n o w n B y z a n t in e m o n u m e n t s a re to b e f o u n d in th e c o u n ­t r y s id e , o u t s id e th e r e la t iv e ly sm all fo r t i f ied to w n s t h a t w e re lo c a t e d in th e sa fe r m o u n t a in reg io n s .

T h e c o n s e q u e n c e fo r a r t o f th is d is t in c t io n is t h a t th e a r t o f th e n o r t h e r n re g io n h a s a n u r b a n c h a r a c t e r , s ince it w as fo s te r e d w i th in th e r e la t iv e ly s o p h i s t i c a te d c u l tu ra l e n v i r o n m e n t o f th e city . T h is d o e s n o t m e a n th a t all th e m o n u m e n t s in th e s o u th w e re n o n - u r b a n in c h a r a c t e r . F i r s t , th e r e w e re la rg e m o n a s t i c f o u n d a t io n s , b u i l t a n d d e d ic a te d by th e E m p e r o r s , o r by s e c u la r a n d re l ig io u s ru le r s , w h o b r o u g h t to th e p e r i p h e r a l a r e a s th e m e a n s to c o n s t ru c t w o rk s o f a high artisfic leve l , if n o t o f th e lev e l o f lu x u ry r e p r e s e n t e d by m a r b le r e v e t m e n t s a n d m osa ics . S e c o n d ly , b e c a u s e w o rk s l ike th e s e , w h ich a rc ‘i m p o r t e d ’ in c h a r a c t e r , m ight infill

41

e n c e th e loca l p r o d u c t io n , w h ich ( to use a m o d e r n G r e e k im a g e ) a lw ay s s t o o d to t h e m in th e re l a t i o n s h ip o f a v isual ‘d e m o t i c ’, o r p o p u la r l a n g u a g e , to th e ‘p u r e ’ l i t e r a ry l a n g u a g e , o r ka th a revo u sa .

O t h e r loca l p e c u l i a r i t i e s in c lu de i c o n o g r a p h ic a l a rc h a i sm s , su ch as th e r e p r e ­s e n t a t i o n o f th e f o u n d e r s o r o f th e p r o p h e t s in th e S a n c tu a r y a p s e , o r t h e m a n n e r o f p a in t in g th e P a n t o c r a t o r , in th e d o m e , w i th o th e r w is e u n k n o w n v a r i a t i o n s , b o th in th e o v e ra l l c o m p o s i t io n a n d in th e s e c o n d a r y f igu res in c lu d e d . A p r e f e r e n c e fo r n o n - f ig u ra t iv e d e c o r a t i o n can a lso be o b s e r v e d in G r e e c e , e sp ec ia l ly in th e is lan d s , f ro m th e p e r i o d o f I c o n o c la s m o n w a rd s . T h is is a ve ry in te re s t in g p h e n o m e n o n , w h o s e full e x t e n t h a s y e t to b e d e t e r m i n e d .

T h e s e p h e n o m e n a , h o w e v e r , a r e n o t u n iq u e , o r ex c lu s iv e , a n d w e re n o t p a r t o f an a u t o n o m o u s e v o lu t io n . T o d i f fe re n t d e g r e e s , a c c o rd in g to p lace a n d to p e r i o d , th e y a re r e l a t e d to d e v e lo p m e n t s in th e m a j o r c e n t r e s an d in th e n e ig h b o u r in g re g io n s su c h as A s ia M i n o r a n d I ta ly .

T h e l inks w i th th e W e s t , fo r w h ich B y z a n t in e p a in t in g a lw ays s e r v e d as a m o d e l a n d a t e a c h e r , b e c a m e c lo se r a f t e r th e F o u r t h C r u s a d e , w h ich r e s u l t e d in th e d is s o lu t io n o f th e B y z a n t in e E m p i r e (1 20 4 ) . A large p a r t o f s o u t h e r n G r e e c e , in c lu d in g C r e t e , th e is lan ds o f th e A e g e a n a n d s o m e p a r t s o f th e P e l o p o n n e s e , r e m a in e d u n d e r L a t in d o m in a t io n un t i l th e O t t o m a n c o n q u e s t . W h a t is r e m a r k ­ab le is th a t t h r o u g h o u t th e s e c e n tu r i e s th e O r t h o d o x p o p u la t io n c o n t i n u e d to ' s e e ' am i lo p a in t in a p u re ly B y z a n t in e m o d e . T h e in e v i ta b le fo re ig n in f lu e n c e s w e re v e ry lew , a f f e c t in g m linly th e s u b je c t m a t t e r a n d to a m u c h le s se r e x te n t th e s ty le .

A n o t h e r e q u a l ly r e m a rk a b le p h e n o m e n o n can be d e te c te d in th is r e g io n at tins p c i i o d In C 'ro te S o f llu· su rv iv in g B y z a n t in e wall p a in t in g s a b o u t 900 in all w h ich vary g re a t ly in q u a l i ty , w e re p a in t e d in th e f o u r t e e n t h a n d f i f te e n th c e n tu r i e s tha t is, d u r in g the V e n e t i a n p e r io d . Λ s im i la r p h e n o m e n o n c a n be o b s e r v e d in th e o t h e r reg io n s o c c u p ie d by th e 1 ra n k s . It c a n b e e x p la i n e d to s o m e ex te n t by th e c h a n g e in th e social ra n k o f th e p a t r o n s , a n d a lso b y c o m p a r i s o n w ith w h a t w as h a p p e n in g in th e B y z a n t in e a re a .

F o r , in th e s a m e p e r io d , at th e e n d o f th e B y z a n t in e E m p i r e , t h e r e w as a g e n e ra l f lo w e r in g o f a r t , w ith i m p o r t a n t c e n t r e s in T h e s s a lo n ik e , M is t r a , A r t a a n d M o u n t A th o s p r o d u c in g w o rk o f a h igh q u a l i ty w h o se in f lu e n c e w as w id e ly felt . T h e s e c e n t r e s n o w riva l led C o n s t a n t in o p l e , e v e n th o u g h th e y w e re still d e p e n d e n t

o n it.P a l a e o l o g a n p a in t in g s u c c e e d e d in c r e a t in g p ic to r ia l c o m p o s i t io n s t h a t f r e ­

q u e n t ly g ive e x p re s s io n to c o m p le x th e o lo g ic a l id ea s r e la t in g to th e b u r n i n g p r o b ­lem s o f th e p e r i o d . T h is p a in t in g w as d is t in g u ish e d by its m a s te ry o f th e full r a n g e o f t r a d i t io n a l te c h n i q u e s , u s ing th e r ich r e p e r to i r e o f O r t h o d o x ic o n o g r a p h y . B y th e s e m e a n s it c r e a t e d a n e w s ty le t h a t w as to h a v e its in f lu e n c e o n th e W e s t .

T h is f ina l f lo w e r in g o f th e sp i r i tu a l w o r ld o f B y z a n t iu m w a s to live o n in t h e a r t o f th e G r e e k s a f t e r th e c a p tu r e o f C o n s t a n t in o p l e .

M A N O L I S C H A T Z I D A K I S of the A th e n s A c a d e m y

- 42 —

B Y Z A N T I N E I C O N S

T h e p o r t a b le icon o c c u p ie s an i m p o r t a n t p la c e in th e p a in t in g p r e d o m in a n t ly o f a re l ig io us n a tu r e , w h ic h w a s a n o ta b l e f e a t u r e o f B y z a n t in e c u l tu re . W h i le its o r ig ins w e re in G r e c o - R o m a n p o r t r a i t u r e th e icon w as an a u th e n t i c p r o d u c t o f B y z a n t in e c iv i l iza t ion a n d c a m e to p la y a le a d in g ro le in re l ig io u s r i tu a l , b e c o m i n g th e s u p r e m e cu lt o b j e c t o f th e O r t h o d o x C h u r c h . T h e r ich d e c o r a t io n o f th e B y z a n t in e c h u rc h w ith m o s a ic s a n d w all p a i n t ­ings g a v e v isual e x p re s s io n to th e id e o lo g y o f th e C h u r c h , t r i u m p h a n t a n d d id a c ­tic, th r o u g h th e h ie r a rc h ic a l ly o rg a n iz e d s p a c e in to a m ic r o c o s m o f th e re l ig io u s u n iv e r se . A b o v e all it w a s th e icon th a t a c te d as th e ca ta ly s t o f th e m ys tica l c o m m u n io n b e tw e e n th e fa i th fu l a n d th e w o r ld o f th e t r a n s c e d e n t a l . T h e icon w as th e im m e d ia te rec ip ien t o f th e p ra y e r s d i r e c te d to th e su b je c t o f th e p o r t i a i t tnd , t h r o u g h p ra y e r , it s e rv e d as th e c h a n n e l ol sp i r i tua l e x a l t a l i o n m o ra l s t r e n g th mil sa lv a t io n ol th e soul Πιο beliol in the ex is ten ce ol n o u s m a d e w i th o u t tin in t e r v e n t i o n o f h u m a n h a n d s in d ol icons ol tin V irgin p u n t e d by St I uki i he su b t le th eo lo g ica l p o s i t io n s mil d is t in c t io n s l o i m u l i t i d by rhi l a t h , is ol tin C h u r c h o n th e q u e s t io n ol tin. re la t io n sh ip b tw e e n n o n a n d p fo io ty p i th ■ s e n o u s re l ig io u s , socia l a n d po li t ica l d is p u te s p r o m p te d I m m lino lo turn by the ex cess iv e w o rs h ip o f icons cul m i l * ting in I In g rea t crisis ol k o h o c l a r m all ill so d e m o n s t r a t e th e v a lu e a n d p o w e r o f icons in Ihe l l v / m l n n w ofll l . (‘specia lly a m o n g s t th e lo w e r c la s ses o f th e p o p u la t io n

F o r icons w e re to b e f o u n d no t on ly in c h u rc h e s a n d o th e f i c lu ' io u s m s ti tu t io n s , b u t e v e r y w h e r e , in p u b l i c b u ild ing s , in p r iv a te h o u s e s un i in III·- I’a luce in roy a l ‘p r o s k y n e t a r i a ’ a n d in th e im per ia l t r e a su ry , w h e re llioy w e n e x h ib i te d with th e o t h e r t r e a s u r e s in th e s u m p tu o u s l la l l o f tin ( lu y s o i i ik l m o s o n d a y s w h en off ic ia l a u d ie n c e s w e re h e ld fo r fo re ig n e rs , I a l i sn ian a n d o b je c t ol w o is l u p ol Un­fa i th fu l , th e icon w as an in te g ra l p a r t o f the publi i mil p r iv a te hli ol the B y /a n t in e s . Ic o n s a c c o m p a n ie d m i l i ta ry e x p e d i t io n s an d m y a l e m b a s s ie s . T h e y fo rm e d p a r t o f th e t r iu m p h a l e n t r y o f th e e m p e r o r in to C o n s t a n t in o p l e o n Ins r e tu r n from v ic to r io u s w ars . T h e y w e re u sed to c o n se c ra te l o i t r e s se s a n d p ro te c t c it ies . They w e re c a r r i e d in p ro c e s s io n , w i th g r e a t p o m p , on feast d a y s , a l t e r n a tu r a l d i s a s te r s ,

— 43

(II will 11 III·· l i ly w.is u n d e r s iege . T h e b r i l l ia n c e o f th e p ro c e s s io n s in h o n o u r o f m u ;u lr win k m ; ’, icons is c a p tu r e d in a la te t h i r t e e n th - c e n t u r y w all p a in t in g , u n iq u e 111 > 111 t ins pi mu nl v iew , p r e s e rv e d in th e M o n a s t e r y o f V la c h e r n a a t A r t a , th e capful I 01 I lu D e s p o ta t e o f E p i ru s . T h i s d e p ic t s in de ta i l th e p ro c e s s io n in w h ic h tin- f a m o u s m m o f th e V irg in H o d e g e t r i a w a s c a r r i e d in a c c o rd a n c e w i th a p re - si i l in ’d i i tual e v e ry T u e s d a y in C o n s t a n t in o p l e , b e fo r e h o s t s o f w o r s h i p p e r s , a n d i οι Μ'spoilt Is w i th d e sc r ip t io n s g iven by fo r e ig n t rav e l le rs .

I ro n s w e re m a d e f r o m a w id e v a r ie ty o f m a te r i a l s , d e p e n d in g o n th e p u r p o s e lo r w h ich th e y w e r e d e s ig n e d ; s o m e t o o k th e fo r m o f m o sa ic s , o r w e re p a i n t e d o r I a rv e d in w o o d o r m a r b le ; o th e r w e re m a d e o f p r e c io u s m e ta l , e n a m e l , a n d so o n . W all p a in t in g s s o m e t im e s to o k th e p la c e o f p o r t a b l e ico ns o n th e ic o n o s ta s i s w h e re th is w as bu il t in m a s o n ry . I c o n s m ig h t b e a d o r n e d w i th d e l i c a tc s i lve r a n d g o ld lea f , w i th e l a b o r a t e f r a m e s , w i th e n a m e l s , ivo ry , p e a r l s a n d p re c io u s s to n e s . Π ιε m a j o r i ty o f th o s e th a t h a v e su rv iv e d - a n d th e s e will h a v e b e e n th e g r e a t e r n u m b e r - a r e p a in t e d o n w o o d in a c c o r d a n c e w ith t r a d i t io n a l te c h n iq u e s : w ith e n c a u s t ic p a in t in g , a t e c h n iq u e fo u n d m a in ly in th e E a r ly B y z a n t in e p e r i o d , in w h ic h th e p ig m e n ts w e re m ix e d w ith th e m e l t e d w a x , o r m o r e u su a l ly w i th egg t e m p e r a , o n a g r o u n d p r e p a r e d w i th g e sso , o r g esso o n c a n v a s , a n d m o r e ra r e ly w i th p a r c h m e n t i n s te a d o f can v a s . A s fo r th e d i f fe re n t k in d s o f icon a n d t h e i r u se , th e r e w e re ic o n s t h a t a d o r n e d th e ic o n o s ta s i s , ico ns d e s t in e d fo r th e ep is ty le w i th th e D o d e k a o r t o n a n d th e G r e a t D e e s is , a n d o th e r , d o u b le - s id e d ico n s , w h ich w e re u su a l ly i n t e n d e d to b e c a r r ie d in p ro c e s s io n , r e l iq u a r ie s , d ip ty c h s a n d tr ip - ty chs . In t e r m s o f th e i r s u b je c t m a t t e r , t h e y c an b e d iv id e d in to cu l t ico n s o f C h r i s t , th e V irg in a n d th e sa in ts , a n d th o s e , m a in ly o f a d id a c t ic c h a r a c t e r , d e p ic ­t ing s c e n e s f r o m th e O ld a n d N e w T e s t a m e n t s , th e L ife o f th e V irg in , th e lives a n d m a r t y r d o m s o f th e sa in ts , a n d o t h e r c o m p le x su b je c ts l ike th e L a s t J u d g m e n t . M a n y ic on s te l l th e s to ry o f th e D o d e k a o r t o n ; th a t is, th e y r e p r e s e n t th e tw e lv e m a in ly e v a n g e l ic a l scen es w h o se c o n te n t w as o f g re a t d o c t r in a l i m p o r t a n c e a n d w h ic h a d o r n e d th e ep is ty le o f th e ic o n o s ta s i s f r o m th e M id d le B y z a n t in e p e r i o d

o n w a rd s .T h e p ro c e s s e s t h a t g o v e r n e d th e p r o d u c t io n o f icons in B y z a n t iu m a r e n o t

k n o w n in a n y d e ta i l . T h e y w e re n o rm a l ly a n o n y m o u s w o rk s o f p ie ty , a n d th e i r c r e a t io n w a s s u b j e c t to th e l im i ta t io n s o f th e d o c t r in e r e q u i r in g a g o o d l i k e n e s s o f th e o b j e c t o r p e r s o n d e p ic t e d , w h ich g u a r a n t e e d th e a u th e n t ic i ty o f t h e re l ig io u s w o rk . T h e u n c h a n g in g ic o n o g r a p h ic f e a t u r e s o f h o ly p e r s o n s a n d s a c r e d e v e n ts w e re in s u re d b y r e f e r e n c e to m o d e l s s u p p l ie d b y m i ra c u lo u s , cu lt a n d o t h e r icons , by sk e tc h b o o k s , a n d b y w r i t te n d e s c r ip t io n s such as th o s e o f U lp iu s th e R o m a n fro m th e n in t h - t e n th c e n tu r ie s , o r th e p o s t -B y z a n t in e P a in te r 's M a n u a l b y D i o n y ­

sius o f 1 'ou rna .S ty l is t ica lly i c o n -p a in t in g w as in f lu e n c e d b y , a n d in f lu n ce , m u r a l p a in t in g a n d

m in ia tu r e p a in t in g , b u t w ith c e r ta in d ec is iv e d if fe ren ces : th e m o s t o b v io u s a re Iliosc s t e m m in g f ro m th e n o rm s o f th e m o r e d e ta i l e d , p re c ise a n d d is c ip l in e d a r t ol tin- e a se l ; f r o m th e l im i ted size a n d s h a p e o f th e ico n s ; f r o m th e g o ld b a c k - p o i m i l w h ich w as an e s sen tia l f a c to r in th e a b s t r a c t - t r a n s c e n d e n ta l c h a r a c t e r a n d llu in o f lu x u ry o f th e p o r t a b le ic o n ; a n d f r o m th e i r c o m p a r a t i v e ly c o n s e r v a t iv e , hit i kite lo n e p a r t ic u la r ly in th e c a se o f cu l t icons . T h e s e , w i th th e i r ‘o r d a i n e d ’ , i * 1111 ί i llu· lo in c i rn t m o d e l s , d id fo l low , a lb e i t in a m o r e r e s t r a i n e d f a s h io n , the

4 ·)

c h a n g e s a n d shifts in p r e f e r e n c e s a n d t e n d e n c ie s b r o u g h t a b o u t by th e o c ca s io n a l ‘r e n e w a l s ’ a n d o th e r c u r r e n t s in a r t , r u n n in g f ro m th e c e n t r e to th e p e r i p h e r y a n d vice v e rsa .

T h e ta s k o f lo ca t in g th e a r t is t ic w o rk s h o p s in w h ich the ico n s w e re p r o d u c e d is d i f f icu l t , s in ce , save in a v e ry few in s ta n c es , th e w r i t te n e v id e n c e d o e s n o t ex is t , a n d th e icon w as an eas i ly t r a n s p o r t e d i tem . T h e e x c e p t io n a l ly h igh q u a l i ty an d sen s i t iv i ty o f m a n y o f t h e m su gg es ts th a t th ey sh o u ld be a t t r i b u t e d to w o r k s h o p s in th e C a p i t a l , w h ich w as th e l e a d e r a n d focal p o in t o f th e d i f f e r e n t a r t is t ic c u r r e n t s , a p o s i t io n th a t e n a b le d it to d i r e c t th e p ro c es se s r e g u la t in g th e p r o d u c t io n a n d d i s t r i b u t io n o f icons. I h e s s a lo n ik e to o , th e s e c o n d la rg e s t c ity in th e B y z a n t in e E m p i r e , in w h ich socia l a n d o t h e r ac tiv ity w as a lw ays o f th e live liest o r d e r , a n d w h ic h h a d M o u n t A th o s c lo se by , p la y e d an im p o r t a n t ro le in th e d e v e l o p m e n t o f th e a r t . H e r e th e r e w e re s o m e u n d o u b te d ly im p o r t a n t w o r k s h o p s p r o d u c i n g icons a n d d i r e c t in g th e p r o d u c t io n o f o i l ie r local w o rk s h o p s in th e w id e r a r e a in f lu e n c e d by th e city (K a s to r ia , M o u n t A th o s a n d O c h n d ) . C y p r u s , f r o m w h ic h im p o r t a n t e x a m p le s ol local p r o d u c t io n a r e k n o w n , was p ro b a b ly a c e n t r e fo r th e p ro d u c t io n o f th e so -ca l led C r u s a d e r ico ns o f the t h i r t e e n th c e n tu r y , m a n y o f w h ic h su rv iv e o n th e is lan d a n d in th e M o n a s t e r y o f St. C a th e r i n e o n M o u n t S ina i .

T h e M o n a s t e r y o f S ina i p o sse sse s th e la rges t co l le c t io n of B y z a n t in e ic on s n o w in e x is te n c e . M a n y icon s h a v e a lso su rv iv ed in G r e e c e , in K a s to r i a , V e r i a , T h e s s a ­lo n ik e , M o u n t A th o s , th e B y z a n t in e M u s e u m o f A th e n s , a n d e l s e w h e r e . L a rg e n u m b e r s o f B y z a n t in e ico ns h a v e , o f c o u rs e , b e e n lost as a r e s u l t o f n a tu r a l d i s a s ­te r s a n d lo o t in g . O t h e r s still aw a i t d is co v e ry , a n d m a n y th a t h a v e b e e n d a m a g e d h a v e r e t a in e d th e i r re l ig io u s fu n c t io n , s ince th e y w e re p a in t e d o v e r in th e P o s t - B y ­z a n t in e p e r io d . It is a lw a y s a g r e a t so u rc e o f d e l ig h t w h e n a h i t h e r t o u n k n o w n B y z a n t in e icon is d i s c o v e re d o r , as h a p p e n s n o t in f r e q u e n t ly , is r e v e a l e d in th e c o n s e r v a t io n l a b o r a to r y u n d e r n e a t h th e m o r e r e c e n t p a in t in g c o v e r in g it. F o r e v e ry n e w d is c o v e ry , w h e t h e r th e p a in t in g on it is o f a h ig h q u a l i ty o r m e r e ly o f r o u t in e c r a f t s m a n s h ip , n o t o n ly fu rn ish e s n e w e v id e n c e f o r s c h o la r s h ip b u t a lso p r e s e r v e s th e m e m o r y o f B y z a n t i u m , w h ich k e p t th e G r e e k id e a a live in E u r o p e d u r in g th e M id d le A g e s , a n d co n v e y s s o m e th in g o f th e s p i r i tu a l o d o u r o f B y z a n ­t in e a r t . F o r th is w as an a r t d r e s s e d in officia l re l ig io u s a t t i r e w h ic h , t h a n k s to its so l id in te l l e c tu a l f o u n d a t io n a n d its H e l le n is t ic r o o t s , t h a n k s to its a d o p t i o n ol' e a s t e r n d e c o ra t iv e skills , a n d th e w a y in w h ich it re f le c te d th e v e ry s t r u c tu r e a n d f o r tu n e s o f th e B y z a n t in e E m p i r e , s u s ta in e d a h igh level o f p o e t i c p o w e r , vita li ty a n d r e le v a n c e .

M Y R T A L I A C H E I M A S T O U - P O T A M I A N ( >t I

D irec to r of the Byzan t ine M useum of Alin n

T H E G R E E K W O R L D

A N D T H E L A T I N D O M I N A T I O N

I f th e d iv is ion o f C h r i s t e n d o m in to tw o ho s t i le w o r ld s c o n s t i t u te s o n e o f th e m o s t im p o r t a n t c h a p te r s in th e h is to ry o f E u r o p e , th e e v e n t s fo l low ing th e F o u r t h C r u s a d e w e re as d ec is iv e as th e fall o f C o n s t a n t in o p l e fo r th e h is to ry o f H e l le n i s m . T h e c a p tu r e o f C o n s t a n t in o p l e b y th e C r u s a d e r s in 1204 a n d th e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f L a t in d o m i n a t i o n o v e r th e te r r i t o r i e s o f th e d i s m e m b e r e d B y z a n t in e s ta te m a r k e d th e e n d o f th e B y z a n t in e E m p i r e as a n e n t i ty ; a t th e s a m e t im e , w h a t N ic e ta s C h o n ia t e s d e s c r ib e d as th e ‘μ έ γ ισ τ ο ν χ ά σ μ α δ ι α φ ο ρ ά ς ' ( ‘g r e a t c h a s m ’) w as fina lly c r e a t e d b e tw e e n th e C h r i s t i a n E a s t a n d th e C h r is t i a n W e s t .

T h e h is to ry o f th e p o p u la t i o n o f th e E a s t e r n E m p i r e a f t e r th e W e s t e r n w o r ld h a d p r e v a i l e d p a s s e d th r o u g h th r e e p h a se s ; f i rs t , th e r e w as r e s i s t a n c e to L a t in i n f lu e n c e , t h e n a d ju s tm e n t to th e n e w s i tu a t io n a n d c o n ta c t w ith W e s t e r n c iv ili­z a t io n a n d th e m o r e d e v e lo p e d W e s t e r n e c o n o m ie s , a n d , f ina lly , a c c e p t a n c e o f th e in s t i tu t io n a l f r a m e w o r k o f fo re ig n so v e r e ig n ty . T h is th r e e fo ld r e a c t io n , th e e x p re s s io n o f a c u l tu re w h o se m a in h a l lm a r k w as th e v ita li ty s t e m m in g f r o m its p o w e rs o f a s s im i la t io n , e n a b le d th e G r e e k e le m e n t to t a k e a d v a n ta g e ol th e f a v o u r a b le c o n d i t io n s c re a t e d by W e s te r n ru le , a n d at th e s a m e t im e led it to d e l in c ils soc ial a n d ideo log ica l o i i i i l la t io n

i o r c l c r lo th e l e i r i lo i i c s o f ihc B y / a n l m c E m p i r e , Ihe I a t in s u s e d th e te r m 'R o m a n i a ' , a w o rd o f p o p u la r o r ig in , s y n o n y m o u s in th e B y z a n t in e s o u r c e s w ith Ihe Β ((ο ιλ ικ< tciv Ι’ο ιμ α ίο ιν ( ‘K in g d o m ol th e R o m a n s ’). T h e L a t in e m p i r e o f ( on· l a m in o p l c w as th us ca l led ‘Im p e r iu m R o m a n i a e ’, th e D o g e o f V e n ic e a d d e d lo liis li l ies th a t o f ‘d o m in u s q u a r t a e p a r t i s e t d im id ia e to t iu s I m p e r i i R o m a n i a e ' , th e c o d if ic a t io n o f feu d a l in s t i tu t io n s in G r e e c e w as g iven th e n a m e o f ‘A ss i s e s de R o m a n i c ' , a n d N a u p l io n is r e f e r r e d to t h r o u g h o u t th e p e r i o d o f L a t in d o m i n a t i o n as ‘N a p o l i di R o m a n i a ’. T h e V e n e t i a n s d is t in g u ish e d b e tw e e n ‘R o m a n i a b a s s a ' ( t h e P e lo p o n n e s e , E u b o e a , C r e t e , a n d th e is land s) a n d 'R o m a n i a a l t a ’ ( M a c e d o ­n ia , T h r a c e , a n d th e B o s p h o r u s ) . F o r th e c h r o n o g r a p h e r S a l im b e n e , t h i r t e e n th - c e n tu r y G r e e c e w as a p ro v in c e o f R o m a n i a ( ‘G r e c ia . . . e s t p ro v in c ia R o m a n i a e ’). A n d th e v e ry d o c u m e n t by w h ich th e te r r i t o r i e s o f th e B y z a n t in e E m p i r e w e re d i s t r i b u te d a m o n g s t th e C r u s a d e r s is k n o w n as th e ‘P a r t i t io t e r r a r u m Im p e r i i R o m a n i e ’.

D iv id e d in to F ra n k i s h a n d V e n e t i a n p o s s e s s io n s , th e G r e e k re g io n s e x p e ­r i e n c e d d i f fe r in g f o r tu n e s f ro m th e th i r t e e n th to th e e n d o f th e e ig h t e e n th c e n t u ­r ies , in v o lv in g v a ry in g p e r io d s o f L a t in s o v e r e ig n ty , a n d o n e o r m o r e fo re ig n lo rd s . S o m e a r e a s p a s s e d d irec t ly f ro m th e B y z a n t in e a d m in i s t r a t io n to V e n e t i a n s o v e r e ig n ty , o th e r s b e c a m e fiefs, in a c c o r d a n c e w ith W e s t e r n p ra c t ic e , a n d ye t o th e r s p a s s e d t h r o u g h a fe u d a l p h a s e b e f o r e b e c o m in g V e n e t i a n p o s s e s s io n s . T h e h is to r ica l c l im a te a f fec t in g th e p o p u la t i o n o f e a c h reg io n th u s v a r i e d a c c o r d in g to th e spec if ic lo ca l co n d i t io n s . E v e n b e fo r e th e F o u r t h C r u s a d e C y p r u s h a d c o m e u n d e r Ihc d o m i n a t i o n o f th e F r e n c h L u s ig n a n s , w h o ru le d o v e r th e is la n d fo r a b o u t t h r e e h u n d r e d y e a r s , un t i l th e e s t a b l i s h m e n t in 1489 o f V e n e t i a n a u th o r i t y ,

- - 46 —

w h ic h la s te d un ti l 1570. f ro m 1211 un ti l 1669 C r e te w a s th e m o s t im p o r t a n t c o lo n y o f th e n a va l p o w e r , V e n ic e , in th e e a s t e rn M e d i t e r r a n e a n . A t t i c a , B o e o t i a a n d th e M e g a r id initia lly c a m e u n d e r F re n c h s o v e r e ig n ty , th e f irs t D u k e b e in g th e B u r g u n d i a n O t t o d e la R o c h e ; th e y w e re s u b s e q u e n t ly ru le d by th e C a ta l a n s , th e N a v a r r e s e a n d th e F lo r e n t in e s . T h e P rinc ipa l i ty o f A c h a e a w as o n e o f th e m o s t im p o r t a n t L a t in a re a s in G r e e c e , a n d u n d e r th e V i l l e h a rd o u in s o c c u p ie d a u n iq u e p o s i t i o n in th e feu d a l w o ik l o f (lie e a s t . T h e Io n ia n is lands w e re g o v e r n e d by th e A n g e v in s , O rs in i , T o c c h i , V e n ie r an d o th e r L a t in ru l e r s , u n t i l th e y w e re a n n e x e d to th e co lo n ia l sy s tem o f V e n ic e . E u b o e a , h av in g in it ia l ly b e e n g r a n t e d as a fief to t h r e e n o b le s from V e r o n a , w h o g o v e r n e d it as a t r iu m v i r a t e ( ' t e r z i e r i ' ) , a lso b e c a m e a V e n e t i a n p o s se ss io n . V e n e t i a n p o ssess io ns in th e P e lo p o n n e s e in c lu d e d M o d o n , C o ro n a n d la te r N a u p l io n A rg o s a n d M o n e m v a s ia . T h e is la n d s o f th e A e g e a n b e c a m e th e D u c h y o f Ihc A r c h ip e l a g o , a n d w e re d iv id e d as fiefs a m o n g s t V e n e t i a n n o b le s (S a n u d i O u c r in i , Baro/./.i , D a n d o lo , G h is i e t c . ) . C h io s a n d L e s ­b o s w e r e G e n o e s e tr a i l in g p o s ts , w h ile R h o d e s , u n d e r th e K n ig h ts H o s p i t a l l e r s o f St. J o h n b e c a m e the c e n t r e o f a c o n s id e ra b l e s ta te th a t s e rv e d as a n id ea l b a s e o f o p e r a t i o n s ag a in s t T u r k i s h a t t a c k s .

T h e n e w o r d e r o f th in g s e s ta b l i s h e d in th e G r e e k w o r ld in 1204 n o t o n ly s ig n a l led th e e n d o f a p o li t ica l s i tu a t io n b u t a lso b ro u g h t a b o u t s ign if ican t c h a n g e s in th e s t ru c tu r e o f G r e e k so c ie ty . T h e in t ro d u c t io n o f th e fe u d a l sy s te m in to R o m a n i a g r a d u a l ly p r o d u c e d a d iv e r s i f ie d r e g im e c o m p o u n d e d o f f o r m e r B y z a n ­t in e in s t i tu t io n s , local c u s to m s a n d F ra n k i s h p rac t ices . B e l i e f in th e e a s t e r n c r e e d , w h ic h , a lo n g w ith th e l a n g u a g e , d is t in g u ish e d th e n a t iv e e l e m e n t f r o m th e fo re ig n , c a m e to b e th e line t h a t d iv id e d th e L a t in C a th o l ic c o n q u e r o r f r o m th e G r e e k O r t h o d o x c o n q u e r e d . T h e re s u l t w as th a t re l ig io us b e l ie f b e g a n to b e c o n fu s e d w ith th e n a t io n a l s e n t im e n ts o f H e l le n i s m , a n d g ra d u a l ly c a m e to c o in c id e w ith n a t io n a l id en t i ty .

A lo ng t im e w as to e la p s e b e fo r e th e te n s io n s b e tw e e n th e tw o C h r is t i a n c o m m u n i t i e s o f L a t in G r e e c e r e l a x e d , th e i r d i f f e re n c e s d im in i s h e d a n d a c o m m o n w a y o f life w as e s t a b l i s h e d th a t f ina lly e n a b le d th e tw o d i s p a r a te re l ig io u s c o m m u ­n it ie s to co ex is t in th e s a m e g e o g ra p h ic a l re g io n . T h e c o e x is te n c e o f G r e e k s a n d f o r e ig n e r s in th e s a m e a r e a w as th e re su l t o f tw o p a ra l le l h is to r ic a l p h e n o m e n a t h a t c an b e o b s e r v e d d u r i n g th is p e r io d : on the o n e h a n d , th e L a t in s s low ly but s u r e ly c a m e u n d e r th e in f lu e n c e o f th e n a tu r a l a n d h u m a n e n v i r o n m e n t an ti b e g a n to be a s s im i la te d in to G r e e k c u l tu r e , a n d o n th e o th e r th e G r e e k s , d e s p i te re la in in g t h e i r re l ig io n , la n g u a g e a n d t r a d i t io n s , a n d a t t e m p t in g to p r e s e rv e th en id e n t i ty a n d p e r s o n a l i t y , b e g a n n o n e th e l e s s to in f i l t ra te a n d p a r t i c ip a le in I lie socia l a n d e c o n o m ic s t ru c tu r e s o f th e c o n q u e ro r s . H o w e v e r , a l t h o u g h a cu li im il g a p c o u ld b e d e t e c t e d b e tw e e n G r e e k s a n d fo r e ig n e rs in th e first < . m u i u ' . ul L a t in d o m i n a t i o n , H e l l e n i s m la te r c a m e u n d e r th e in f lu en ce o f Ihe K e n . i r .11it ■ · a n d a b s o r b e d th e v a lu e s o f W e s t e r n c iv i l iza tion . C o n ta c t b e tw e e n Wi . l e m mu I G r e e k f o r m s f o u n d its f in e s t e x p re s s io n s in C re te , ( ' r e t a i l c ra l i m e n ind n i l I w h ile r e m a in i n g t r u e to th e B y z a n t in e t r a d i t io n , s u c c e e d e d m iimhi· new i p i . iw m e a n s to in t e r p r e t R e n a i s s a n c e m o d e l s o f aicl ii lee .lu it a n d pauiiui)·

A l t h o u g h fo re ig n d o m i n a t i o n u n d o u b te d ly had ils p a in fu l n-.pei ι 1 1 u I I i r e I s u c c e e d e d th r o u g h th e i r o w n ab i l i t ie s in f inding a nc w i niluT I |«.iili mil in OPvning u p n e w a v e n u e s o f c re a t iv i ty .

< l l l< V S A M A I II / ( M l

1*11 ill··.·.! II II dl l I h 11 Vi' IΜIV III ( i e t f

1/

I C O N P A I N T I N G I N C R E T E

D U R I N G T H E F I F T E E N T H

A N D S I X T E E N T H C E N T U R I E S

. ^ ^ . f t e r the fall of C on s ta n t in o p le in 1453, C re te , which h ad been u n d e r V en e tian occupa t ion since 1204, to o k its p lace as the most im p o r ta n t cen tre of ar t in the G re e k world .

T h e co n cen t ra t io n in C and ia (I rak lion) o f a g roup o f artists o f o u ts tan d in g ta len t e s tab lished the au thor ity o f C re ta n art , which spread th r o u g h o u t the G re e k w orld , the in f luence o f C re tan pa in te rs being particularly p ro n o u n ced in the m a jo r cen tres of O r th o d o x y , on M ount A tlios, at M e te o ra , on the is land o f P a tm o s and at llie M o nas te ry o f Sinai. 1 he C re tan p a in te rs , w ho frequently vis ited V enice , natura lly d ev e lo pe d close ties with the G re e k com m un ity th e re , w hich was 5,000 s tron g in the s ix teen th century.

T h e re is d o c u m e n ta ry ev idence for the m o v em en t o f pa in te rs f rom C o n s ta n t i ­nople to C re te even befo re the fall o f the city, and during this sam e p e r iod C re tan pa in te rs such as A nge lo s A k o ta n to s t ravelled to the capital f rom C re te . T h e e s tab ­lishm en t in C re te o f pa in te rs f rom C o n s tan t in op le tha t seem s likely to have taken p lace a f te r 1453 was th e re fo re a c on tinu a t io n of earl ier links b e tw een the island and the capital.

Wall pa in t ings in churches of the first half of the fi f teen th ccn tu ry , like those p a in ted by m e m b e rs o f the P hokas family, display s trong affinities with w orks from a C o n s ta n t in o p o l i tan a te lie r , such as those in the C hurch ol the P er ib lep tos at Mistra (second half o f the fo u r teen th cen tu ry ) . T h e art in these pa in t ings is o f a very high quali ty , and has none of the provincial cha rac te r to be fou nd in o the r churclxts from (his period on the island. O n ly a lew icons now d a te d to th e early pari of the fifteenth cen tu ry arc’ included in this exh ibition . D esp ite the d if ferences o f style be tw een Ιΐκ-ηι, they were all prpilueoiJ in a highly cu l tu red e n v iro n m en t . T h e D o rm i l io n from the K ane llopou los M useum (cat. no. 23), with its e rud i te ico no g rap hy , re l ined d raw ing and subd ued colours , can only be th e w o rk o f a pa in te r w ho had learned his art in the B yzantine capital. 1 he N ativ ity in the P era t iko s C ollec tion (form erly Volpi C ollec tion , cat. no. 30) is c loser to th e su p ­erb en se m b le s o f wall paintings at Mistra. The icon depicting St. M ar in a f rom the B vzan tine M u seu m of A th e n s (cat. no. 31) is an exam ple of the a d o p t io n o f the P a laeo logan style in C re te .

- 48 —

T h e se wall paintings and icons form an integral p a r t o f the P a laeo lo gan t r a d i­t ion; at the sam e tim e they display those fea tures tha t gave C re ta n pa in t ing its d is tinctive charac te r : the precise outl ines , the m odelling o f the flesh with d a rk brow n u n d e rp a in t and d ense tiny highlights on the cheeks o f th e faces, the brigh t co lours in the g a rm en ts , the geom etr ica l t re a tm en t of the d ra p e ry , and , finally, the b a lan c e d ar t iculation o f the com posit ion . All these are ha l lm arks o f late fif­teen th - o r early s ix teen th -cen tu ry C re tan painting, which was to acq u ire a ra th e r academ ic charac te r . A t the sam e t im e, fea tures from Italian pa in t ing w ere ass im i­la ted a n d harm oniously a d a p te d to the aus tere Byzantine t rad i t io n w ith a quali ty n o t e n c o u n te re d in ear l ie r wall paintings inf luenced by Italian art.

T h e ar t o f the pa in te r w ho signs his w ork ΧΕΙΡ ΑΓΓΕΛΟΥ (‘th e h a n d o f A n ­ge los’) clearly reveals the im pac t o f the Pa laeo logan trad it ion an d th e assimilation of seco n d a ry fea tures from Italian pa in ting; th e em erg ence of a new artistic v ocab u la ry can also be d e te c ted at a d if feren t level in each o f his w orks . This p a in te r is p rob ab ly to be identif ied with the A ngelos A k o ta n to s kn ow n from the te s ta m e n t he d rew up in 1436 before setting ou t on a jou rney to C o n s tan t in op le ; the iden tif ica t ion , how ever , does not solve all the p ro b lem s re la ted to the variety of styles th a t a rc discernible in his signed works.

T h e chronological f ram ew o rk in which may be set the activity of the most im p o r ta n t pa in te rs , such as A n d re a s R itzos and his son N ikolaos , A n d re a s Pavias and N ik o lao s T zafouris , res ts on d o cu m en ta ry evidence. T h ese pa in te rs had ate liers an d considerab le n u m b ers o f appren tices , and c rea ted icon-p ro to ty pes with a new iconography . T h e V irgin , in the types of the H o d e g e tr ia , G lyk op h ilou sa or the Virgin o f the Pass ion, w arr io r saints, St. N icholas and St. A n th o n y , scenes from th e D o d e k a o r to n such as the Nativity , th e E n try in to J e ru sa le m , the R e s ­u rrec t io n , the A n n u n c ia t io n and the D o rm i t io n of th e Virgin , and finally sub jec ts like the H ospita l i ty o f A b ra h a m , the Noli M e T a n g e re and the D o rm i t io n of various h e rm its , w ere am o n g the m ost p o p u la r subjects cop ied from such co m m o n iconographical models.

A n im p o r ta n t g rou p of icons can now be d a te d from the middle o f the f i f teenth to the beg inning of the s ix teen th cen tur ies ; these have their ow n part icu la r ch a r ­ac te r , a dis tinguishing fea tu re o f which was the superb technical execu tion . T h e p a in te rs o f these w orks, m as te rs o f a techn ique inhe r i ted from P a laeo logan art , f r equ en tly d isplayed an eclecticism th a t enab led th e m to include e lem en ts from Ita lian a r t in the ir paintings.

T h e acqu a in tance with the I talian style of pa in t ing is m u ch m o re a p p a re n t in a n o th e r g ro u p o f icons p ro d u c ed on C re te . T hese icons, which reveal an u nusua l k n o w led ge o f th e L a te G o th ic ar t and are in a re f ined style, w ere p a in te d by N iko laos T zafouris (cat. no. 42), A n d re a s Pavias , A n d re a s R itzos an d o th e r fa ­m ou s artists. T h ey w ere p ro b ab ly com m iss ioned by C atho lic cu s tom ers , and the ir icon og rap hy follows typical Ita lian m odels , such as th e M ad re della C o nso laz ione (cat . no. 42), the P ieta (cat. no. 45) and the M an o f Sorrow s (cat. no. 44). T hese I ta lo -C re tan works are re t rospec t ive r a th e r th an conservative in charac te r . T h ey ref lect th e tas tes o f the clientele which he lped to define and d issem inate this u n iq u e iconography and style th ro ug h icons tha t often have a hybrid cliaiacli-i like th e icon with the S am ar i tan W o m a n , which was p ro found ly inf luenced by T uscan pa in t ing of the q u a t t ro cen to .

4<;

ΓΙιβ C r e t a n icons o f th e f i f te e n th a n d e a r ly s ix te e n th c e n tu r ie s will a lso h a v e h ad i d iv is iv e in f lu e n c e o n th e w o r k o f th e C r e t a n p a in t e r s o f th e fo l lo w in g g e n ­e r a t io n . I h e o p h a n e s , a C r e t a n p a in t e r ac t iv e a t M e t e o r a a n d o n M o u n t A t h o s ( 1527-i55X) fo l lo w e d th e e a r l ie r t r a d i t io n a n d e n r i c h e d it w i th m o r e r e c e n t I t a l i a n f e a tu re s . In 1542, th e p a in t e r - p r ie s t E u p h r o s y n o s p r o d u c e d icons in C r e t e fo r th e M o n a s t e r y o f D io n y s io s o n M o u n t A t h o s , fo l lo w in g th e p r e c e p t s o f th e s t r ic t ly t r a d i t io n a l a r t o f A n g e lo s a n d R itzo s .

In th e m id d le a n d l a t t e r h a l f o f th e c e n tu r y , th e p e r s o n a l i t ie s o f M ic h a e l D a m a s k i n o s a n d G e o r g io s K lo n tz a s h e lp e d to ‘m o d e r n i z e ’ C r e t a n p a in t in g . T h e i r w o rk is o f t e n d o m i n a t e d by M a n n e r i s m , as in th e icon o f St. J u s t in a a n d tw o o t h e r sa in ts f ro m K e r k y r a (ca t . n o . 65 ) , w h ich is in f lu e n c e d b y th e a r t o f P a o lo V e r o n e s e . It s h o u ld b e n o te d , h o w e v e r , t h a t in s o m e o f th e i r o t h e r w o rk s , th e s e p a in t e r s f o l lo w e d th e c o n s e rv a t iv e s ty le t h a t d r e w u p o n th e a u s t e r e B y z a n t i n e

t r a d i t io n .T h e i r ab i l i ty to h a n d le d i f fe re n t s ty les m u s t h a v e b e e n a c o n s e q u e n c e o f th e

w a y in w h ic h th e f i f t e e n th -c e n tu ry p a in t e r s w o r k e d . T h is d u a l ab il i ty is d i s c e rn ib le in th e e a r ly w o rk s o f D o m e n ik o s T h e o t o k o p o u l o s , w h o se r v e d his a p p r e n t i c e s h ip in C r e t e in a m i l i e u a t o n c e r o o t e d in t r a d i t i o n , y e t o p e n to th e a r t is t ic a s p i r a t i o n s o f th e t im e . T h e d e g r e e o f a ss im i la t io n of , o r r e s is t a n c e to , d i f f e r e n t a r t i s t ic s ty les c o r r e s p o n d e d to th e s t a t e o f th e r e l a t i o n s h ip b e tw e e n th e tw o w o r ld s t h a t c o e x ­is ted o n th e is lan d . T h is d ir ec t c o n ta c t o f th e C r e ta n p a in t e r s w ith th e w o r ld o f t h e i r d a y is p e r h a p s o n e o f th e m o s t v a lu a b le a sp ec ts o f th e i r a r t .

N A N O C l I A T Z I D A K I S

Professor at the University of loann ina

— 5 0 —

T A S T E A N D T H E M A R K E T

I N C R E T A N I C O N S I N Π Ι Ε

F I F T E E N T H A N D S I X T E E N T H C E N T U R I E S

I n C r e te d u r in g th e last tw o i v n i m i e s o f V e n e t i a n ru le ( f ro m th e m id - f i f t e e n th to th e m id - s e v e n t e e n th c e n tu r y ) tin· m ost i m p o r t a n t c o m m e rc i a l ac tiv i t ie s w e re c o n c e n t r a t e d in th e m a j o r e o i i n n i m i c n t i e s o f th e is lan d : th e c a p i t a l , C a n d ia (n o w I r a k l io n ) , a n d o t h e r c i t ies , su ch as I h a m i a n d R e t h y m n o n . In th e s e c e n t r e s th e u r b a n m id d le a n d u p p e r c lasses b e c a m e ilu· m a in b e a r e r s o f c u l tu re . T h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f in te l le c tu a l life fo l lo w ed a n d b o ie f ine f r u i t in l i t e r a tu re ( C r e t e p r o d u c e d a n u m b e r o f e x a m p le s ol K en a is s a n c e p o e t r y a n d d r a m a ) , a n d in th e v isua l a r t s , p a r t ic u la r ly p a in t in g , lm w hich th e is la n d r e m a in e d th e m o s t i m p o r t a n t c e n t r e a f t e r th e fall o f C o n s t m u n o p l t

T h e c h a r a c t e r o f th is p e r i o d is w ell d o c u m e n t e d by th e su rv iv in g n> hival sOuf ces . F o r p a in t in g , a w e a l th o f in f o rm a t io n is f u r n is h e d by th e Archives i c U i i n g lo th e V e n e t i a n a d m in i s t r a t io n in C r e t e (n o w p r e s e r v e d in th e S ta l l A n h ives in V e n ic e ) . N o ta r i a l d o c u m e n t s , in p a r t ic u l a r , y ie ld v a luab l i i n f o rm a t io n o n the s o u r c e s o f d e m a n d fo r a n d su p p ly o f C r e t a n icons , th e c o n d i t io n s ot n o n p r o d u c t io n , th e o r g a n iz e d m a r k e t in C r e t a n ico ns a n d th e i r i l i s s e m m a i io n in 111* M e d i t e r ­r a n e a n w o r ld a n d n o r t h e r n E u r o p e th r o u g h the e x p o r t t r a d e tin· i c l a l i o n s h ip b e t w e e n p a t r o n s a n d p a in t e r s , a n d th e c h a n g in g a t t i t u d e of tin- public to w a r d s p a in t in g .

A m o n g th e s o u rc e s o f d e m a n d for ( ' r e t a i l icons , m e r c h a n t s b o th ( n e c k a n d I t a l i a n , h e ld a s ign if ican t p o s i t io n . I’lie m e r c h a n t s , a spec ia l p n u p o f c u s t o m e r s o f C r e t a n p a in t e r s , a c te d as in t e r m e d ia r i e s b e tw e e n C r e t a n 11 lists a n d W e s te r n m a r ­k e t s , a n d o f t e n e x p re s s e d co l le c t iv e a e s lh e t i c p i e l e i c n c e v 1 h e ir w r i t te n c o n t r a c t s c o n s t i t u t e a c o n s id e ra b le p r o p o r t io n ( a b o u t I V / , ) ol th e su rv iv in g c o m m is s io n s p la c e d w i th p a in t e r s ac tive in C re te .

D o c u m e n t s inv o lv ing c o m m e rc ia l o r d e r s lo r la rge q u a n t i t i e s o f C r e t a n ico ns r e v e a l t h a t th e s e w o rk s w e re m ass p ro d u c e d lo r e x p o r t . Λ v as t n u m b e r o f ic on s w e re c o m m is s io n e d in 1497 by a V e n e t i a n d e a le r f ro m a C r e t a n p a in t e r . T h e p a in t in g s w e re to b e p u t u p fo r sa le in E u r o p e , n o ta b ly in F la n d e r s . H a l f o f t h e m h a d a l r e a d y b e e n d is p o s e d of, w ith g re a t success , in th e W e s t e r n m a r k e t s by M a y 1498. T h e c o n s t a n t d e m a n d fo r th e s e icons is d e m o n s t r a t e d b y th e d e a l e r ’s in s is te n c e th a t th e o t h e r h a l f o f th e o r d e r be c o m p l e te d as q u ic k ly as p o ss ib le .

— 51 —

All οιιΐι-ι Ιπι hun d red s of icons of the Virgin was p laced in 1499 by two ik-aleis m u lio in V enice and the o th e r from the P e lo p o n n ese , with th re e pa in te rs livmj’ in C an d ia , each of them being dea l t with separa te ly . T h e res tr ic t ions set by lh« 1111' ii li. 1111 s as to the iconography and style o f the pain tings (in fo r m a greca or in ju t m u ti la la tina), th e explicit ins truc t ions rega rd ing the co lours of th e V irg in ’s g a rm en ts , and the ob liga tory use o f p re d e te rm in e d m odels , all ref lect the d e m a n d s of I he foreign m a rk e t , which in f luenced ar t p ro d u c t io n in C re te . T h e large n u m b e r of the pieces com m iss ioned (seven h u n d red ) a n d the shor t delivery p e r io d (forty- live days) a t te s t to th e efficiency o f C re tan w ork sh op s , which can in fact be rega rded as p ro d u c t io n units with a considerab le o u tp u t . Five h u n d re d o f th e icons com m iss ioned w ere to be in the style of L a te G o th ic pa in t ing , and the rem ain ing two h u n d re d in the Byzantine trad i t ion , app a ren t ly following the d e m a n d s of an aud ien ce with d iffering aesthetic p re fe rences . C re tan p a in te rs , ex perienc ing pa r t ic ­ular historical an d social c ircum stances, w ere versatile . T h e ir re la tionsh ip to the ar t o f the do m in a t in g political p o w er , V en ice , and to o th e r W e s te rn inf luences , co m b in ed with the tas te o f their m ixed public (which inc luded b o th G re e k O r th o ­dox a n d R o m a n C atho lic , with a b ro a d social and cultural ran g e ) , led th e m to an obvious eclecticism, as a result o f which they w ere capable o f p ro du c in g icons in d if fe ren t tradit ions.

D o c u m en ts o f th e above k ind a ttest no t only to the mass p ro du c t ion o f fif­te en th -cen tu ry C re ta n icons, bu t also to the repe t i t ion of certa in iconograph ic types, accord ing to th e usual practice o f m ed ieva l w orkshops . Surviving f if teenth- cen tu ry icons, b o th signed and unsigned , il lus trate this repet i t ive use of successful and es tab lished iconograph ic m odels . O n the o th e r h an d , they reveal th e high level o f technical co m p e ten ce and artistic skill o f the m en w ho pa in te d th em .

It was within this f ram ew ork tha t the t r ad e in art was d e v e lop e d in C re te . Pain tings w ere t r e a te d as m erchand ise and the p roduc t ion of icons b e cam e p a r t of th e system o f supply and d em an d . B esides pa in te rs and the i r ass istants, o th e r p rofessionals , such as w ood-carvers and ca rp en te rs , w ere also co n n e c te d w ith the ar t t rade . Pain t ings p ro d u c ed u n d e r these condit ions may have b een lacking in originality , bu t this was offset by the ir technical perfec tion , w hich g u a ra n te e d the fine quali ty of the w orks and secured the go od rep u ta t io n of the C re tan p a in te rs . In fact som e o f the best know n f i f teen th -cen tu ry C re tan m as te rs o f ten a d d e d the nam e o f the ir na tive tow n to the ir s igna ture on paintings d es t ined for e x p o r ta t io n : for ex am ple , A n d rea s R igo de Candia p in x i t ; A n d rea s Pavias p in x it de C andia.

T h e vast p ro d u c t io n o f fine icons in C re te is also a tte s ted by th e te s t im o ny o f a F rench traveller , Jacq u es Le Saige, w ho visited C and ia in 1518: ‘e t il se fait aussy a la d ite ville [de C andie] la rgem en t de belles ymaiges de nostre d a m e encloses de tab leaux de c ip re s ’.

T h e f lourish ing trade in C re tan icons which is m an ifes ted tow ards th e e n d of (he fi f teen th cen tu ry does no t seem to have c on tinu ed into the s ix teen th . D o c u ­m en ts suggest e i th e r the failure o f com m erc ia l en te rp r ises o r a lack o f in te res t on I he part o f the m erch an ts in the m a rk e t in icons. A con trac t d ra f te d in 1509 in C an d ia registers th e beginning of an a t tem p t to t r ade in small tr ip tychs which, h ow ever , n ever c am e to fruition. In 1556 a m e rc h a n t p laced an o rd e r fo r a specific nutrther of icons w ith tw o pa in te rs es tab lished in C and ia . A l th o u g h the c o m m is ­s i o n was carr ied o u t , the m e rch an t exh ib i ted obvious ind ifference to th e delivery

— 5 2 —

of the icons he had o rd e re d , ap p a ren t ly owing lo lack of sufficient d em a n d .T h e d if fe ren t p ic ture to be derived Irom six teen th -cen tu ry d o c u m e n ts m ay be

in te rp re te d as the result of som e radical changes in llie d e m a n d for and d is tr ib u ­t ion o f C re ta n icons in the W est. I lie art t rade in C re te had most likely been a ffec ted by a shift in the taste of the public. I he di p reca to ry rem arks m a d e by G .B . A rm e n in i (1587) a bo u t G re e k icons which he hail seen in n o r th e rn Italy w ere p e rh a p s the result o f a shift o f this kind; he describes ‘p it tu rc delle saero imagini, le quali e ra n o la m aggior p a r te q u ad re t t i di ce r te figure la tte alia g reca , goffissime, dispiacevoli e tu t te a ffu m ica te ’ ( ‘paintings of sacred images which w ere for th e m o s t par t p ic tures of certa in figures do ne in the G re e k m a n n e r , most u n c o u th , unp leas ing and sm o k y ’).

In th e six teen th cen tu ry the p re d o m in a n t artistic fashions w ere those o f the R e n a issan ce a n d M an ner ism , an d these ov e rsh a d o w e d the ear l ie r en thus iasm for pa in t ing in the B yzantine o r L a te G o th ic trad it ions , a l though m a d o n n e candiotte and q u a d ri dorati de nostra do n n a alia greca co n t in ued to figure am o n g the va luab le possessions o f late s ix teen th -cen tu ry w ealthy V e ne tian househo lds .

N o t only can this new tu rn in artistic taste be d e tec ted in the a t t i tu de o f the I talian and th e C re tan public; it is also d em o n s tra ted by the e n r ic h m en t of the existing t rad i t ions of iconography which was a t tem p ted , w ith in th e limits o f reli­gious p a in t ing , by a n u m b e r o f C re ta n artists. Suffice it to m e n t io n here th e nam es o f th re e s ix teen th -cen tu ry m as te rs , the young D o m e n ik o s T h e o to k o p o u lo s (la ter the fam o us El G rec o ) , M ichael D am ask in o s and G eo rg io s K lon tzas , w ho all a d o p te d a fresh app roach to the t r e a tm e n t of trad it ional sub jec ts , involving the use o f W es te rn e lem en ts , and often signed their w orks in new and original ways. T h e ir iconog raph ic innovat ions w ere u n d ou b ted ly held in e s teem by certa in social circles, such as the m em b ers o f the li terary society of the A cca d em ia degli strava- gan ti o f C an d ia .

A fu r th e r d ev e lo p m en t is the a p p ea ran ce , f rom the beginn ing of the six teen th cen tu ry o n w ards , o f priva te collections that included icons am ongs t the Italian and F lem ish pain t ings and pieces o f scu lp tu re ow ned by C re tan s and by V enetian n o b lem en and the w ealthy bourgeoisie of C andia . Icons w ere now regarded as w orks o f ar t with the i r own intrinsic aesthetic value, anil were judged to be ‘p i t cious th ings for G re e k p a in t in g ’ (cose pretiose p e r p ittu ra greca).

By the second half o f th e s ix teen th cen tu ry large com m ercia l com m issions and th e mass p ro d u c t io n o f icons be longed to the past , bu t a new co ncep t o f pa in t ing and a m o re favourab le a t t i tude tow ards pa in ters and the ir w ork had e m erg ed in R ena issance C re te .

M A R I A C O N S T A N T O U D A K I - K I T R O M I L I D E S Teaching fellow at the University of Athens

W O R K I N G D R A W I N G S

O F P A I N T E R S I N G R E E C E

A F T E R T H E F A L L O F C O N S T A N T I N O P L E

I c o n s an d frescoes af te r 1453 b e lon g to the last p hase o f a pa in t ing trad it ion which can be traced back in to A n tiqu i ty . T h e technological b ac k g ro u n d o f this pa in t ing is accessible, to som e ex ten t , to m o d e rn scholars , mainly th rou gh the P ain ter’s M a nua l by D ionysius o f F o u rn a , which was w rit ten on M o u n t A th o s , roughly b e tw een 1730 and 1734. D ionys ius ’s M anua l p rov ides d e ta i led in fo rm at io n concern ing th e p ro du c t ion of d raw ings on trac ing p a p e r , and also o f a specific type of im prin ted car toon , the so-called a n th ivo lo n , which was d ra w n from an exis ting w ork , w h e th e r a d raw ing , pane l or wall p a in t ­ing: ' . . . p u t som e b lack co lour in to a scallop-shell with som e garlic ju ice ... and mix th em ; th en go over the form s o f th e w hole figure o f the sain t th a t you are copying ... T h e n you mix red co lour with garlic juice and go over th e h ighlights of the face an d c lo thes ... then w et a sheet of p a p e r the sam e size as the p ro to ty p e ... p lace it on th e a rche ty pe and press it dow n carefully with you r h a n d . . . Y ou will thus have m a d e a p r in te d copy in every way identical to th e p ro to ty p e ’.

T h e descr ip tion by D ionysius refers to a familiar m e th o d o f m ak in g w ork ing draw ings , usually in red and black, and som etim es accom p an ied by a b b rev ia ted verbal ind ica tions o f the colours to be used; it was possible fro m these to ob ta in fu r th e r copies by m ean s o f p r icking (poncif). Such p ricked copies w ere o f ten e m ­ployed by p ane l pa in te rs in o rd e r to p ro d u c e a p o un ccd d raw ing o v e r the gesso g rou nd p re p a ra t io n of the panel. This in its tu rn was incised and the pa in te rs p roceed ed by add ing the gold leaf and successive layers of egg tem p e ra .

A co ns id e rab le n u m b e r o f p a in te rs ’ w ork ing drawings has surv ived . T h e two m o s t im portan t ( I hough largely unpub lished ) collections are found at the Byzan- liiu M u s e u m o f A th en s , which ow ns m ore than 3,000 draw ings , and at the B enak i M u s e u m ol A lliens, which lias two pa in te rs ’ portfolios. A th ird sm aller collection ol som e I M) dr iwings ow ned b y S. M ilia ll r ias , is m I o ndon . I lie B enak i M useu m portfo lios a n p a r t ic u l a r^ im portan t because they a p p e a r to have been accu­m ula ted over ll i tee eeu tu i ie s liy suecossive gene ra t ions ol pa in te rs , an d consist of two distinctly d i H e i e n l types ol w orking drawings, e i ther t r e ed ra w n sk e tch es o r p r icked car to on s , f lu first portfo lio consists ol 188 sketches , on m ost o f which nu m b ers have been writ ten, t he c iilii it ol these '-ketches may d a te from c. 1600, and there are several nulu ations that they w ere in tended for use in th e m ak in g of wall pain t ings I he num bers on I h e u p p e r part ol these draw ings suggest th a t they w ere a r ran g ed by sub |ec t roughly lollowing the iconographical layout o f the M a n u a l by D ionysius o f Fourna . I his first portfo lio m ust th e re fo re be an icon o ­graphical inven to ry , and this explains why it includes a limited n u m b e r o f e n g ra v ­ings, m odels for capital le t ters and recipes ta ken from the M a nua l o f D ionysius. A m o n g th e m o s t re m ark a b le d raw ings are nine scenes o f an A p o ca ly p se cycle

— 54 —

dating from c. 1600 and most p robab ly derived from the il lu s tra ted B ibles of C ra n a ch an d H olbe in . A n o th e r rare cycle, ol the S unday P rayer , is cop ied from th e il lus tra ted Bible of the V iennese en graver C hr is toph W eigel (1654-1725), which se rved as a p a in t e r s m odel book in Serbia, llu* draw ings a p p e a r to have been b o u n d in to a vo lum e, possibly in llu course ol the e igh teen th cen tu ry . T h e la test p a r t o f this portfo lio cont.iins large, uirnjinibcrc d draw ings , o l ten signed by m e m b e rs o f a w orksho p Irom C Jalatista, near T hessalon ik i T he pa in te rs b o m this w o rk sh o p a re know n to have been active on M ount A thos in Ihe first hall o f the n in e te e n th century , l his and several o the r indications imply th it the p o r t f o l i o

m ust have co m e from M ount A th o s which, il ler 1453, was ol eourse a m a j o r

cen tre o f art , part icularly o f m o n u m en ta l painting.T h e second Benaki M useum portfo lio was a gitt o f the By/.antinc scholar A.

X yn go po u los . l i e re la ted som e o f the drawings to icons by the C re tan pa in te r T h c o d o ro s Poulakis (1622-1692). T he portfo lio con ta ins som e 308 shee ts , o n to which are p inn ed car toons o f d if feren t sizes for use in icon pain t ing . T h e ca r to on s a re in the form o f e i th e r drawings o r p r icked copies , mostly fo lded into four . A n u m b e r o f the ca r toons a re on ‘s t a n d a rd ’ p a p e r m easur ing 3T x 4 2 cm and showing w a te rm ark s with the initials V G (V an G angelt) . This p a p e r seem s to have com e from A m s te rd a m .

T h e ca r to o n s are a r ran g ed by subjec t; for ins tance , scenes from the O ld T e s ta m e n t , P ro p h e ts , E vangelis ts , po rt ra i ts o f Chris t and the V irg in , D o d e k a o r - to n scenes , an d scenes from the life of various saints. T h e re are also th ree ca r too ns for church em b ro id e ry . T h e earliest o f these draw ings , such as, for e x a m ­ple , a p r ick ed copy with the Nativ ity o f the V irgin, a re co n n ec ted with six teen th- cen tu ry icons. F o u r p r icked ca rtoons have scenes from the life o f St. G eo rg e copied from an icon in K erky ra (C orfu ) by the C re tan m as te r M ichael D am ask i- nos (active 1555-1591) an d T h e o d o ro s Poulakis , w ho is kn ow n systematically to have ex p lo i ted Flem ish engrav ings by J. S ade le r and J. W ierix . It the re fo re seem s that the co re o f this second Benaki M u seu m portfo lio rep resen ts the e q u ip ­m e n t o f som e well-organized w o rk sh o p of icon-pain ting of the sev en tee n th c e n tu ­ry in th e Ion ian Is lands, m os t p rob ab ly K erkyra . This island d eve lo p e d in to a m a jo r cen tre fo r icon pain t ing af ter the fall o f C re te to the T u rk s in T669. T w o o f the m os t in te res t ing aspects o f this portfo lio are the com plica ted p e rm u ta t io n of scenes from the life o f various saints (p resum ab ly to be exp la ined by the rising d e m a n d fo r icons with such cycles in the course of the s e v en teen th ce n tu ry ) , and the g row ing inf il tra tion o f W es te rn iconography , possibly d u e to th e availability of engrav ings an d p r in ted books.

A d d i t io n a l in fo rm at ion ab ou t the w ork ing drawings o f icon p a in te rs is fo u n d in the V e n e t ia n A rch ives o f C re te . T h e earl iest re fe rence is in the will o f the o u t ­s tand ing C re ta n m as te r A ng e lo s A k o ta n to s (cat. nos. 32, 33, 35), da ting from 1436. A n g e lo s w ro te it on the eve o f his d e p a r tu re on a tr ip to C on s tan t in o p le , an t ic ipat ing the dangers of travell ing by sea. In his will the pa in te r reco rded a collection o f draw ings , his teseniasm ata (disegni) o r sk iasm ata . T h ese w ere lo lie given to his u n b o rn child w hich his wife was expecting at the t im e , p rov ided it was a boy and prov id ing it w ished to b eco m e a pa in ter . O therw ise the draw ings w eie to be given to A n g e lo s ’s b ro th e r J o h n , also an icon pa in te r . It t ran sp i le s from la te r d o c u m e n ts in the sam e archives tha t A n g e lo s’s only child was a girl and ,o

- 55

t h e d ra w in g s p r e s u m a b ly e n d e d in h is b r o t h e r ’s h a n d s . In 1477, w h e n h e w as e ld e r ly a n d s ick , th e b r o t h e r , J o h n A k o t a n t o s , is k n o w n to h a v e so ld 54 d ra w in g s o f v a r io u s sa in ts (e x e m p lo r u m fig u r a r u m d iv e r so ru m sa n c to ru m , g rece d ic ta sq ia s- inarit) lo a n o t h e r m a j o r i c o n - p a in t e r , A n d r e a s R i tz o s , fo r th e c o n s i d e r a b l e s u m o f l l i ree g o ld d n e a ts . T h e t r a n s a c t io n t o o k p la c e o n th e c o n d i t io n th a t t h e d ra w in g s w e re to b e exc lu s iv e ly u s e d b y R i tz o s h im s e l f a n d w e re n o t to b e so ld to o th e r p .milt is.

A n g i los w as a m a j o r f ig u re in th e f o r m a t i o n o f th e C r e t a n S c h o o l , a n d a t le a s t I(9 w o rk s by h im a r e k n o w n to d a y . H e a p p e a r s to h a v e e s t a b l i s h e d s e v e r a l ico n o - g rap h ic fo rm u la s b a s e d o n L a te B y z a n t in e t r a d i t io n s , a n d a lso o n a l im i te d n u m - b i i ol Ic ’i tu re s d e r iv in g f r o m I ta l i a n p a in t in g s o f th e I n t e r n a t io n a l G o th i c s ty le , It>i in s ta n c e , llie d r a g o n - s la y in g sa in ts m o u n t e d o n r e a r in g h o r s e s (ca t . n o . 59).I In fe a r ol lo lu t A k o t a n t o s t h a t his d ra w in g s m ig h t fall in to th e h a n d s o f le s se r

ai l ists sug g es ts th a t h e w as fu lly a w a r e o f th e i r im p o r t a n c e . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , w e k n o w n o l l im g a b o u t th e i r p re c ise n a tu r e - w h e th e r , fo r e x a m p l e , t h e y w e r e f r e e ­h inet th a w in g s Or p r ic k e d c a r to o n s . A m o n g th e s ign ed w o rk s o f A n g e lo s t h e r e is o n lv ο ι» llu c l in s t 1 n t h r o n e d o n Z a k y n t h o s (c a t . n o . 33) o f w h ich an e x a c t c o p y is Io n n d in tin B y z a n t in e M u s e u m o f A th e n s . T h e e x is te n c e o f th e tw o p a n e l s slight Is lha l prickti tl c a r t o o n s m a y a l r e a d y h a v e b e e n in use in th e f i rs t h a l f o f th e l i l l e en t l i e e i i tm v In a n y e a se , a r t h is to r i a n s h av e r e p e a t e d ly o b s e r v e d c e r t a in fo rm a l ii u n o g r iphit m i i l a rm e s in the w o rk s o f A n g e lo s a n d R i tz o s ( s u c h as th o s e hi tw e e n th e ( liiist I n lh i tm c d ol Z-ak.yflthos a n d tha t by Ritv.os o n P a tm o s ) . P e r ­h ap s silt'll l e l a i i o n s b e tw e e n icons a r t b e l t e r u n d e r s to o d in th e light o f t h e s e re- eo i t le t l c a ses ol Lhf t r a n sm is s io n o f d raw in g s .

I he sy s tem at ic use o f p r i c k e d c a r to o n s m ost p ro b a b ly b e g a n in th e f i f te e n th e e n lu r y , w h e n t l ic i c w as a s u b s ta n t i a l p r o d u c t io n o f icons , re s u l t in g in th e d iv is ion o f l a b o u r in p a i n t e r s ’ w o rk s h o p s . These d e v e lo p m e n t s c o in c id e w i th th e s t a n d a r d i ­z a t io n o f i c o n o g r a p h y th a t m a y b e o b s e r v e d a r o u n d th e y e a r 1500. It s h o u ld be n o te d , h o w e v e r , th a t C r e t a n p a n e l p a in t e r s w e re n o t a lo n e in th is w id e s p r e a d use o f p r i c k e d c a r to o n s . R e c e n t l a b o r a to r y r e s e a rc h h a s d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t th e i r u se w a s c o m m o n a m o n g s t E u r o p e a n p a in t e r s o f th e f i f te e n th a n d s ix te e n th c e n tu r ie s , in c lu d in g V a n d e r W e y d e n , M e m lin c , D a v id , J o o s v a n C le v e a n d P a r i s B o r d o n e .

A p p r e n t i c e s ’ c o n t r a c t s in th e V e n e t i a n A rc h iv e s o f C r e t e su g g e s t t h a t d e s ig n r e t a in e d a n i m p o r t a n t ro le in th e t r a in in g o f C r e t a n p a in t e r s , b u t th e sy s te m a t ic use o f p r i c k e d c a r t o o n s a n d th e access ib i l i ty o f e n g ra v in g s m a y h a v e a d v e rs e ly a f f e c te d th e i r ab i l i ty in f r e e h a n d d ra w in g . H o w e v e r , e x c e p t io n a l ly g i f te d m a s te r s su ch as D o m e n i k o s T h e o t o k o p o u l o s a p p e a r to h a v e p r e f e r r e d f r e e h a n d d ra w in g to th e use o f c a r to o n s . T h is is th e c a se w i th tw o o f his e a r ly w o rk s , th e D o r m i t i o n o f th e V irg in o n S y ro s (ca t . no . 63) a n d th e A d o r a t i o n o f th e M a g i in th e B e n a - ki M u s e u m , A t h e n s (ca t . n o . 62 a ) . C o n s id e r a b le e v id e n c e p ro v e s t h a t w o rk in g d ra w in g s w e re t r a n s m i t t e d f ro m h a n d to h a n d to be used by su ccess iv e g e n e r a t io n s o f icon p a in t e r s . T h is p ro c e s s m a y a c c o u n t fo r th e ec lec t ic c h a r a c t e r o f P o s t - B y z a n t in e a r t , a n d ju s t i f ie s th e c la im th a t its ic o n o g r a p h y w a s th e o u t c o m e o f a ‘c o l l e c t iv e ’ p ro ces s .

L A S K A R I N A B O U R A S

Benaki M u s e u m , A th en s

PLATES

I

I

I

ICurved w ooden door* l2W»or I Mis

V >

IC a r v e d w o o d e n d o o r s . D e t a i l

Ml

1C a r v e d w o o d e n d o o r s . D e t a i l

IC a r v e d w o o d e n d o o r s . D e t a i l

2C h r is t E m m a n u e l , SS C o s m a s , D a m ia n a n d 1 l i e o d o tc ,

E n d o f th e 12th c e n tu rv

— ίι4

5T h e A s c e n s io n . M id d le o f the 15th c e n tu r y

•f/iitgm. iio^ptt-rtcG m<iw

·'· ",Mu ,Λ· P £-4

6W;ill p a in t in g s fro m th e C 'hurch ot A y io s N ik o la o s , in V e r ia , l . a k o n ia . I5‘J7

8D o u b le -s ided Icon. A . T he V i r g i n H od eg e tr ia . Second half o f the 12th cen tury

- 70 —

8D o u b le -s ided Icon. B. T h e A k ra T apeinosis . Second half o f the 12th cen tury

71

9St. G e o r g e . M id d le o f th e 13th c e n tu r y

72 -

10T h e D o r m i t i o n . F ir s t h a l f o f th e 13th c e n tu r y

I ISt. John the H;i|>tist. <. 1300

— »

12A n n u n c ia t io n , Nativity, Baptism .uni I i an s t lgu ra l io n . Early 14th centurv

75 —

13V irg in a n d ( ΙιίΙςΙ L a te 13 th - E a r l y 14 th c e n t u r y

·**

14C h r i s t P a n t o c r a t o r . L a t e 13th - h a r l y 14 th c e n t u r y

15D o u b l e - s i d e d Ic o n . B . T h e V irg in H o d e g c t r i a . T h i r d q u a r t e r o f th e 16th c e n t u r y

— 7S —

ISD o u b l e s id e d Icon . Λ I l i t V irg in I l o d c g c l r i u . B e g in n in g o f t h e 14th c e n t u r y

7 ‘)

>

16St. P e te r . 14th c e n tu rv

-- ko -

18Double-sided Icon. Λ. The Virgin Hodegetria. Second quarter of the 14th century

— 82

ISDouble-sided Icon. B Si. Nijhohis Secniul ψι;ιιΙιΊ ol I he I lili i r n l u r

19Double-sided Icon. A. St. George. B. Decorative motif.

First half of the 14th century20

Christ the Wisdom of God. End of the 14th century

21Double-sided Icon with smaller icon inlaid. A. Christ with Angels, Apostles and Saints.

14th and 16th centuries

8 6 —

21I >nuhk'-suU <l Icon

0 I lit* ( niulixiiMi Kith ivnlui v

22Six scenes from the Passion. 14th century

— 88 —

2 3

I'he Dominion. ΙΚμιιιιιιιιμ ·>Ι l hi· 15th i« nltuv

N*>

26Chr is t P a n t o c r a t o r . c. 1400

- 92 —

27I Ik A k i ,i I ipi-nidsis. I 100

<1 I

2‘)I In· I 1111y m io I·-1i is ii lc n ι < I 100

v*

— 100 —

I

34St. Anne with the Virgin. Middle of the 15th century

- 102 —

35Angelos: The Virgin Kardiotissa. Middle of the 15th century

103

36Si. Anne with the Virgin~15th century

lot

38S a n c t u a r y D o o r s . SS G e o r g e a n d D e m e t r i u s .

S e c o n d h a l f o f t h e 15th c e n t u r y

- 106 —

39Sanctuary Doors. The Annunciation, SS Peter and lolin lh< I Ιι*ϋΙΟμ,ίιιη

Second half of the 15th century

107

__________________________________________________________________________ ------------ --------------------------------- '

40The Virgin Glykophilousa. Second half of the 15th century

— 108 —

44Nikolaos Tzafouris (?): The Akra Tapeinosis. Second half of the 15th century

I I i

47ΓΙκ' Donnition of St. Sahbas. 15th ccntury

48Sanctuary Doors, right leaf. Virgin of the Annunciation, SS Basil and Nicholas.

Second half of the 15th century48

Sanctuary Doors, right leaf. Detail

I 17

49Christ iiiul I lie Saimirium Woman. L.isi quarter ol the 15th century

__________________________________Hi_________________________________

51The Miracle at Chonae. End of the 15th century

52T h e S e v e n S l e e p e r s o l I p l i e s o s . IMKi

I I

5 3

Sanctuary Doors. Annunciat ion and Saints. 15th ccnturv

122

Λ

125

58Noli Mo T angere . 16th century

127

59Si (icorge mi llorschiick. Beginning (if the 16th century

I2X —

60St. D e m e t r i u s . 16th ce n tu ry

rf'>

61The Akra Tapeinosis. Beginning of the 16th century

130

62aD o m e n ik o s (T h e o tokopou los ) : T he A d o ra t io n of the Magi. c\ 1565-1575

(>3I > m m nikos I'h co lo k o p o iilo s : I h i I )o i m iliO ii. Im ll ol Ih r K illi i Him

I u

64E m m a n u e l L am bardos : T h e A d o r a t i o n o f t h e M a g i . 16 th c e n t u r y

65Michael Damaskinos: SS Sergius llacclius and luslimi, ΛΙΙι ι I / 1

69Triptych. End of the 16th century

— 138 —

71Silvestros Thcocharis: Triptych in a portable altar.

Altar: second half of the 15th century. Triptych: first half of the 17th century

- 140 —

71S i lv e s t r o s I l ieo ch a r is : T r ip ty c h . F irs t h a l f o f t h e 17th c e n t u r y

141

7 2

C a r to o n of the Resur rec t ion. I7lh century

73C artoon of the Baptism o f C hrist. 17th century

CATALOGUE

1

C a rv ed w ood en d oors 1296 or 1305 2 3 7 X 1 4 0 cm

E la sso n , L a r i s s a . M o n a s te ry o f the O ly m p io t i s s a , Sacr is ty

One of the rarest and most rep re­sentative examples of Byzantine wood-carving from G reece, this door illustrates the importance of this art from the Early Christian period o n ­wards and also its relationship to Islamic wood-carving, to which it had a similar development. Both leaves are divided into three dif­ferently decorated parts; the dec­oration consists o f geometric motifs

e n c l o s e d w i t h i n b o r d e r s , e a c h o f a

d i f f e r e n t d e s i g n . T h e i n l a i d i v o r y d e c o r a t i o n is p r e s e r v e d a t a n u m b e r o f p o i n t s . T h e w o r k a s a w h o l e is

d e l i c a t e a n d r e f i n e d . T h e r e a r e i n s c r i p t i o n s c a r v e d o n t h e t o p , o u t ­

e r c o r n e r s o f e a c h l e a f : L e f t : [ A N ] E K A 1 / [ N I C ] 0 H C A N ' [A I Π Ι ] Λ Ε .

R i g h t : E T O Y C 5 Ω Δ Ι / E N ( o r Y ) Ν Γ.

Provenance. M onastery o f the Olympioiissa. Form erly incorporated into the m;iin, west en trance o f the katholikon.Bibliography. Sotiriou 1927. pp. 327ff. Byzan- linc A rt 1964, no. 127, p. 203. Skouvaras1967. pp. 23ff. Byzantine A rt 1986, no. 20, pp. 32-35. Affrcschi e icone 1986. no. 1, pp. 40-41

E. M . C h ,

2

C h rist E m m a n u el, SS C o sm a s, D am ian an d T h eo d o te

E nd o f th e 12th cen tu ry 157X 105 cm

Z a k y n th o s . M u s e u m

The wall painting has been detached from the prothesis conch of the Church of the Saviour Pantocrator in the Kastro on Z akynthos. which was converted into a Catholic Cathedral (.luring the early years of the Rom an Catholic episcopate on the island (1207-1212). 11 was removed after the ea r thquake of 1953.The semi-dome is decorated with a bust of Christ E m m anuel in an at ti­tude of prayer, and below it are SS Cosmas and Damian with their m other Theodo te . The saints are depicted frontally, as beardless youths who hold the surgical tools that are their usual attributes. The oval faces, with almond eyes and fleshy features are softly modelled with a successive series of green shadows that replace the outlines. The drapery is treated in a decora­tive m anner, as a series of tr iangles with bright edges, but still retains some feeling of volume.

These features set the wall painting within the 'classical’ monumental style of late Com nenian painting. T hanks to the conservatism of the provincial workshops this continued to be em ployed until the late 12th or early 13th century, to which period this work should be dated: the conversion of the church into a Catholic Cathedral furnishes a termi nus ante quern.

Provenance. The ruined Church of (he Sav­iour in the Kastro on Zakynthos. Removed from wall in 1953 (M. Chatzidakis). Conservation. K. Koutsouris (1953-54). Bibliography . Salvator 1904. pp. 99ff. C hal/| dakis 1956. p. 14. V okotopoulos 1970. pp 15Kff. Konom os 1979. pp. 41 ff. Byzantine A rt. no. 25. pp. 39-40. 41. Affrcschi e icone 1986. no. 9. pp. 46. 47.

M. ( .

- 146

3

A n o n y m o u s D eacon (E up los) F irst h a lf o f the 13th cen tu ry

196X58 cm A thens . B y z an t in e M u s e u m , T . 2227

Full-length frontal portrait of a youthful saint-deacon. A small area of the feet and at the top of the head is missing. In his left hand, which is covered by a deep red-brown m a te ­rial, he is holding a tall censer, pain t­ed in ochre to represent gold; his right arm is held in front of his chest in a gesture of reverence. Despite the fact that the wall painting was exposed to the elements for many years, the original colours are still fully preserved in the face: a thick red-brown outline encloses a broad light area of a cold grey colour, with some green tones, on which the flesh is rendered by means of white highlights. The nose is made to stand out from the face by the use of a red shadow to the left and a green shadow to the right. The sticharion is white, with green, linear folds, sug­gesting that originally the drapery

4

C h u r c h F a t h e r 14 th c e n t u r y

2 0 0 X 7 7 cm C r e t e , l r a k l i im . ( 'u ll i-ct imi of I lit C h u r c h

o f S t . C a th e r in e Siniiiton

From the ruined domed Church of the Virgin at Patso. The figure is depicted frontally, supporting the theory that the side walls of the Sanctuary were decorated with a row of full-length, frontal rep resen ta­tions of bishops. In the alternative iconographic type, the figures on the side walls are turning so as to offi­ciate in the cerem ony along with the bishops painted in the apse. The style in which the wall paintings of the Church of the Virgin are execu­ted is that of Palaeologan painting

14 7

will have had a more scu I pun ill quality. It may be conjectured on lli> basis of all this that the first painting was executed in a fresco technique, while the applied colours that gave il the sculptural feeling that slill survives in the face, were painted a secco ( tem pera).T he frontal figure is by no means handsom e, but the wilful head, with its sidelong gaze, and the long, s turdy neck, give it an air of pride. All the characteristics of this wall painting connect it with the m onu­ments of a wider area dating from the first half of the 13th century, such as the Church of Mileseva, the C hurch of the Acheiropiitos in Thessalonike, and the neighbouring Church of Ioannis Kalyvitis on Euboea (1245).

Provenance. The sanctuary of Ihe ruined Church of Ayios Gcorgios al I’alios O riipov Bocolia (1959).Conservation. Ph. Zachariou (195H-59). Bibliography Chatzidakis 1960 ( I) . QjiiriO1979. p. 225.

M. C II

whiili, with stylistic viiPiunis, pent, liali il Crete lit Ihe beginning ol tIn I-till len lm y . I hi brOud figure, with the neck almost sunk into Ihe stiong shoulders, freely modelled face and intense gaze, has a lifelike quality associated with the wall paintings of M acedonia.

Provenance. The ruined Church of ihe Virgin at Patso, A m ari in Crete.Conservation. A. Dasyras.Bibliography. Borboudakis 1973, pp. 504ff B orboudakis 1973-74. p. 941. pis. 711 712. Byzantine A rt 1986, no. 54, pp. 56, 57. Aflrc- schi e icone 1986, no. 21, p. 58.

Μ H

5

T h e A scen sion M id d le o f th e 15th cen tury

25 0 X 160 cm A th en s . B y z a n t in e M u s e u m

Wall painting removed from the wall of the church of the former M onas­tery of the I lodegetr ia near Apol- pcna on Lefkas. It was painted on the eastern wall of the church, above the Sanctuary apse; parts of a scene of the Pentecost (originally situated above it) and of a decorative border around the apse were removed with it. It follows the usual iconographic type: the angels flanking the man- dorla of Christ , though reminiscent of Byzantine models, seem more directly influenced by Western icon­ography. The landscape is unusual, having the three rocky hills usu­ally found in scenes of the Transfi­guration; they form a line, curving down towards the centre, as though to suggest a horizon and a depth of perspective. The same intention lies behind the a t tem pt to render the vol­umes of the m ountains by means of gentle transitions from lit to shaded surfaces, so as to give the feeling of foreground and background, along with that of height and depth. The trees at the sides were clearly meant by the pain ter to be recognizable as olives (the scene takes place on the M ount of Olives: Acts of the A p o s­tles 1.9-12). The aim was to achieve a realistic effect, and to convey things as they actually appeared. The same aim lies behind the way the fig­ures are arranged , in a kind of per­spective, though this is not scientifi­cally based, there being no vanishing point; the feeling of depth is conveyed by locating the figures in such a way as to suggest m ovement, in this case m ovement along two sides of a triangle (the Virgin and the angel on the left and Paul and the o ther angel on the right). This artistic intent can also be seen in the modelling of the exposed parts of the bodies and the drapery , where there

is an a t tem pt to emphasize the curves and volumes, and in the material texture of the objects. O th e r notable features include the balance between m ovement and rest, the expression of the inner m ood of the figures, and the jud i­cious use of colour. This wall pain t­ing from Lefkas reflects two dif­ferent approaches to the way in which artistic form is conceived and rendered. In this it represents a unique m om ent in the history of Byzantine painting, a m om ent of creative contact with W estern art, at a time when the predom inant style was that of Late or International G othic. In the period to which the wall paintings of the Hodegetr ia belong, Lefkas was part of the Duchy of Kephallonia, which was ruled by the Florentine family of the Tocchi. The secular and ecclesiastical aristocracy of Constantinople itself were also familiar with W estern art. The G reek artist who worked on Lefkas, perhaps shortly before the fall of Constantinople, remained true to traditional Byzantine icono­graphy and the types of the figures portrayed , but had assimilated the new ideas of the art of the West to a rem arkable degree, and produced a work of high quality which went far beyond the traditional conventions of Byzantine painting.

Provenance. The Church of the Hodegetria near A polpena on Lefkas.Conservation. F. Asim akou. A. M argaritoff and colleagues. S. Varotsis (1985). Bibliography. Pallas 1956, p. 292, fig. 6, Pallas 1960, pp. 21 Off. Pallas 1961, pp. 83ff. Pallas1968. p. 15 Rondoyannis 1973, pp. 27ff. Byzantine A rt 1986. no. 62, pp. 60-62. Affres- chi c icone 1986, no. 23. pp. 59-60, 61.

D . P

- 1 4 8 -

6

W all p a in tin g s from the C h urch o f A y io s N ik o la o s in V eria , L akon ia

1597 3 4 3 X 2 1 7 cm

Y e ra k i , L a k o n ia . L a b o r a t o r y o f th e 5 th E p h o r a t e o f B y z an t in e A n tiqu i t ies

( t e m p o r a r y location)

T he iconography of the wall pa in t­ings rem oved from the walls of the small dom ed Church of Ayios N iko ­laos in Veria follows the familiar reperto ire of the period for churches of this type. The Virgin, in the type of P latytera, is represented on the vault of the Sanctuary apse, with the 'M elismos’ and the Officiating Bishops on the wall beneath ; the Annunciation is depicted on the piers, and the Descent from the Cross is pain ted in the prothesis. The Sanctuary walls have representations of bishops. A bove the Sanctuary door of the iconostasis is the inscription recording the decoration of the church:+ Ά ν ι σ τ ο ρ ή θ η ό θ ε ίο ς κ ( « ί ) π ά ν ο ι - π τ ο ς ν α ό ς ο ύ τ ο ς το ύ ί ν ( ιγ ίο ις π α τ ρ ό ς η μ ώ ν Ν ικ ο λ ά ο υ ά ρ χ ι ι π ι ο κ ό π ο υ Μ ύ ρ ω ν τή ς Α υ κ ία ς Ton Οαιιμα τ ο υ ρ γ ο ϋ (·-)> ο(|ΐΐλι οτ(<ίτοιι) ΐ/ΐιι>κ<> π ο υ Β ρ ΐ 'ο τ ( ( ) ν ( ΐ |ζ ) Κϋζβ,)() |' Νι οΐ| ή το ι ι iv i τι ι ά π ό ιπ<<ι>(ι οις) κ όομο ιι ζ... y,„ y , ^(· τη ς (‘νΐ)(ίοκ(οιι) ο ίκ ο ν ο μ ί (α ς ) το υ κ υ (ρ ίο υ ) (C φ 1/|"' ζ"·....

T o the right and left are Christ and the Virgin enthroned; on the north wall is the portra it of St. Nicholas af te r whom the church is nam ed; and on the lunettes the apostles Peter and Paul. The prom inent features of the dark , melancholy faces arc em phasized by delicate parallel white lines, but these do not succeed in lighting up their countenances. The drapery , which is sometimes flowing in its trea tm ent, is stiff, with angular edges and harsh lighting. An unsuccessful a t tem pt is made to m ake the figures stand out from tlie- flat background by dividing it into bands of different colour. There is no great variety in the colours used, though different tones of the sanu colour have been juxtaposed in a generally sensitive and carclul laili ion. This is a conservative style which reflects the Palaeolouan ail ol the surrounding a n ;i (notably V raki) and was clcnily, i n l l u in u d by portable icons.Provt'tuim r I lit· ( hint li til Ayio* Nikolaos in Vi'i'in. I nkoniti I loin (lie Intel (m io iuI) lnvri ol wiill | m 11 it ι ημ«*( onset viithm S Ι’ηρημί'ΐιι μΙοιι. <· /ils tis , A Mill is. k / iU n , I* .ind II ΙΙιιιιμιιιΙΐΗ, III Viit liiivlolos. Ill Ι'<ΐ|ϋΐμιοιμιοιι (|WH^ H.**).itihtiitfihijfhy llv/nniim· AiI I . no o7, |>p.

frf· A llii'siln i’ irtini' I9N6. no 2.V ppfil ttZ

Ai B

7

T h e R aisin g o f L a zaru s F irst h a lf o f the 12th cen tu ry

2 1 .5 X 2 4 cm A th e n s . P r iv a te Collection

This small icon is one from a series of the twelve principal feasts of the Orthodox Church on an iconostasis. The Transfiguration from the same series is preserved in the Hermitage M useum . Both icons are of the same size and style, and have the same unusual red background. The m o n u ­mental character of the composition, with the dominating figure of Christ

in the centre , the soft modelling, and the economical manner in which space is indicated, all suggest that the series should be dated to the tirst half of the 12th century.

Provenance. M ount A thos.Conservation. Ph. Z achariou (1958). Bibliography. Chatzidakis 1964-65. p. 386, pi 87a (= Studies chap. X V III). Chatzidakis 1965 (2). pp. X XIV, LXXXII1. no. M. C hatzidakis 1979 (1), p. 347, pi. XL ( hat/i dakis-B ahic 1983 (both French and 1 nglish editions), p. 154. Byzantine A it 19X6, no. 74. pp 72, 74. Λ fire sc hi e icone 1986, no. 2(>. p. 63

M C h .

* \

1

8

D o u b le-s id ed IconA . T h e V irg in H o d eg etr ia

B . T h e A k ra T ap e in o sis S eco n d h a lf o f th e 12th cen tu ry

115X77.5 cm Kastoria. Cathedral

This icon is one of the masterpieces of Byzantine painting, not only for its sublime artistic quality but also for the originality of the motif of the A kra Tapeinosis (or 'M an of Sor­rows') , which appears here for the first time. It is clear from the notches at the bottom of the panel that this was a processional icon.A. A feature of the icon of the Hodegetria is the contrast between the frightened expression and sidelong glance of the Virgin, and the serenity of Christ, whose wrin­kled forehead gives him a m ature appearance. The emphasis on the emotions, and the linear nature of the composition are both features of the art of the second half of the 12th century.

B. The portrayal of Christ in the type of the A k ra Tapeinosis on the o ther side is contem porary with the Virgin. H ere the ground is blue, whereas in the case of the Virgin it is ochre. The rougher modelling and the decidedly linear trea tm en t of the face have close affinities with works from the end of the 12th century at Kurbinovo and in the Church of the Ayioi Anar- gyroi at Kastoria. This is one of the earliest known scenes of the A kra Tapeinosis.

Conservation. Ph. Zachariou.Bibliography. Chatzidakis 1976. pp. 184ff.. pi. XX X V II. 20-21. Byzantine Frcscocs 1976. no. 106. p. 77. Chatzidakis 1979(1). I. pp. 358ff.. pi. X LV . 20-21 Belting 1980. pp. 143ff.. figs. 49-50. Belting 1980-81, p. 4. figs. 2-3. Byzan­tine A rt 1986. no. 75. pp. 72-73. Affrcschi e iconc 1986. no. 27. pp. 64-65.

M. Ch.

9

SI. G eorge M id d le o f the 13th cen tu ry

26 .8X 18.8 cm L ondon. B ritish M useum , M and LA

1984, 6-1, 1

This icon (painted in egg tem pera on gesso and linen over the wood support) is in fine condition with only a few paint losses and some rubbing of the gold leaf webbing used to highlight garm ents and other features. It has a moulded gesso background in imitation of the p re­cious metal revetments which sometimes were added to Byzantine icons and which becam e even more popular in Russian icons. But the use of such gesso is also found in W estern E uropean painting of the later Middle Ages, and the importance of this icon lies in the

evidence it gives of the constructive contacts of Eastern M edite rranean and W estern European traditions in the Crusader period. While at first sight this may resemble a Byzantine icon with a standard scene from the Byzantine life o f the saint, the first publication came to the conclusion that this was the work of a French painter in the Holy Land working from Byzantine models.T he name of St. G eorge can be discerned in the red letters in G reek to the right of the halo. The icono­graphy can be identified from the G reek text of the posthumous mira­cles of St. G eorge. The scene shows the saint rescuing from captivity am ong the Saracens of Crete a young boy from Mytilene on the island of Lesbos. The boy was forced in his captivity to serve food and drink at

1 5 0 -

y

table to the Saracens, and he was rescued and carried to freedom by the saint just as he was serving a glass to his captors. H e was taken on horseback over the A egean Sea back to his home. W e see the act of rescue and the flight over the sea. This is a scene whose popularity was limited to O rthodox Christianity, but there are two unstudied icons of the same subject in the collection in St. C atherine 's on Sinai (one published in the first study of this icon, and the o ther noted on a visit by Valentino Pace but not yet published).T he basis for the dating to the m id­dle of the 13th century and a t tr ibu­tion to a French artist is the com pari­son of style with the wall paintings of the K alendarhane Camii in Istanbul (a cycle of St. Francis of Assisi) and the miniatures of the Arsenal Bible in Paris (Paris, A rsenal , 5211); all these works share such features as the prom inent bulging eyes and a sense of ‘G othic swing'. These lea tures seem to betray an arlislu. training in the West which have been modified by travel in lh« Last and a

wish to produce a work of ail of a Byzantine kind. The difficulty of course is w hether such a work ol mixed origins might as easily bu explained as the product of a Byzan­tine artist influenced by the West. In ei ther case the historical importance lies in this illustration of the infinite possibilities of the cross-fertilization of Eastern and W estern E urope par­ticularly from the time of the Crusades. The first publication sug­gested that the icon might have been produced for a pilgrim at Lydda, the cult site o f St. G eorge in the Holy Land. A n o th e r possible placc of manufacture to be considered is Cyprus.

Conservation. S. Mi ha lari as.Bibliography. C or mack -M i hula i ins IMK-I, pp. 132ff.

It (

10

T h e D o rm itio n F irst h a lf o f the 13th cen tu ry

9 4 X 7 5 cm Kastoria. Archaeological Collection

The body of the Virgin lies on a bier spread with a richly decorated cloth. The apostles stand in two groups at the ends of the bier, their faces con­torted with pain and grief. A num ber o f bishops and deacons stand behind the bier, and Christ, in the centre of the composition, is holding the soul of the Virgin in his hands. An inter­esting feature is the uncertain a t­tem pt at the perspective of the build­ings at the sides.The painting in this icon is a good illustration of the tendency to aban­don the idealistic values of the C om nenian style and establish the principles of a new conception of art.

that a t tached importance lo human qualities. I his conception is very clear in the details of the faces, with their realistic rendering of human nature and emotions. The insistence on the hum an, and the wonderful colours - strong use was made of pink and blue - produce a work of great aesthetic originality. The trend in painting represented by this icon reached its culmination in works of unrivalled beauty, like the wall paintings in Sopocani in Yugoslavia.

Provenance. From a church at Kastoria. Bibliography. Byzantine Frcscocs 1976. no. 109. p. 78. Affrcschi c icone 1986. no. 29. pp. 67-68.

T h . 1*.

151

11

S t . J o h n th e B a p tis t c. 1300

25.1X 20.2 cm London. British M useum , M and LA

1986, 7-8, 1

I ho figure on the icon is represented half-length. The viewer is presented with the portrait of a young long­haired and bearded saint. This is a portrait type often used for St. John the Maptisl, Inil the fijjure lacks some of the o ther com m on visual at tr ib­utes of this saint, such as, for exam ­ple, a cloak of camel hair. The iden­tification is only confirmed by the writing on the icon. The inscription in G reek on ei ther side of the gold ground outside the halo is in reel let­ters, now abraded. The letters on the left side are legible: O A riO C (Saint) and IQ(ANNHC) (the usual ab b re ­viation for John); but the letters on the right are much less distinct. They are to be read as Prodrom os (usually translated as the ‘Forerunner* of Christ), referring to the biblical role of John.St. John is holding his right hand up in a gesture ol blessing towards the viewer, l ie holds a scroll in his lelt hand, l ie wears a tunic (the undergarm ent) which is reddish, lit with blue-grey highlights, and a m an­tle (the overgarm ent) which is green with blue-grey highlights. The main colours used for the face, neck and hair are various tones of brown and cream, with the paint applied in thin transparen t layers. The effect of this almost m onochrom e trea tm en t is to suggest that the figure is seen by soft

12

A n n u n c ia tio n , N a tiv ity , B a p tism and T ra n sfig u ra tio n E arly 14th cen tu ry

3 8 .8X (approx .) 25.6 cm London. British M useum , M an d M L 52,

1-2 , 1-2

I he two small panels fit together. Their surface condition shows ev-

candlelight ra ther than the full light of day. The condition of the icon is good. Most losses are in the gold ground and the icon has been eroded through worm dam age, particularly around the ou te r edges. T here is some loss of paint in the left sleeve. O therwise the losses are due to abrasion, as in the inscription and in the original gold webbing which overlaid the tunic.The saint is evoked as a heroic and noble figure rather than as the extrem e ascetic hermit in the desert. The impression of the light touch of the painting is one of great elegance. A small icon of this type might have been in tended for private devotions at hom e or in a small chapel. P resu­mably it was too small and delicate to be in tended for prominent display in any large church, though as often in icons it shows the great abilities of Byzantine artists to produce m o n u ­mental images on whatever scale they were operating.As usual with Byzantine icons, the panel contains no specific inform a­tion about its date , artist or com mis­sioner. A ny decision about its date and provenance has to be deduced from com parisons with o ther, better docum ented , works. The current a ttr ibution is to Constantinople c. 1300 (derived from a comparison with the mosaics anti frescoes of the Church of St. Mary Pammakaristos, now the Fethiye Camii, Istanbul).

Conservation. S. M ihalarias.Bibliography. C orm ack-M ihalarias 1986. pp. 6ff.

R. C.

idence of wear and tear and general flaking and both were covered with dark varnish when acquired by the Museum in the 19th century. The icon passed into the possession of the D epa r tm en t of Medieval and Later Antiquit ies in January , 1852. David Buckton (letter) records that it was

I

‘brought with Syriac MSS from tin M onastery of St. Mary Di ipara iu ,u the Natron Lakes in Egypt'. The manuscript to which the icon was attached was acquired by the D epartm en t of Manuscripts of the British Museum (now the British Library) in 1851 (18.812 - 18.821). Some scholars have suggested that perhaps the icon was at one time in the possession of the Monastery of St. Catherine on Sinai, but there is no evidence for this speculation.T he painting is fine and minutely executed and has rich, bright col­ours, with some use of gold leaf for highlighting. The scenes are identi­fied in a cursive G reek hand. Each is set within a shaped lunette. In the upper left, the archangel Gabriel announces the coming birth of Christ to the Virgin Mary. The angel sweeps down towards her while she stands in front of a throne behind which rises a house. The architecture is drawn to suggest depth and space in the composition. The Virgin holds a spindle with purple wool for the veil of the temple.The Nativity to the right is dom i­nated by the figure of the Virgin and the crib, but the Christ Child is receiving the first bath from the mid­wives in the lower left corner, and Joseph contemplates the events on the right. The figures in the hills around the cave at Bethlehem (in which Byzantine artists always repre­sented the Nativity as taking place) are the shepherds to whom angels are announcing the birth of Christ. The lower left scene is the Baptism. St. John the Baptist is a tall elon­gated figure standing on the rocky bank of the Jordan. Angels and wit­nesses stand to the right. Christ is full-length and nude. The final scene of the four is the Transfiguration. Christ is at the top of Mount T habor with the images of Moses and Elijah on each side. Below them two of the three witnessing apostles (Peter, James and John) are shown flung headlong at the shattering vision.In the first publication of the icon Dalton ( I901J) dated the panel to the

I .'t h i t-nl in v lull lh< I dmlnii Hi I es fivnl I xli11<11ion t ιΐΐιιίομιη· t I*>,S) pioposud n iliitiuv in tin Ini I th oi i ,u ly lll li it. 111111 v I In Inlei diifiuv is | |refernΒΙι the ilnmiiiiit iii iiinu ni of i In I inn Ιιμιιι til uni wit Ιι I li' up·", ties | >< ■ 1 1 1 .i\ > < I in I In i pf positions i» Miiiu'tfyii|i will· li lly/nii tine painters only clrvc|ci|.r I ullri the middle ol lln I till ii nlinv illl·! o ther features ol I hi io.>n nn ιιΙμι In be most easily paralleled in I lit I lili century (such as the clnni’iilril format of the Baptism and tin ill In tectural device* of 11 if Λιιιιιιιι ciation). The miniature qualilt nl the icon can be stylistically p irallelid in the wall paintings of the < luirc li ol Ayios Nikolaos O rphanos at 1 hrssa lonike; this church is datable to c. 1315, and the icon might belong to the same decade. O th e r small icon,*, with multiple festival scenes are found in the collection of St. l ather ine on Sinai and in the collection ol the H erm itage at Leningrad, but both the examples which have been com pared with this one seem stylisti cally som ew hat later in the Hy/an tine period. The function of this type has not yet been clarified.The icon painting is of great quality and no doubt the artist worked loi discerning Byzantine patrons who could afford the best; whether this artist was based in Constantinople oi Thessalonike or was more ilineiant in his commissions is hardly possible to suggest.

Conservation. S. Mihalarias Bibliography. Dalton 1901. no 9K/ Million 1909. pp. 230ff. Dalton 191 I. p II'». pi I1' -' Millet 1916. pp. 104. 124, IX4.229.<i7H Altt.t lov 1917. pp. 79ff Dalton 1925. pp .’<.111 HI XLV. Lasarcff 1937. p. 2S.V I ,ιμιιιΙΙ 19 1/ 1948. pp 222 ami 362. link· 27. pi III) I also the Italian edition ol till. Itonli I ill 411 1967). Bvzalltinc Arl I9.SK. no . 'I .1

I( I

IM

13

V irgin and C h ild L ate 13th - E a r ly 14th cen tu ry

106.8X 67.2 cm A thens. J .C . C a rra s Collection

Preparation with gesso on canvas. The wooden panel has a broad raised frame. The large icon, which will o r i­ginally have adorned the iconostasis of a church, is quite extensively d am ­aged. The left and right sides of the panel and sections of the top and bo ttom edges are cut away, and some parts of the painting are miss­ing; fortunately these are not crucial areas of the figures portrayed, which are in a good state of preservation. The burnt reverse side of the panel and some dam aged areas of polish show that the icon was at some stage exposed to serious risk of fire. New pieces of wood have been added to the panel to restore it to its probable original dimensions.The representation is an interesting variation of the type of the Virgin I lodegetria. The Virgin, who is look­ing directly at the viewer, is turned slightly towards the baby Christ, whom she is holding tenderly in both arms. Her right arm passes beneath the child 's legs to support him, and is bent at the elbow in such a way as to frame the composition. The child, sitting comfortably in his mother 's arms, is looking towards the Virgin and leaning slightly backwards, in a position not unlike that of the A napeson (Pallas 1965, pp. 1 S lf f .). He is blessing with his right hand and with his left he holds a closed upright scroll, supported on his leg. The pos­tures and gesture of the Virgin and Christ are very different from the severe type of the H odegetr ia , recalling rather the Late Com nenian type of the Virgin of the Passion (Sotiriou 1953-54, pp. 87ff., pi. 1. Belting 1980-81, pp. 10ff., fig. 16. Stylianou 1985, p. 159, fig. 85), and C om nenian representations of the Virgin Glykophilousa (Sotiriou 1956, 1958, pp. 73ff., pis. 54-55, pp.119ff., pi. 135. Chatzidakis 1979 (1),

pp. 359ff., pi. XLVI, 22. Hader- mann-Misguich 1983, pp. 10ff.. pi. 1, 1-2) containing allusions to the fu­ture Passion of Christ. The com po­sition has closer iconographic affi­nities with 13th- and 14th-century icons in the Monastery of Chelandari on M ount A thos (Pelekanidis 1977, pp. 17ff., fig. 1. Tatic - Djuric - Dor- devic 1984, no. 5), in the Byzantine M useum , A thens (Chatzidakis 1965 (2), pp. X X X ff . , pi. 58) and in Och- rid (Radojcic 1965, p. LXV, pis. 159, 171).A limited num ber of colours are har­moniously com bined in the com po­sition. A warm ochre colour is used to suggest gold on the background and for the highlights in Christ’s himation; the Virgin’s maphorion is a blue-mauve colour, the child’s himation a dull orange, and there is some light green in the Virgin’s headband and Christ’s belt. The modelling of the faces is soft, even and painterly, only the area around the V irgin’s eyes being rendered in a more linear manner; the lighting is allusive, with broad bright surfaces and brown shadows that assume a greenish colour at the edges, and the highlights at the prominent points are rendered by 'disguised' brush­strokes; all these are features of the painting of the late 13th and early 14th centuries. The lack of gold in the background and in the gold w eb­bing in C hris t’s garments, the limited range of colours, and the dull light­ing in the faces probably point to the north of G reece, to a good workshop. The facial characteristics of the ra the r tall Virgin are in tention­ally lacking in beauty. The asym m et­rical features, the large sloping eyes, with their intense gaze, the long thick eyebrows, the aquiline nose and the small full mouth, are further indications of a northern G reek origin.

Conservation. Ph. Zachariou Bibliography. Unpublished.

M. A .-I’.

1 5 4

14

C h rist P a n to cra to r L ate 13th - E arly 14th cen tury

87X 55 cm K asto ria . A rchaeological Collection

T he icon of Christ is painted on a panel with a raised fram e, the edges of which are em phasized by a red border . Gesso on canvas.Christ is portrayed half-length on a silver ground. In his left hand he holds a richly bound Gospel book, and his right hand is extended in benediction. He is wearing a light brown chiton and a dark blue himation. The drapery hangs in broad, sweeping lines, in deep folds; it is broken by very few angular fea­tures and consists of a series of flow­ing planes that give the figure a feel­ing of volume. The face is partic­ularly lively and expressive, an effect achieved by the light lines stressing the wrinkles on the forehead; by the delicate red lines defining the eye­lids, ears and the base of the nose; by the olive green underpa in t on which much use is m ade of the brown skin- colour; by the linear highlights on the forehead and around the eyes; and by the diffused areas of red on the cheeks. The physical type of Christ, with the oval face, long fleshy nose, arched eyebrows and d ee p ­ly shadowed eyes, derives from 12th- century models (Byzantine Icons 1976, p. 36, fig. 7), which were revived in the art of the second half o f the 13th and the beginning of the 14th centuries (Ioannou 1959, fig. 15. Naumann-Belting 1966, pi. 37a. Mouriki 1978, p. 76, fig. 51). The basic features of technique and style are also related to artistic trends of the same period: the realistic p o r­trayal o f the figure, which is anti- classical in character, the metallic gleam in the chiton, the drapery with its deep, wide folds, and the almost sculptural sense of volume can all be detec ted in the art of the second hall of the 13th century (( haU-ulakis1977-79, p 160, pis 47. (ill). Some ol

the specific technical leatu ic in I hi rendering of the face, in ΙιιςΙ, in reminiscent of the icon of St I >· ι<it trius in the Monastery ol Vato|H'di (Chatzidakis 1972 (2), fig 60). (In· wall paintings of St. Demetrius ill Makrychori, E uboea (1302 I Kl.< Ioannou 1959, fig. 15. Mouriki I97H, p. 76) and the wall paintings in thi· Church of the Virgin at Kalamoti, on Chios (between 1295 and 1320, Mini riki 1978, p. 78, fig. 51). The silvei g round and halo are related to certain technical features of My/an tine painting that can be detected from the 12th century onwards in icons from Cyprus, Veria , Kastofin and M acedonia in general. In Kaslo ria this technique continued to 1>ι· used without interruption until tin 15th century. A no ther icon in the Kastoria Archaeological Collection is a t tr ibu ted to the painter of tin· icon of Christ - that of SS C'osmii and Dam ian (Affreschi e icone I'Wd, no. 28, pp. 65-66), which has a mini ber of technical and stylistic I'eaUii· in com m on with this latter woik (Chatzidakis 1966 (1), pi. 40 <<. t>)

Provenance. Church o f Ayios Niknl.iu· m Ih* parish of St. Luke. Kastoria.Conservation. Ph. Zachariou (Ι*)7') Bibliography. Affrcschi c iconc I'JNfi no M pp. 68-69.

I N I

I SS

1 5

D o u b le -s id ed IconA . T h e V irg in H od eg etr ia

B eg in n in g o f the 14th cen tu ryB. T h e V irg in H od egetr ia

T h ird q u a rter o f the 16th cen tury1 1 5 x 8 5 cm

V er ia . A rchaeo log ica l M u s e u m , no. 1 1 7

Λ. The Virgin is shown half-length, in the most com m on type of the Hodegetria. She holds herself up ­right and looks directly towards the viewer. She supports the Christ Child with her left arm and raises her right hand to point at him. She is wearing a purple m aphorion with a yellow-brown edging. There is a lit­tle blue in her headdress and right sleeve. Christ, seated as though on a throne, extends his hand in benedic­tion. and holds a closed scroll. The drapery of the yellow-brown chiton and himation is relieved by the use of ochre to suggest gold webbing. The delicate physical features of the faces, with their firm lines and bright surfaces, attest to the artistic m atu r­ity of the painter and his deep know ­ledge of human nature. The fact that the icon is dated to the beginning of the 14th century and that it comes Irom the Church of ‘Christos' in Veria, and a comparison of the painting with the wall paintings of

1 6

S t. P eter 14 th cen tu ry 68 .7X 50.6 cm

L o n d o n . B ritish M useum , M a n d LA 1983, 4-1, 1

This portra it icon of St. Peter was found by chance in the course of the restoration of a 17th-century icon of Christ; it lay underneath layers of whitewash and varnish on the back of the icon of Christ. The cedar panel was cut transversally during the restoration. The painting is in egg tem pera painted on gesso and a coarse tabby linen which is laid over

this church both suggest that it is to be assigned to the oeuvre of Geor- gios Kalliergis, the 'best painter in all Thessaly’ (as he describes himself in a painting in the church).B . The Virgin is shown in much the same form as the one on the o th ­er side, and has the inscription H r i A M A K A P H C T O C . Despite a certain roughness in the handling of the drapery , the work is impres­sive for the exceptionally careful t rea tm ent of the faces, with their contrasts between light and shade. The anonym ous painter of this icon is thought to be responsible for some of the best 16th-century icons and wall paintings in Veria. Any resem ­blance to the Cretan painting of this period is merely superficial; the roots of the painting represented by the icon are to be sought in northern G reece.

Provenance. The Church of C hristos’ in Vcrin.Conservation A. Margaritoff.Bibliitgraphy. Byzantine A rt 1964. no. 221. p. 264. Chatzidakis 1965 (1). p 13. pi l la -6 . X yngopoulos 1967. p. 77. fig. 3. Talbot Ricc 196H. p. 115. pi. 1 0 1 . Byzantine Frescoes1976. no. 102. p. 47 Papazotos 1980. pp. 167ΙΪ. Byzantine Arl 1986. no. 79. pp. 76-77. Affrcschi e icone 1986. no. 32. pp. 70. 71.

T h . P.

the wood support. The panel has suf­fered som e worm damage. The icon has been cut down from its original size, but originally did probably show the saint in half-length. A full description of the restoration of the panel and the technical aspects of the icon will be found in the Barbican catalogue (1983). Parts of the nose are repainted and the surface of the painting has suffered some abrasion, The saint can be identified as Peter on the basis of the portrait type (an old man with hair and beard cut short) and of the text on the scroll which com es from the first epistle ol

1 5 6

St. Peter (chapter 2, verse 11): ‘Dearly Beloved. I beseech you as strangers and pilgrims, abstain from fleshly lusts’. Ihe text may suggest that the icon was intended for display in a monastery, perhaps on the main icon screen of the church. The broad and expansive style of the icon is reminiscent of wall painting, and in the first publication a com pa­rison was made lot dating purpose with the mosaics and Irescoes ol the Kariye C amii in Istanbul (previously the Byzantine Monastery ol the Chora) . This decoration is datable to c. 1315-1321. It was suggested that the icon was sufficiently close in style as to need consideration whether it w'as by the same artist. Weitzmann (1983 (1) accepted this dating to the first quarte r of the 14th century. The icon has also some stylistic connec­tions with a series of sanctuary

screen icons from Cyprus, including one of St. Peter (cf. Byzantine Icons 1976, no. 24. from the Church of the Virgin Mary Chrysaliniotissa. N ico­sia). So far in the literature this St. Peter icon from Cyprus has been dated to the late 14th century. Fur­ther research is needed to resolve these dates and to decide how much later than the British M useum icon the panels from Cyprus might be.I he British Museum icon is an

excellent example of the highest quality work to he tound in C o n ­stantinople in Ihe 14th century, and is important lor the study ol the development ol t>hi iconostasis in By/antium .

C onsvrvation. S . M i l t n l a i i n s .

Hihliogniphy. M ihalaiias I oi mack 1983 (1). M ihalarias-C onnack 1983 (2), pp. 13011. W eitzm ann 1983 (1).

R. C.

1 7

T h e T h r e e C h u r c h F a th e r s 1 4 th c e n tu ry

126X90 cm A thens. B yzantine M useum , T . 1031

Double-sided icon, with a raised frame and gold background on both sides. A vertical notch in the centre of the lower edge of the frame indi­cates that it was a processional icon. The painting of the Virgin and Child on one side is badly dam aged. W hat remains of it has been detached from the panel and is now in conservation, prior to being replaced. On the o ther side, the T hree Church 1 athers were painted in two layers. I lie later ol them which was probably produced by a north G reek workshop at the end of the 17th century, has been removed anti translerred to another panel, to reveal the Byzantine rep re­sentation.The original icon ol Ihe I liree Church Fathers is in a good state of preservation. The three frontal, standing figures are , Irom left to right, SS G regory , John Chrysostom

and Basil. Above their heads are the inscriptions with their names. In their left hands, which are covered, they are holding a closed, bound book. SS Gregory and Basil are blessing with their right hands, while that of Chrysostom, is held lower, on the book. They are wearing archbish­ops’ robes with plain phelonia. On the crosses on their om ophoria are monogram s, e.g. Φ(ο»ς) |Χ η ιο το υ | Φ (α ίνε ί) Π (ύσι) ( I h e Light ol Christ Shines on All) and Ε (λ ίνη ) Ε (ύ ρ ι ) 1·(λ(·οιις) li(f.)im|Kt) (Helen Discovered a Pillar of Compassion). Similar monograms are to be lound in wall paintings ol the Church F a ­thers in Kastoria (Pelekanidis 1953, pi 134$, 13(><i and 1456) and the Monastery ol Chelandari on M ount A thos (Djuric 1961, fig. 58), and also in an icon of St. Nicholas in this same monastery (Talbot Rice 1963, fig. 199).The T hree Church Fathers were rec­ognized as being of equal status and having equal authority at the end of the 11th century, and their feast day was established after they had appeared in a vision to Ioannis Mav-

— 1 5 7 —

ro p o u s , B ishop o f E u ch a ita i (D ra n - d ak is 1969, pp. 13ff .). T h e y w ere ra re ly p o r t ra y e d in p o r ta b le icons in the B y zan tin e p e r io d . T h e o rd e r in w hich th e figures w e re a r r a n g e d was no t c lea rly de f in e d . T h e m o de l for the icon, in te rm s o f p o s tu re and ges­tu re s , is to be s o u g h t in w orks like the 1 2 th -cen tu ry m osa ic in the C ap e l la P a la t in a in P a le rm o (D e m u s 1949, pi. 23B).T h e icon is an excep t iona l ly fine w o rk o f a r t , p ro b a b ly by a C o ns tan t i- n o p o l i tan p a in te r , p e rh a p s o f the s eco n d d e c a d e o f th e 14th cen tu ry , ju d g in g by its qua l i ty and its close aff inity with th e wall p a in t ings in the ch ap e l o f th e M o n a s te ry o f C h o ra in C o n s ta n t in o p le (U n d e rw o o d 1966, pis. 429, 433, 478-485), an d with the m osa ics in th e C h u rc h o f the H oly A p o s t le s in T h e ssa lo n ik e (X yngo- p o u lo s 1953, pis. 2-7, 30, 33, 1 and 42, 1. D e m u s 1975, p. 150. S tep h a n 1986, p a ss im ). F e a tu re s o f the p re s e n t icon th a t can be d e te c te d in

18

D o u b le-s id ed IconA. T he V irg in H o d egetr ia

B . S t. N ich o la s S eco n d q u a rter o f th e 14th cen tu ry

1 1 5 X 6 9 cm KIkiiIcs. Church of the Eisodia at

Niochori

I Ik iicon is d a m a g e d . It is p a in ted on gesso on canvas willi a gold g ro u n d . A brill iant w o rk o f a r t , p ro bab ly e x ­e c u te d in C o n s ta n l in n p lc , it e m b o ­d ies th e best trad i t ion ol I’a laeo logan pa in t ing .B o th s ides a re p ro b ab ly to be a t ­t r ib u te d to the sa m e pa in te r . D a rk , vivid co lours a re used . The evocat ive l ighting an d th e m o n u m e n ta l g r a n ­d e u r o f th e figures are part icu lar ly s t r ik ing fea tu re s ; th e la t te r der ives f rom the size and f ron ta l p os tu re of th e figures, an d suggests th a t this w as originally a d e v o t io n a l , p ro ce s ­sional icon, used in a la rge , im p o rtan t c h u rc h , th a t was possibly ded ica ted to St. N icholas .

all th r e e w ork s are the o rgan ic c o m p o s i t io n o f th e figures, and the ra n g e o f co lo u rs used: d a rk re d , p u r ­p le , b lu e , light g reen , p ink ; the m od e l l in g , th e p ro p o r t io n s o f the bo d ies , a n d re n d e r in g o f the ind iv id­ual facial charac te r is t ics ; the nobility a n d sp ir i tua li ty , an d the s t re n g th , v igo u r a n d pass ion in th e i r e x p re s ­sions. S im ilarly , the m ain art ist ic c o n ce rn in this icon, as in the o th e r tw o m o n u m e n ts , is in the e la b o ra te re l ie f o f th e figures (D e m u s 1975, p. 149), ach iev ed here by the sensitive an d s p o n ta n e o u s ba lance o f linear an d p a in te r ly e lem en ts .

Provenance. Thessalonike.Conservation. A. M argaritoff. S. Papageor- giou. Th. Papageorgiou, A. Simandoni (1984).Bibliography. Exhibition for the C entenary of C h.A .H 1984. no. 7. pp. 18-21.

M. A.-P.

Conservation. A. M argaritoff. F. Asimakou (1964)Bibliography. A chcim astou 1966. pp. 62ff.. pis. 31-35. insert pis. A-B. Chatzidakis 1968. no. 186a. p. 24(1. Byzantine A rt 1986. no. 80. pp. 77-78. Affrcschi c icone 1986. no. 33. pp. 71-72.

M. A.-P.

— 1 5 8 —

19

D o u b le-s id ed IconA . S t. G eorge

B . D eco ra tiv e m o tif F irst h a lf o f the 14th cen tu ry

104X69 cm Egion. Church of Zoodochos Pigi (Pana-

gia Trypiti)

T h e p an e l has a ra ised b o rd e r , to w hich w as nailed an ad d it io na l g ild­ed w o o d e n s tr ip , only a small p iece o f w hich survives. E gg t e m p e r a on gesso o v e r canvas . T h e rev e rse side has a d ec o ra t ive design consis ting of th re e c rosses and a floral motif . T he sain t is d e p ic ted fron ta lly , ho ld ing a sp ea r an d shie ld . T h e h ea d o f curly ha ir , an d the you th fu l, h a n d so m e fe a tu re s , w hich are no t perfec tly sy m m etr ica l , since his h ead is tu rn e d slightly to the left, a re ra th e r lo o se ­ly d ra w n . T h e delica te floral dec-

n ia l in n ol Ihc hul© e n iileil In low rid it I , mid I In i o iu wntrii m 1 s ol the a rm oti i .11 I»■ >1 li ill i | ‘" bn lo r . in the deem Olive el 1 1 I <»I III· co m p o s i t io n I hi m ■ in )ιιγ· ■•ijj'iijl!· aff in it ies with I In· n o i l ol Μ I ί·Ί·ιμι· in th e l .c i les iaslie id Miim'iiiii mi M y ti lene anil i· closely le ln led Ιο I In a r t o f C on s ta n t in o p le ιι ΐΐ ΐιοΐψΐι ιι ce r ta in lack o f c h a r a i t e i , and tin lint th a t th e individual lo in is >111 mil p ro p e r ly in teg ra ted , suggests llial 11

is p ro b a b ly a copy o f an or ig inal βΙ h igh quali ty p a in ted by a provincial a r t is t (M . C hatz idak is) .

Provenance. P ro k o n isia . T u rk ey (o ral rep o t l) Conservation N. K ailasBibliography. Byzanlinc A rt I9M . no. 2.Ή, pp. 272ff. Chatzidakis 1965 (2). p. XXX. |>ls 74-75. Byzantine A rt 1986. no. 78, pp. 75·7ίι Affrcschi c icone 1986. no. 35, p. 74.

M <i

20

C h rist the W isd om o f G od E nd o f th e 14th cen tury

154 X 100 cm A th en s . B y z an t in e M u s e u m , T . 185

A bust o f C hris t in the type of th e P a n to c ra to r . H e is blessing with his left h a n d , an d in his right holds an o p e n G o sp e l b o o k with a text.T h e im posing figure o f C hris t is t r e a te d in te rm s o f co n tra s t in g light an d d a rk su r faces , w ith w hite h igh ­lights on th e p ro m in e n t c h e e k -b o n e s , a n d o n th e fo r e h e a d , ov e r the e y e ­brow s. T h e b e a rd an d the h a ir a re w o rk e d with fine para l le l lines. T h e v o lum es of th e face seem to s ta n d o u t a lm os t as th o u g h in re lief , d r a w ­ing a t te n t io n to an u n a t t ra c t iv en e ss th a t is c o m p le m e n te d by th e anx io us exp ress io n o f th e face.T h e s e fe a tu re s a re k n o w n in a ser ies o f P a laeo log an pain t ings o f a s t ro n g ­ly anti-classical c h a ra c te r which a re fo u n d at th e e n d o f the 14th cen tu ry in various p a r t s o f the e m p ire .

a lon gs ide the m o re classical p a in tm n o f th e p e r io d re p re se n te d in the Γι r ib le p to s at M is tra (C h a tz idak is I*> 7 I (4). A ch arac te r is t ic o f w o rks in tin style is the ha lo , p a in te d as though in relief , as in the A k ra T ape ino s i ' (ca t . no . 27), to r e n d e r the t rue I f i le I ha loes in 14 th-century M a ced o n ia n icons like the icon o f ( ' lu isl in I lit B yz an tin e M u seu m .C h r is t 's anx ious ex press ion mid p ro m in e n t fe a tu res a re timilul in th o se in a g ro u p o f icons d ρΙι ΐΗψ the sam e sub ject d a te d lo the Ιιι··Ι q u a r t e r o f the 14th e e n tm y , will* li inc ludes the icon ol < Iiiim In III· N a t io n a l M u seu m ol S i r Μΐ’Ίιιι (B y zan tin e Art I'Uv no ’I I 1) uni especially the icon ol t Ii i KI . n n d n tis (I i f c -g ive i) m S kop je pu ln ied l<\ the a rch b ish o p J o h n ( M l ) I Mill k ov ic - l’ep ek Ι’*(·Κ, pp ‘ 1/ MM f(8; cl a h o ( ha l/ id uk m ll-diir Ι Ί Μ

lig. |>. I'>·’ ),T h e la ige s l /e nl llil I· mi ιιι·Ι litail iM n ij ijtl ilv mu·1 II ί IlllJlSj

I5>)

d e c o ra t io n o f the iconostasis o f the C h u rc h o f A y ia S o ph ia in T hessa lo - n ik e , f ro m w hich it com es .

Provenance. The Church of Ayia Sophia, Thessalonikc.Conservation. Ph. K ontoglou (1930), A. Mar- garitoff (1959).

Bibliography. Sotiriou 1931. p. 80. Sotiriou 1956. p. 17, pi. XX. Chatzidakis 1960 (2), p.11, pis. 6-7. Chalzidakis 1969, p. 8. Chatzida- kis 1974 (3). p. 336. fig. 14. Chatzidakis 1974 (4). p 184. fig. 18. Chatzidakis 1977 (1), pp. 83-84. Chatzidakis-Babic 1983, p. 192.

N. Ch.

21

D o u b le-s id ed Icon w ith sm a ller icon in la id

A. C h rist w ith A n g e ls , A p o stles and S a in ts

B . T h e C ru cifix ion 14th and 16th cen tu r ies

98X 71 cmThessalonike. M onastery of Vlatadon,

Sacristy

This inlaid icon has tw o row s o f d eco ra t io n . T h e ra re com p os i t ion is an a llegorical a l lusion to the In c a r ­n a t io n . Pass ion a n d H e av en ly G lo ry o f C h ris t , an d ref lec ts the iconogra- phic p re fe ren ces o f 14 th-century pa in t ing . T h e pa in te r ly m odelling o f the f igures , with soft ch ia ro scu ro and a few h ighlights , is typical o f a n u m ­ber o f w orks from th e m idd le o f the cen lu ry , an d th us po in ts to the sam e p eriod . I'he scenes on bo th : .ties o f I hi- large K ith-cen tury processional li on are a lso c o n n e c te d with the P as­

sion a n d G lo ry o f Chris t. A p o r t ra i t o f th e m o n k w ho ded ica ted it is p r e ­se rv ed o n the reverse o f the icon.

Conservation. Ph. Zachariou.Bibliography. Xyngopoulos 1948. pp. 114ff. Byzantine A rt 1964. no. 199. p. 253. T ourta 1977. pp. 133ff. Byzantine A rt 1986. no. 83. pp. 82-83. Affrcschi e icone 1986. no. 36. p. 75.

A . T.

22

Six scen es from the P assion 14th cen tu ry

51X 41 cmThessalonike. M onastery of Vlatadon,

Sacristy

I 'he icon dep ic ts six scenes a r ran g ed in th re e rows: the Last S u p p e r and the W ash in g o f th e F e e t , the A g on y in th e G a rd e n a n d th e B e traya l , th e I lagella tion and th e P rocession to C alvary . T h e w o rk has a n u m b e r o f fe a tu re s typical o f the classicizing t r en d in 14th-cen tury pa in t ing . T h e free m odel l ing o f th e flesh with g ra ­d a t io n s o f c o lo u r suggests a d a te in the th ird q u a r t e r o f th e 14th cen tu ry .

T h e cho ice an d a r r a n g e m e n t o f the scen es , th e ico no g raph y , and their ex ec u t io n o n a small scale a re all re m in iscen t o f m in ia tu res , and p r o b ­ab ly ind ica te the sources o f inspi­ra t ion o f the w ork .

Provenance. The Monastery of V latadon. Thessalonike.Conservation. Ph. Zachariou (1977). Bibliography. T ourta 1982, pp. 154-179. By­zantine A rt 1986, no. 85. pp. 8(1-81. 83. Arfrc schi e icone 1986. no. 38. pp. 76-77.

A . T.

— 1 6 0 —

2 3

T h e D orm ition B eg in n in g o f the 15th cen tu ry

5 4 .5 X 3 9 .5 cm Athens. Kanellopoulos Museum

T h e cen tra l scene o f th e icon dep ic ts the D o rm i t io n o f the Virgin. O n the b ro a d , sl ightly raised f ram e are r e p ­re se n ta t io n s o f fo u r h y m n o g ra p h e rs w ho w ro te hy m ns on the th e m e o f th e D o rm i t io n , a l te rn a t in g with four scenes from the V irg in 's ch i ldh oo d . T h e four pan e ls at the c o rn e rs depict the M ee t in g o f Jo ach im an d A n n e , the B ir th o f th e V irgin , th e Virgin B lessed by the P riests , and P re s e n ta ­tion o f th e V irgin in the T e m p le . T he vert ica ls o f the f ram e have the fig­u res o f K o sm as M a io u m a on the left, and Jo h n D a m a sk in o s on the right, tu rn e d to face the cen tra l scene; D a m a sk in o s is w ear ing the c h a r ­acteris tic tu rb an . Busts o f Jo se p h an d T h e o p h a n e s a re set ab o v e and below the cen tra l scene . T h e y are w ear ing m o n k 's hab its and ho lding o p e n scrolls with texts.T h e m ain scene follows the ico n o g ra ­phy o f the M o n as te ry o f C h o ra (U n d e rw o o d 1966, pi. 320). T he m a in axes o f th e co m p os i t ion are fo rm e d by the tall s le n d e r figure o f C hris t in a brigh t m a n d o r la and the body o f th e V irgin on the bed . A t e i th e r side is a co m p ac t g rou p o f apos t les giving re s t ra in ed ex press ion to the i r grief. A ng e ls a re w o rk ed in grisail le o n the m an d o r la . F u r th e r em p has is is lent to th e vert ical axis by the inclusion o f a six-winged se ra p h in the m a n d o r la , h over ing ab ov e C hris t 's h ead . T h e icon differs from its m o d e l in the form o f the buildings in the b a c k g ro u n d , and in the ad d it ion h e re o f the angels high in the sky. T h e a r r a n g e m e n t is s im i­lar to th a t o f an icon from P a tm o s d a ted to the first ha lf o f th e 15th ce n tu ry (C h a tz id ak is 1977 (1), no. 7, pi. 7), th o ug h th e re are im p ortan t d if fe rences in the build ings in tlu*

b a c k g ro u n d il is also In In- Inuud IIIthe 15th l e n l m v wall pnm iin i" in lln C h urch ol A \ io s I ,m u m ! " it Vifl s a m o n e io , ( n*u ( kii lukvi ι·- I1* / 'fig. B W 55).B o th the com pos i t ion and tin lull build ings in the bai kg inu in l Willith e i r small decora t ive I·.■ I......... .m<llarge n u m b e r s o f open in gs , h nn i ' I lit·· w o rk even c loser to I 5 l h i e n t u i s C re ta n icons like the one by Anil· R itzos in T urin (Babic-C ha t /u lak is1983, p. 317). icons in V enice (C h a tz id a k is 1962. nos. 15. Ui pp 3 5 f f . , pis. 14, 15), and especially a scene on the f ram e o f an icon by N ik o lao s R itzos in S a ra jev o (Mabie C ha tz id ak is 1983, p. 321). which ev en has the small t rees tha t can be seen b eh ind th e wall in the back g ro u n d .A fu r th e r po in t o f similarity is tin- t r e a tm e n t o f the bed . with the typical d e c o ra te d band a ro u n d the edge. Final ly th e precis ion o f th e draw ing o f the f igures , and the linear, geo m etr ica l hand ling o f the d ra p e ry can also be found in the abo ve m m tio n e d w o rks by C re ta n p a in te rs T h e re seem s, h o w ever , to be a closet co n n e c t io n with P a laeo lo gan m od els. T h e small scenes on the Irani' such as the Birth an d the P rcsen ta t ion o f the Virgin (cf. ( h a t / id a k i \ (N .) 1983. no . 3) seem to be im a w m e o f th e icono g raph y that was lo inu i la ted in C re te in the second hall ol th e 15th cen tu ry : in its place we littd th e icon o g rap h y assoc ia ted with tin cap ita l in th e 14th cen l iu v ( i l L a fo n ta in e -D o so g n e |9(iS, pp 172-181). T h e flawless tcchm i|in ·μ th e p a in t in g o f the Ian n't,ill* m in ia tu re s in manusi u p l llhnul na t io n s from the en d ol II·· I Mil c e n tu ry , like the ( a i i l m u / r n innmi script (P ar . gt I ’-I.’ I.illuil Ι Ί 1959. pi. 190), anil the m in i- nl l lie bu ild ings , the i r ln l iw 'h liinn n u m b e r ol d a s s u i /ι ιιμ ll(imi · priinl ed in m onoi limm- III tin I>·ι· I' g ro u n d like ih r Uni.M'l» in · I n im m a n d o l in , mil the ij m a l l < mu*··

161

oil I lie a rch i tec tu re recall the pa in t­ing o f C o nstan t inop le (M onaste ry of C h o ra ) o r o f Mistra (C hurch o f the I’cr ib lep tos and C hurch of the Pan- tanassa). Finally, the extensive texts relating to the D orm ition o f the V ir­gin 0 1 1 the scrolls held by the hymno- g raphers reveal tha t the pain ter was a man o f learning. T he icon may be

cons ide red to be one o f the best exam ples of early 15th-century Pa- laeo logan a r t , fo reshadow ing m any of the characteristic fea tures of C re ­tan painting.

Bibliography Byzantine Art 1964. no. 197. p. 252. Affrcschi c iconc 1986. no. 40. pp. 80. 81.

N. C h .

2 4

T he V irgin H odegetria Second h a lf o f the 14th century

90X71 cm l 'hessalonike. M o n a s te ry of V la tadon ,

Sacr is ty

A work of high quali ty execu ted in the spirit o f C onstan t inopo li tan painting. F ro m a stylistic point of view, the icon has very close aff ini­ties with the wall paintings recently uncovered in the nave and the south chapel o f the ka tho l ikon of the

M on as te ry of V la tadon . It was p ro b ­ably p ro d uced by the sam e w orkshop an d , like the wall paintings, m ust have been pa in ted in the period 1360­1380, no t in the 15th cen tu ry , as was previously thought to be the case.

Conservation. N. Nomikos (1985). Bibliography. Stoyoglou 1971, pp. 132ff. Byzantine A rt 1986. no. 84. p. S3. Affrcschi c iconc 1986. no. 37. p. 76.

C h M .-T .

2 5

St. N icholas Last quarter o f the 14th century

129X78 cm K as to r ia . A rchaeological Collection

T he saint is dep ic ted frontally at half length, w earing b ishop 's robes. He m akes a benedic tion and holds a closed book.A lthough large a reas of co lour have been lost, the size o f the saint and the w arm th o f the colouring still m ake this an impressive work. The design is v igorous, but the sa in t’s lace has a trans lucen t quali ty , as I hough lit by an inner light, and evokes in the believer a feeling of tranquility and security. T he fi rm ­in' >s o f line and the calculated use of thinly applied layers o f colour , w ith­out any sudden , ab ru p t transitions, em phasize the sa in t’s hu m an quality. This work has m any affinities with tlic m onu m en ta l pain ting o f the e a r ­ly Palaeologan period , at the end of

the 13th century . T h e revival of the values and achievem ents of the pa inting o f tha t period at a time after the m iddle of the 14th century is an indication of the general concern to un derp in religious values at a his tori­cal per iod o f crisis and political insta­bility in Byzantium.T h e suggestion that the icon o f St. Nicholas should be dated to the final q u a r te r o f the 14th century is sup p o r te d by a com par ison with m ore accurately dated works o f art from the second half o f the 14th cen tu ry , such as the wall paintings in the M on as te ry of the P an to c ra to r on M ou n t A tlios (1360-70), of the C hurch of P rop he t Elias in Thessalo- n ike, and of the Church of St. A n d rew n ea r Skopje (1388/9).

Provenance. From a church in Kastoria. Conservation. Ph. Zachariou.Bibliography. Byzantine Frcscocs 1976, no.1 10. p. 78. Affrcschi c iconc 1986. no. 41. pp. 80. 82.

Th. V

-M3* \JLw.

] 62

26

C hrist Pantocrator c. 1400

2HX26 cm Alliens. Ity/.antlnn M u seu m , T . 185

The pa inting is dam ag ed . Chris t , in Ihe type of the l ’a n to e r a io i , has the title O CC2-THI’ (' The Saviour ') . I he aus te re figure, with its dark colours, i l lum inated by Ihe gold lighl ol the g ro u n d , lias all the force ol ils m o n u ­m en ta l model.A w ork of artistic quality with the ha llm arks o f the painting o f the turn o f th e 14th cen tu ry , it has certain stylistic fea tu res in co m m o n with an icon o f the Virgin in the Sinai M o nas te ry , w here similar small-scale

icons of Chris t and the Virgin are to be found (Sotiriou 1956, 1958, no. 226, pp. 198ff., and nos. 227-229, pp. 199ff.).

Provenance. Acquired in 1985.Conservation. Th. Papageorgiou (1985). Hihliogniphy. Byzantine Art 1986. no. 87. p. 85. Affrcschi e iconc 1986, no. 43, pp. 82. 83.

M. A .-P .

2 7

T he A kra T apeinosis 1400

87X 68.5 cm A thens . P r iva te Collection

This icon is pa in ted directly on w ood , and has a frame in low relief. T h e figure of Chris t is dep ic ted half­length , with his arm s folded, on an o chre ground . In the relationship of the head to the shoulders and the arran gem en t ol the curls ol hair , this type is the successor to the earliest know n type (cl. cat no. 8), lounil in icons of the 13th and 14th centuries (in the M onas te ry of l a l a m a , in R o m e and in manuscript·.) (Helling1981, figs. 57, 58. 73 etc.) . It is fu r­the r re lated to the icons ol this period th rough the dram atic contrast be tw een the s trong, healthy body and the em ac ia ted a rm s, and the em phas is on the ana tom y ol the chest , a fea ture which may be in­te n d e d to suggest the swollen llesli of the corpse . T h e icon has an almost exaggera ted expressiveness, due in p a r t to the modelling, with its small clusters of white lights on the b ro w n ­ish-grey u n d e rpa in t , which e m p h a ­

size the u pp erm ost points of the vo l­um es and surfaces and crea te a d r a ­m atic lighting effect. Similar scu lp tu ­ral qualities can also be seen in the modelling o f the arm s o f the cross and the tablet at the top , and in the halo . T h e closest rep resen ta t ion of the A k ra T apeinosis in term s of iconography and p ort ra itu re is that on the diptych at M eteo ra (cf. also the wall pain ting in C rete 1401/2, B orbo ud ak is 1 ‘>71 pi. 535t»); c o m p a ­rison ol the two shows how in the p resenl work the features becom e h a rd e n e d as a result ol the m ore lin­e a r t r ea tm en t , and dem on s tra te s how one and Ihe same scene, s tarting with residual classicizing fea tures , is t ransfo rm ed into an anti-classical genre . T he e rud ite con ten t of the inscriptions is o f significance, as is the equally e rud i te calligraphy. All the fea tu res of this w ork point to w estern M acedon ia abou t 1400 (cf. the icon from P oganovo with the sam e inscription. Milosevic 1980. no. 27).

Bibliography. Byzantine Art 1986. no. 86. pp.83-85. Affrcschi e iconc 1986. no. 42. pp. 80. 82-83.

M. Ch.

2 8

T h e R a isin g o f L azaru s c. 1400

5 6 X 4 8 cm K a s to r ia . A rch aeo lo g ica l Collection

T h e icon is p a in te d on a p a ne l with a ra ised f ram e , which has a red b o rd e r . T h e co m p o s it io n consists of tw o carefu lly ba lanc ed g rou ps , linked by the g es tu res o f Chris t and o f the .lews, an d by the pose an d ges­tu re o f M ary a n d M a r th a , w ho are sh ow n in the fo reg ro u n d . Chris t is p o r t ra y e d m o v in g to the right at the h ead o f a g ro u p o f apost les w ho a c c o m p a n y h im , w ith the apost le P e te r in th e fo re g ro u n d . L aza rus is d e p ic ted on th e righ t, in a to m b with a p e d im e n t , the covering slab o f which has fallen aw ay to the r ight; he is w ra p p e d in a w ind ing-shee t , the en d o f which is held by a you ng slave. B eh in d the slave, and next to L az a ru s , is a g ro u p o f Jew s, o n e o f w h o m m a k e s a g es tu re , a n o th e r to u c h e s his b e a rd , an d a th ird ho lds his h an d to his nose against the smell o f the o p e n to m b . T h e sisters of L az a ru s a re sh ow n k nee l ing in w o r ­sh ip b e fo re C h ris t . T w o rocks rise in s tages in the b a c k g ro u n d and lean o u tw a rd s , rev ea l in g th e city of B e th a n y in th e d is tance . T h is simple ico n og rap h ic sc h e m e is a revival o f 14th-cen tury C o m n e n ia n types O H aderm ann-M isgu ich 1975, figs. 57-58), an d is c lose to the spirit o f the scen es o f the F o u r G ospe ls from the M o n as te ry o f Iviron (Millet I9)(>, |'ij>. 212), in the C h urch o f '< hris tos ' at W i i a ( I’c lckanid is 1973, lig. 20), in ( retail m o n u m e n ts from the en d o f the 14th cen tu ry (K a lok y r is 1973, figs. 28-29) and in St. S oph ia in T re h iz o n d (M ille t 1916. fig. 231). t h e p re se n t icon differs from w o rk s o f the so-called M a c e d o ­n ian School, such as the pa in t ings at A ri l je (Z ivcovic 1970, fig. 19), in the C h u rch o f St. C le m e n t at O chr id (M il le t-F ro lo w 1962, pi. 3, 3), and in tha t o f A y io s N iko lao s O rp h a n o s in T h e ssa lo n ik e (X y n g o p o u lo s 1964,

pi. 20), in th a t L aza ru s is no t show n rising f ro m a sa rco p h a g u s p laced h o r izo n ta l ly o n th e g ro u n d , but fo l low s an ea r l ie r m o de l an d s tan d s u p r ig h t in a to m b built in the fo rm o f a te m p le w ith in the rock. T echn ica l de ta i ls , like the silver g ro u n d and the si lver h a lo e s a re similar to fe a tu re s f r e q u e n t ly fou nd in icons in K asto- r ia , V e r ia an d M a ced o n ia in genera l . T h e o rg an iza t io n o f the com po s it io n is s im ple an d c o m p a c t , with the vo l­u m e s o f the de ta i ls sym m etrica l ly b a la n c e d , and the style is s im ilar to th a t o f w o rks o f the C re ta n School in the 15th c en tu ry (C ha tz id ak is 1977 (1), pp . 77ff .) . T he technical and s ty l­istic charac te r is t ics o f the icon o f the E n t r y in to Je ru sa le m (cat. no. 29) a re a lso fo u n d in th e icon of the R ais in g o f L aza rus , bo th being from the sam e w o rk sh o p , which was also r e sp o n s ib le fo r the d e c o ra t io n o f the C h u rc h o f th e A yioi T re is in K asto- ria (1401); in artistic te rm s , they b o th b e lon g to the anti-classical c u r ­re n t o f B y zan tine pa in t ing in the late P a la e o lo g a n period .

Provenance. Church of the Ayioi Treis, Kas- toria.Conservation. Ph. Zachariou (1973). Bibliography. Tsigaridas 1972, p. 572, pi. 512a. Affresehi e icone 1986. no. 44, pp.84-85.

E . N . T .

— 1 6 4 —

2 9

T h e E n try in to J eru sa lem c. 1400

5 7 X 4 9 cm K a s to r ia . A rchaeo log ica l Collection

T h e icon o f th e E n try into J e ru sa lem is p a in ted o n a single p ane l with a ra ised f r a m e , which has a red b o rd e r . G e sso on canvas. C hris t is d e p ic te d s i tt ing on an ass, m ov ing to th e right. H e is ho ld ing a c losed scroll in his left h an d , an d his right h a n d is e x te n d e d in b en ed ic t io n . His h e a d is tu r n e d to the g ro u p o f a p o s ­tles fo l low ing h im , and he is ta lk ing to P e te r , w ho ges t icu la tes v ig o r­ously . C h r is t an d the apos t les s tand o u t agains t the mass o f th e M o u n t o f O lives th a t rises ab ru p t ly in the b a c k g ro u n d . O n th e right, in f ro n t o f th e ga te in th e wall o f Je ru sa le m , a c row d o f Jew s, bo th m en and w o m e n , has co m e ou t o f th e city to rece ive Chris t . In f ro n t o f this g ro u p o f Jew s, a child is ho ld ing a p a lm b ra n c h , a n d a n o th e r is show n in the b ra n c h e s o f a tree . T h e c ircu lar b u i ld ­ing th a t can be seen in the city o f J e ru sa le m can be iden t if ied as the ch u rch o f th e R esu r re c t io n . T h e com p o s i t io n involves only a lim ited n u m b e r o f f igures , a r r a n g e d in a sy m m etr ica l an d ba lan ced way a ro u n d th e cen tra l figure o f C h ris t , an d follows an aus te re iconog rap h ic sc h e m e th a t is the successor in the 14th cen tu ry to th e iconog raph ic t r a ­d it ion o f the M iddle B yzan tine p e r io d (H a d e rm a n n -M isg u ic h 1975, fig. 61). A sim ilar iconog rap h ic sc h e m e in the 14th cen tu ry is to be seen in th e C h u rc h o f A y ios N ik o ­laos O r p h a n o s in T h essa lo n ik e ( X y n g o p o u lo s 1964, fig. 23). the C h u rc h o f ‘C h r is to s ' in V er ia (Pele- k an id is 1973, pi. 21), in the M o n a s ­te ry at M a r k o (M il le t-V e lm ans 1969, fig. 166), an d in 15 th-cen tury m o n u ­m e n ts in the reg ion a ro u n d O chr id (S u b o t ic 1980, figs. 43 and 111. pi. 46). A n u m b e r o f fe a tu res are also sh a re d with the icon o f the Raising ol L azarus : the realistic po r t raya l ol the

f igures , t in m iIi i i m u o l H u n j j i i a ·. the Obvioir. uliensi· ii Ihr i> io ii |ir nl ap os t le s anil lews, til· nimli lime nl th e laces with then s lu in g in i i i i . i i . b e tw e e n light anil -<hinlr u h i r tin d o m in a n t eo lo u is in tin h.dil imii i"j o f th e g rou nd and the o i l in ' Ί tin f lesh , with reil the ιιιο·.ι widi ■ 111 fused co lour . O th e r Ic iiluies m m m o n to the tw o icon*, which in tin w o rk o f the sam e art ist , m e the use o f silver fo r the b ack g ro u n d nml h a lo e s - a local fea tu re of icons l io in K as to r ia an d M ac ed o n ia in gcn e ia l th e simple t r e a tm e n t o f the d ra p e ry , in w'hich the d o m in an t co lou rs a n b lu e -g re e n , red and d a rk b lue , and th e use o f g rey -g reen for the rocks a n d red fo r the buildings. These two icons , to g e th e r with four m ore front th e K as to r ia A rch aeo log ica l Collcc tion ( the N ativ ity , the P re sen ta t io n in the T e m p le , the T ran sf ig u ra t ion a n d the D o rm i t io n ) . all o f which c o m e from the D o d e k a o r to n ol tin· C h u rc h o f the A yioi T re is , m ay In· a t t r ib u te d to a local w o rk sh o p which in 1401 c o -o p e ra te d with o th e r ai lists to d e c o ra te the church (Tsig.u ul.r. 1980-81. p. 286). A t ab ou t litis p e r io d , o r p e rh a p s a little car l i t i , tin sa m e te am p ro b ab ly w o rk ed on ill d e c o ra t io n of the C h urch ot tin· Vn gin F a n e ro m e n i in K asto r ia (m i|iu li l ished) . T h e icon o f the I nil \ into J e ru sa le m may be ass igned to tin anti-c lassical cu rren t ol th llv/iin tine p a in t in g o f the late I 'a laeo lo^m i p e r io d by v ir tue ol tin l· clinl ill nml stylistic fea tu re s that it slum··. with th e R ais ing o f I a/.aru! b o th ·ι| H u m ex h ib i t a style com m o n ly loum l mil o n ly in the m o n u m e n ts ol tin i ll\ ·11 K as to r ia , but a lso in lliosi ol lln su r ro u n d in g a rea (P u s p i i . I >< hi III e t c . ).

I * n n ' r m i n r c < h i m h o t t i n Λ \ Ι « · Ι l i > l · I

l u i i«i .

( o n s t 't v n t m n I'll / ,u Iiiiiihim I'» <1 I t i h h i f f f f t t f t h i M i l l Hi I I I i I I «Hi ll | ' M h : I

p p Kit Η I

I I

W v S

3 0

T h e N ativ ity Ik-ginning o f th e 15th cen tu ry

6 6 .5 X 6 4 c m l .o n d o n . M . P e r a t i c o s Collec tion

( fo rm e r ly Volpi Collection)

T h e scene unfo lds in f ro n t o f and a ro u n d a to w er in g rock , in w hich is a cave with the crib a n d anim als . T h e Virgin rec lines in f ro n t o f the cave on a p a l le t , w ith h e r h e a d tu rn e d t o ­w ards th e b a th o f th e child , a t the left. T h e s e c o n d a ry ep isodes take p lace in spaces fo rm e d by th e gen tle slopes o f th e hills, c rea t in g a feeling o f d e p th . A t the b o t to m left is th e b a th in g o f the ch ild , with th e m id ­wife w ho se g a rm e n ts leave h e r a rm s b a re ; o n th e r igh t, Jo s e p h is sitting in the fo r e g ro u n d , ta lk ing to a s h e p ­h e rd d ressed in a sh eep sk in th a t also covers his h e ad . B e h in d and to the left o f th e cen tra l rock a p p e a r the M agi , riding on horses . T h e y a re b a lan c ed on the right by an angel ta lk ing to a sh e p h e rd . A th ird s h e p ­h e rd sits cross- legged nex t to h im ; he is w e a r in g a red c loak a n d th e c h a r ­ac te r is t ic cap o f leaves , an d is p lay ­ing the flu te . T w o g ro up s o f angels e m e rg e f ro m b e h in d th e cen tra l rock with th e i r h an d s ra ised in p ray e r . A t the foo t o f the hill o n th e right, sh ee p can be seen d r in k in g from a s t ream . T h e p a in t ing in th is icon recalls the finest m o m e n ts o f C o n s tan t in o p o l i- tan a r t . T h e flesh is m o d e l led very carefu lly with b ro w n and d a rk -g ree n b ru s h s t ro k es , d e n se w hite h ighlights on the p ro m in e n t surfaces, and w arm p ink to n e s o n the che ek s , recalling the wall pa in t ings in the C h u rch o f th e P e r ib lep to s at M istra .T he flowing d ra p e r y o f the g a rm e n ts w o rn by the angels , the V irgin, Jo se p h an d th e m idwife is b ro k en in to sm all , e leg a n t , g eom etr ic sh ap es , recalling m in ia tu res from the e n d o f th e 14th cen tu ry , such as those in the C an tacu ze n m a n u ­script (T a lb o t Rice 1959, pi.

X X X IX ) . T h e skill with which the b l ig h t , light co lours are c o m b in ed so as to sugges t the re la tive im p o rta n c e o f th e ev e n ts d ep ic ted , d e m o n s tra te s th a t th is w as th e w o rk o f an u n u ­sually skilful pa in te r . R e d is used in th e V irg in ’s pa lle t , the g a rm e n ts o f the s e rv a n t , o n e o f the Magi on the left, an d th e s h e p h e rd p laying the f lu te , a n d u n d e rn e a th the sheepsk in w o rn by th e s h e p h e rd nex t to J o s e p h ; d e e p b lue in th e V irg in ’s d ress in th e m id d le , and in p a r t o f th e a rc o f h eav en a t the to p o f the co m p o s i t io n ; and light g re en he re a n d th e r e in the co s tu m e s o f the an ge ls ; all th ese to n e h a rm o n io u s ly w ith th e light b ro w n o f th e la n d ­scape .T h is t r a n q u i l , yet rich landscape rev ea ls th e in f luence o f Ita l ian p a in t ­ing; it is c o m b in e d h e re with the n a t ­uralis t ic r e n d e r in g of th e an im als a r o u n d th e m a n g e r th a t is kno w n fro m a g ro u p o f C re ta n icons from th e s ec o n d half o f the 15th cen tu ry w ith s im ila r icon og rap hy . T h e g ro u p inc ludes icons in V en ice a n d L e n ­in g rad , a n d in th e B y zan tine M u ­se u m , A th e n s (F e l ice t t i -L iebenfe ls1956, pi. 129 B. C h a tz id ak is 1974 (1) , pp . 203ff., pis. X X X I , X X X II . C h a tz id a k is 1977 (1) , pp . 88ff. E x h i ­b i t io n for th e C e n te n a ry o f C h .A .E .1984, no . 13). T h e inclusion o f two p e t do gs is also I ta lian in orig in and recalls th e s im ilar use o f an im als that a re n o t ju s ti f ied by th e iconography in pa in t in g s by Pisanello (B e ren so n1968, II , fig. 544). T h e an im al sc ra tch in g its e a r in the low er right c o rn e r is also to be fo un d in the N ativ i ty in the C h u rc h o f th e Panta- nassa a t M is tra (C ha tz id ak is 1981, fig. 65). T h e p re sen t icon a p p e a r s to be e a r l ie r th a n these . Its iconogra- ph ic m o d e l will have b een closely r e la te d to th a t o f the P e r ib lep to s at M is tra (C h a tz idak is 1981, fig. 47). ev en in de ta i ls such as th e dress anil p o s tu re o f th e m idw ife , w ho is h o ld in g the in fan t in h e r a rm s anil te s t ing the t e m p e ra tu re o f the watci

— 1 6 6 —

w ith he r right h and . T h e Ita lian in f lu ence , co n f i rm e d by th e Latin inscr ip t ion in a b a n d on the arc of the sky, suggests th a t the pa in t ing , which was the w o rk o f a fine art is t fam il iar w ith th e p re c e p ts o f P a laeo lo gan a r t , was in te n d e d fo r an I ta lian cus­

to m e r , p e rh a p s a Veuiirtflft Ιινπιμ mi C re te .

Bibliography. G arrison 19-l‘i. p I II mi " C hatzidakis 1962. p. 30. I.itwuelT |< I1»fig. 51. Lazarev 1967. pp. *10717 I«μ ‘i Mu C hatzidakis 1974 (1). p. 120. pi XXXII ' C hatzidakis (T h.) 1982. no. 10.

N. < ll

3 1

S t. M arina F irst h a lf o f th e 15th cen tu ry

114 .5 X 6 6 cm A th e n s . B y z a n t in e M u s e u m , T . 85

F ro n ta l , half - leng th p o r t ra i t of St. M a r in a on a go ld g ro u n d , w ith he r left han d in a ges tu re o f p ray e r . She is ho ld ing a small gold cross in h e r r ight h an d . B o th th e b ea r in g a n d the a u s te re , n o b le face o f the sain t a re r e m in iscen t o f th e figure o f the V ir ­gin. T h e d a rk u n d e rp a in t has a few w hite h ighlights on th e nose an d c h eek s , in th e m a n n e r o f P a la e o lo ­gan icons, like the icon o f C h r is t in L e n in g ra d (W e i tz m a n n 1983, pp . 82, 83). H e r d ress , h o w e v e r , po in ts to a la te r d a te . T h e red m a p h o r io n is t r a ced in s t ra igh t folds o f a d a rk e r to n e an d has no sense o f v o lu m e ; it is like th a t o f St. A n n e in the 15th- c e n tu ry icon o f th e B en ak i M u s e u m (ca t . no . 34). T h e luxur ious dress em p h a s iz e s the a r is tocra tic orig ins o f th e sa in t . T h e red m a p h o r io n has a d eco ra t iv e gold b a n d with a fr inge at th e to p , an d th re e p ieces o f gold

e m b r o id e r y , one on the fo re h e ad a n d o n e o n e ac h shou ld e r . I lei h e a d b a n d has pseudo -k u f ic dueo ra t io n e m b r o id e r e d in gold , of t in

ty pe fo u n d mainly in I ta lo -C re lan icons o f the 15th c en tu ry (C h a t / id a kis 1974 (1) , p. 180). B e n e a th tin·

d re s s , can be seen a chem ise w o rk e d in g o ld , co vering h e r b reas t , fas tened in th e c e n t r e by fo u r small bu llous . E a c h s leeve is ad o rn e d with two g o ld -e m b ro id e re d b an ds . T h ese fen tu r e s o f h e r d ress a re to be found in 1 5 th -cen tu ry V e n e t ia n c o s tu m e , a l s o

w o rn in C re te (M altezo u I9K(>, pi IX ) , an d suggest th a t the icon was th e w o rk o f a C re ta n p a in te r ol tin first h a lf o f th e 15th cen tu ry . I III*» la rge icon was p ro b ab ly in te n d ed t o

d e c o ra te th e iconostasis o f a c lm u l i d e d ic a te d to St. M ar ina .

Provenance. Presented to the ( ‘litislΙιιιι At chaeological Society.Conservation. A. M arg.irito!! (I*JMI) Bibliography. Sotiriou 19.11, p SottHim 1962. no. 85. Chatzidakis I9(tf · i mi Ml Babic-Chatzidakis 1983. p. l.’9 A lin *■ III > icone 1986, no. 49, p. 89,

N < It

3 2

A n g e l o s : S t . T h e u d o r e t h e T i r o 1 5 t h c e n t u r y

122X 68 .5 cm A thens . B y z an t in e M u s e u m , L o v e rd o s

C o l lec t io n , 285

T h e sain t is sho w n as a w arr io r , heavily a rm e d a n d on foo t , slaying a d ra g o n , agains t a gold b ack g ro u n d . H e s tan ds on a huge scaly d rago n ( the right leg, w hich is b en t at the k n e e , b ea rs all the weight ol the Ιίμ lire) and raises his long sw ord th rea t

e n i n g l y . 1 le h o l d s h i s s e i i l ' l i m d in In

l e f t h a n d . A r i c h c h l a m y i . Iihiiji I' m i h i s s h o u l d e r s a n d lall·. I n I In H i 'Ih ·■ · e n d in a p o i n t . A lU i .1 lull 1 1 · (Ifiiiil

i n g w a s c l e a n e d i iw u v , III· . I |h i i i I i ih X I I I 1’ A l I I Λ< Λ ( h a i l . I o l Hue· ' 1

w a s r e v e a l e d a l I h e l i n i i n n i i lplH g i v i n g u s llii· m in i· o l Ili·· ' i> 1

p a i n l e i A n ^ e l n ' . kmiVMi l i m n Bi( i c o n s n u d t li - 1111 >11 >.t ■ 1·M11 |i i l l 'l l i l i l s i g i i i i t u i i ' II 111 |i 11 ■ ) 11 <| ■ < i ·< 1 1 · ΙΗ ίΛ ιιιχ ι ιν ιι ΐ ! m i I . li ;ι M

a l I lie 11 1 1I I 1 im I· 11 l< I “ I

167

Ico n og raph ica l ly , the icon be longs to a ( ' r e ta i l g ro u p f rom the 15th c e n ­tu ry sho w ing w a rr io r sa in ts on foo t slaying d rag o n s . T w o o f th em are signed hy A n g e lo s : the icon o f St. I a n o u r io s from P a tm o s (C h a tz id a ­kis 1977 (1) , no. 69, pi. 27) an d the icon from F o leg an d ro s with the sam e su b jec t (V ass i lak es -M av raka - kcs 1981, p. 231, pi. 576). E v e n c lo s e r in ico n o g raph ic te rm s a re the icon o f St. G e o rg e fro m P a tm o s , da t in g from the 15th c en tu ry an d a t t r ib u te d to a C re ta n w o rk s h o p (C ha tz idak is 1977 (1), no. 24, pi. 26), an d the C r e ­tan icon in the B en ak i M u seu m from the sa m e p e r io d . T h e ep iso de in w hich he kills th e d rag on was associ­a te d with St. T h e o d o r e at a very ear ly da te . A l r e a d y in the ‘Ε γ κ ώ μ ι ο ε ις τό ν μ έ γ ο ν μ ά ρ τ υ ρ α Θ ε ό δ ω ρ ο ν ’ by G re g o ry o f Nyssa th e re is a re fe ren ce to th e sain t s truggling with d e m o n s ( ‘ή μ ίν δέ τη ν μνή μ ην τοϋ ά γ ώ ν ο ς έη ο α σ κ ά λ ιο ν κ α τ έ λ ιπ ε , λ α ο ύ ς ά θ ρ ο ί ζ ω ν . . . δ α ίμ ο ν α ς ά π ε - λ α ύ ν ω ν ’... P. M ign e , Pa tro log ia G ra e c a , vol 46, col. 746). T h e e p i ­s o d e w as d e sc r ib e d in deta i l in the 10th c e n tu ry , an d especia lly in 11th- c en tu ry m an u sc r ip ts , in which the sain t is r e p r e s e n te d as slaying a d rago n so m e t im e s on foo t and so m e t im es on h o rse b a c k (D e le h a y e

1909). A p a in t in g o f the sain t slaying a d ra g o n o n foo t m ay well lie beh ind th e d esc r ip t io n by Ioan n is M avro - p o u s (D e L a g a rd e 1882, pp. 119 ff .) , in w hich St. T h e o d o re is on foot. T h e sa in t is also p o r t ra y e d o n foo t in an e n a m e l from L en in g ra d d a t in g f ro m th e 13th cen tu ry (B an k 1977, no . 124), in which th e horse is t ied to a t r e e , in acco rd an ce with th e n a r r a ­tive in an A rm e n ia n m an u sc r ip t f rom th e 10th cen tu ry . T h e iconograph ica l typ e o f th e slaying o f the d ra g o n in w h ich th e figure is show n s ta n d in g o n th e d rag o n is kn o w n in th e W est f ro m th e 10th c e n tu ry , m ain ly in scen es re la te d to St. M ic h a e l’s s t ru g ­gle with th e devil ; it was rev ived in the 14th an d 15th cen tu r ie s in a large n u m b e r o f scenes with a p re fe ren ce fo r St. G e o rg e as a d ragon -s laye r . T h e in f lu ence o f this revival o f the su b je c t o n 15 th-cen tury C re tan pa in t in g s o f m ili tary sa in ts killing d ra g o n s is c lea r in this sce n e , in w h ich th e W e s te rn in f luences are obv ious .

Conservation. S. Baltoyannis. Th. Papageor- giou (1980).Bibliography. Chatzidakis (N .) 1983. no. 8. p. 24. Affrcschi c iconc 1986. no. 55. pp. 96-97.

Ch. H.

3 3

A n gelos: C h rist E nth ron ed S eco n d h a lf o f the 15th cen tu ry

1 0 5 .5 X 5 9 cm Z a k y n th o s . \ l u s e u m

The g reen m a rb le th ro ne an d fo o t ­stoo l, which a re typical fe a tu res o f C re ta n icons o f th e 15th cen tu ry , the type o f th e P an to c ra to r , an d the han d ling o f the d ra p e r y , are all to be found in the w o rk s o f o th e r pa in te rs ol the p e r io d , such as A n d re a s Ri- l /o s and the a n o n y m o u s p a in te r o f P a tm o s no. 34. (C ha tz idak is 1977 ( I ) , pp. K4ff.). T h e s igna tu re Χ Ε Ι Ρ Λ Ι Τ Ι ί Λ Ο Υ ( ‘h a n d o f A n g e lo s ’) is in

the b o t to m r ig h t-h a n d co rn e r . A fe a ­

tu re o f th e icon is th e re la tionsh ip b e tw e e n the size o f C hris t an d tha t ol th e th ro n e . T h is icon was th e m odel fo r la te r w orks no tab ly the icon by E m m a n u e l T z an es in the Byzantine M u s e u m , w hich d a te s fro m 1666.

Provenance. Church of Ayios Spyridon Flam bouriaris on Zakvnthos (retrieved in 1953). ’Conservation. Zakynthos M useum La horn lory.Bibliography. D randakis 1962. pi. 386. lo t the date of the pain ter, cf. Vassilakes-M avin kakes 1983. pp. 290ff. Babic-Chatzidakr. 1983. p. 314. colour plate on p. 360. Byzanlini· A rt 1986. no. 100. pp. 99. 101. Affrcschi icone 1986. no. 53. pp. 94. 95.

M. ( li

— 16H —

34

S t. A n n e w ith the V irgin M id d le o f the 15th cen tu ry

106X 76 cm A th en s . B e nak i M u s e u m

St. A n n e is dep ic ted ha lf-length h o ld ing the Virgin in h e r left a rm , ju s t as th e Virgin ho lds C hr is t in icons o f the H o d e g e t r i a (X y n go po u- los 1936, p. 41). W ith h e r r ight h a n d , the V irg in is offer ing he r m o th e r a f low er , a sym bolic re p re se n ta t io n o f C hris t d e r iv ed fro m hy m ns such as th e Ρ ό δ ο ν τό ά μ ά ρ α ν τ ο ν ' (T he U n fa d in g R o se ) . T h e co m p o s it io n , m o r e o v e r , has an obv iou s doc tr ina l c o n te n t a lso fo u n d in o th e r icons o f the p e r io d th a t m ay be re g a rd e d as v a r ia t ion s o f the sam e sub jec t (L a fo n ta in e -D o s o g n e 1965. pp. 134ff. C h a tz id ak is 1977 (1), p. 117). T h e icon o g rap h y is k n o w n in the m idd le o f the 15th cen tu ry in th e i l lu s tra t ions o f the m an u sc r ip t (d a te d to 1480) o f the C re ta n scho la r J o h n P lo u s iad ino s (W e i tz m a n n 1973, pp. 30-31. fig. 44. C ha tz id ak is (T h . )1982, no . 9). It occurs also in an icon on P a tm o s d a t in g f ro m the beg inn ing o f the 17th c en tu ry (C h a tz id ak is 1977 (1) , p. 115, no . 67, pi. 126; cf. also B a lto y a n n i 1985, no. 32, pp . 38-39. pi. 34).T h e d ra p e r y o f th e b r igh t red m a p h o r io n w orn by St. A n n e has very light, b ro a d , g eo m e tr ic fo lds, as in the 15th-cen tury icon o f St. M a r in a in the B yzan tine M u s e u m (B ab ic -C h a tz id a k is 1983, fig. p. 329). T h e red c lo th o v e r the roofs of th e build ings in the P re sen ta t io n of the V irgin to the T em p le by A n g e lo s (C h a tz id ak is (N .) 1983, no. 3, pp . 18-19) is pa in te d in a sim ilar m a n n e r . T h e d a rk u n d e rp a in t o f the face, the b ro w n flesh an d th e spar ing bu t effective use o f w hite highlights recall the tech n iq u e used by this p a in te r in the icon o f the K ard io t issa (cat. no. 35); the pa in t ing o f the h a n d , with the delica te fingers, is a fu r th e r po in t o f similari ty with this icon. F inally , the p os tu re mid p io

1(1*1

p o r t io n s o f the figures in l i u l l i l l n ■ w o rk s have affinities llml Μίμμι > th a t th ey w ere pa in ted by th mimi a r t is t . T h e icon also resem bles I In icon from Z a k y n th o s (cat no too no t only in its doc tr ina l c o n t e n t , bui a lso in its technical execu tion T h e p ane l bears the forged signalim- o f E m m a n u e l T zanes .

Conservation. Laboratory of the llennkl Mu scum (1982-83).Bibliography. Xyngopoulos 1936, no pp 40-41, pi 20. Lafoniaine-DosogiK· 19(>,V pp 134-135. fig.79. Chatzidakis 1979 (2), p I W fig. p. 131. Dclivorrias 1980, lig. 62 lluhlt C hatzidakis 1983. p. 314. fig. p. 3(»6 (I»»· I hi recognition that the inscription is Ιοιμ«'<Ι) C hatzidakis (N .) 1983, no. 11. p. 2(i

N ( It

37

S t. D em etr iu s c . 1 5 0 0

9 2 x 4 6 cm Alliens. l i . A n d r e a d i s Collec tion

T h e saint is d e p ic te d s ta n d in g full- face in m ili ta ry dress . H e ho lds a lance in his right h a n d and a sw ord in his led . I lis sh ie ld can be seen b eh ind his left sh o u ld e r . H e w ears a red and g reen c lo a k , w hose o u te r surface is p a in te d so as to give the im press ion o f heavy fabric . The thongs b ind ing his legs, th e sleeves, a n d the w ho le o f the low er part o f his co s tu m e a re t r e a te d with similar rea l ism . T h e c o n ce rn for accura te de ta i l is c lea r in th e gold w ebb ing with w hich th e b reas t-p la te is d e c o ra te d , a n d th e d ra p e ry in the low er p a r t o f his c o s tu m e ; this has th e tw o a t ta c h e d e m b r o id e r e d pane ls w ith the p seu d o -k u f ic d eco ra t io n usually fo u n d o n this k ind o f c o s tu m e in th e 15th c en tu ry (C h a tz i ­dak is 1977 (1), p. 118, pi. 27. C h a tz i ­d ak is (N .) 1983, no . 6, p. 22). T h e ha lo has an incised floral deco ra t io n . G o ld g ro u n d w ith a b ro w n a re a at th e b o t to m . Slightly ra ised fram e.The facial fe a tu re s a n d dress of the

sain t have aff init ies with an icon

d ep ic t in g St. F a n o u r io s which is a t t r i b u te d to the p a in te r A nge lo s (C h a tz id ak is (N .) 1983, no. 12, pp. 2 6 ff . ). T h is is the only o n e o f the icons w ith w a rr io r sa in ts (icons on P a tm o s , in the B en ak i M u s e u m , and in o th e r collec tions; cf. X y n g o p o u lo s 1936, no . 5, pi. 7b. C h a tz idak is 1977 (1), pis. 26, 27. 204γ. Vassilakes- M a v r a k a k e s 1981, pis. 52a-b , 57a-b , 58, 59) th a t has so m an y po in ts o f s im ilari ty with th e p re se n t w ork . T h e stylistic de ta i ls , such as the soft s t rap s b in d ing the legs o f the sa in t , w hich a re so sim ilar to those o f St. T h e o d o r e by A n g e lo s (cat. no. 32) suggest th a t this icon was also by h im . W e m ay n o te tha t St. D e m e ­tr iu s 's h a ir falls in small curls beh in d his ea rs , ju s t like th a t of St. F a n o u ­rios. It m ay be co n je c tu re d from a n u m b e r o f traces on th e gold g ro u n d , n e a r th e lance and the le t te r in g in the inscr ip t ion , th a t this was or ig i­nally a re p re se n ta t io n o f St. F a n o u ­rios ho ld ing the cross, bu t th a t it was la te r a d a p te d as a p o r t ra i t icon o f St. D e m e tr iu s .

Bibliography. Chatzidakis (Th.) 1982. no. 3. C hatzidakis (N .) 1983. no. 13. p. 27. Affrcschi c iconc 1986. no. 58. pp. 100-101.

N. Ch.

3 8

S a n ctu a ry D oors SS G eo rg e and D em etr iu s

S eco n d h a lf o f the 15th cen tu ry1 2 7 .5 X 6 5 .7 cm

T inos . E v a n g e l i s t r ia M u s e u m

T h e S an c tu a ry D o o rs form a ‘f lam ­b o y a n t ' a rch tha t d iv ides the p a in ted d e c o ra t io n from the c a rved w o o d e n section al the top ; this is d e c o ra te d willi foliage scrolls and multifoil pal- m e t le s , the leaves o f which are rem in iscen t o t G o th ic ar t in tex tu re . T h e to p part o f the vertical jo in t- c o ve r is missing, an d a s tr ip at least th ree c e n t im e t re s w ide has been cut aw ay from th e b o t to m o f the doors .

T h e left d o o r has a scene o f St. G e o ­rge slaying th e d ra g o n , while on the right. St. D e m e tr iu s is po r t ray ed c rush ing a sco rp io n , show n larger than lite-size. T h e tw o sa in ts , in sy m ­metrica lly b a lan c ed c o n tra p p o s to , a re w ea r in g e la b o ra te mili tary dress, which is b ased on P a laeo logan m odels . T h e y are d ressed in a shor t ch iton with le a th e r m an ip les , and a b re a s t -p la te . w hich is su p p le m e n te d by a d o u b le row o f le a th e r ‘wings' in the a re a o f the pelvis an d on the u p p e r a rm s. T h e re is a d oub le m eta ll ic s tr ip with m o n o c h ro m e d e c o ra t io n a ro u n d the ir chest and n eck . T h e sain ts are w ear ing ‘h o se ’.

— 1 7 2 —

an d th e low er p a r t o f the leg is w o u n d a ro u n d with le a th e r ban ds . T h o se w o rn by St. D e m e tr iu s are of soft w h ite le a th e r , and have th e c h a r ­acte ris t ic red line th a t can be seen in th e icon o f St. F a n o u r io s o n P a tm o s . St. G e o r g e ’s sw ord is also to be fo u n d in icons by A n g e lo s , an d St. D e m e tr iu s has a sab re in a le a th e r s c a b b a rd with gold o rn a m e n ta t io n . T h e sam e type o f sw o rd an d th e sa m e g e s tu re s o ccu r in tw o icons of St. F a n o u r io s an d St. D e m e tr iu s a t t r ib u te d to A n g e lo s (cat . no . 37). A t the to p o f th e d o o rs , th e h a n d of G o d e m e rg e s from a p a in ted blue arc an d h o lds o u t a c ro w n to each o f th e tw o m ar ty rs . T h e ha loes are b o r d e r e d by a row o f im pressed ro u n d e ls , as in th re e icons f ro m Spi- lia, K issam os (B y zan tin e A r t 1986, nos. 105-107) w hich are th o u g h t to be th e w o rk o f A n d re a s Ritzos.T h e type o f th e s tand in g , d rag on - s layer sa in t occurs in late P a la e ­o lo gan w o rk s , like th a t in the ka- th o l ik o n o f th e M o n a s te ry o f V la ta - d o n in T h e s sa lo n ik e (M a v ro p o u lo u - T siou m i 1985, pi. 3). A n u m b e r of o r ig inal v a r ia t ion s o f this th e m e are to b e fo u n d in icons a t t r ib u te d to the p a in te r A n g e lo s (C h a tz idak is 1977 (1), p. 76, n o . 24). T h e type show ing St. D e m e tr iu s an d th e sco rp ion is m u ch ra r e r , a n d is clearly insp ired by th e m irac le o f the sco rp ion w hen the sa in t w as in p r ison (cf. X y n g o p o u lo s 1970, p. 21). T h e tw o p ro m in e n t m il­i ta ry sa in ts a re c o m m o n ly fo un d to g e th e r , th o u g h no t with th e t r iu m ­p h a n t c h a ra c te r th ey have h e re , th a n k s to the inclusion o f th e d ra g o n a n d th e sco rp ion .It is poss ib le to d e te c t in b o th sain ts f e a tu re s typical o f the ar t o f A n ­gelos , w h o se w o rk has recen t ly b e ­en d a te d to th e first ha lf o f the 15th c en tu ry (V ass i lakes -M avrak a - kes 1981, pp. 290-298). A l th o u g h the d raw ing is f ine , the figures he re are heav ie r and lack the g race o f a u th e n ­tic p ieces by A n g e lo s , such as the icon o f St. F a n o u r io s on P a tm os. T h e light an d sh ad o w in the face of St. G e o rg e , especially the long s h a d o w cast by the nose , willi its

w h ite b o rd e r and I lie denm wlilli h igh l igh ts , a re reuiinis· n i l nl win I· by A n d re a s Ritzos (cl < Iml/liluki . 1977 (1), p. 60). The sam e is im >1 th e g e o m e tr ic t r e a tm en t ol tin d r a p e r y , w hich ex tend s to I lie liosr o f St. G e o rg e . T h e S anc tua ry iloiu·. f ro m T ino s shou ld th e re fo re l< a t t r i b u te d to a very good I retail w o rk s h o p th a t c o n t in u e d to use llii v o cab u la ry o f A n g e lo s , and possibly to th e w o rk s h o p o f A n d re a s K n /o s w h ich in h e r i ted A n g e lo s ’s w ork ing d raw in g s (C a t ta p a n 1973, pp. .’.M 262). If th is is t ru e , th e T in os d o o is th e P a tm o s d o o rs (cat. no. 39), and th e d o o rs in the E c o n o m o p o u lo s C o llec t ion (B a ltoy ann i 1986 (2), pi 10-11) are the ea r l ies t k now n Sam tu a ry D o o rs by the C re ta n School

Bibliography. Koutclakis 1981. p. ‘J Πν/πη tine A rt 1986, no. 109, pp. 109-111 A ll io i l t i c iconc 1986. no. 6 ). pp. 105-107.

i h

1 7 3

3 9

S a n ctu a ry D oors T h e A n n u n c ia tio n , SS P eter and

J o h n th e T h eo lo g ia n Seco n d h a lf o f th e 15th cen tu ry

I65X J4 cin and 144X38.5 cm I’nliniis, ( Jfora. Church of Ayios Geor-

«ios Apiirlhiunon (or Dimarchias)

Λ 1 1 1 i I > 111 11 to A n d re a s Ritzos. O n e ol (In most im press ive S anc tuary d o o rs Irom the I x h cen tu ry , and a good ex a m p le ot C re ta n w ood-carv- mu Irom this p e r io d There are o b ­vious I.ate G o th ic fea tu res in the shape of th e c a rv ed apex and the bust o f the p ro p h e t D avid carv ed in the ro u n d at th e top . T h e e x c e p ­tionally g raceful figures in the

A n n u n c ia t io n , set agains t a rich a rch i te c tu ra l b a c k g ro u n d , the m o n u ­m e n ta l f igures o f the apos t les and th e i r c h a rac te r is t ic d ra p e ry , a n d no t leas t the fine ex ecu t io n , all suggest th a t th e d o o rs shou ld be a t t r ib u te d to th e C re ta n p a in te r A n d re a s R itzos (1451- ).

Provenance. According to trad ition , the doors arc from the iconostasis of the katholikon of the M onastery of St. John the Theologian, the lem plon icons from which were executed by A ndreas Ritzos.Conservation. Th. Papageorgiou. E. Balis ( l<JW>-jp.ftihlit/yniphv. Chatzidakis 1977 (1). no. II . pp. (ilfl.. pis. HO and 81. Byzantine A rt 1986. no. 108. pp. 108, 109. Affrcschi c iconc 1986. no. 00. pp. 103-104.

M. Ch.

4 0

T he V irg in G ly k o p h ilo u sa S eco n d h a lf o f the 15th cen tury

44 .5X 36.5 cm London. M . Peraticos Collection

T h e Virgin is p o r t r a y e d at half-length ho ld ing the child in b o th a rm s on he r left side. She is tu rn in g h e r head and he r ch eek to u c h e s th e face o f Chris t , w h o is tu r n e d to w a rd s h e r with his back to th e v iew er , as in the type of th e Virgin K ard io t issa (cat . no . 35). H is right h an d g rasp s th e ed ge o f the V irg in ’s m a p h o r io n , at h e r n eck , and his left han d s t re tc h e s d ow n and ho lds a c losed scroll, as is o f ten the case in icons o f the Virgin p re f ig u ­ring th e Pass ion (an ea r l ie r exam p le is the 1 2 th -cen tu ry icon in the B y z a n ­tine M u s e u m , cf. C h a tz id ak is 1979 (1), pp . 359-360).S im ilar ico no g ra p h y is to be fo un d in a n icon in L e n in g ra d (Felicetti- L iebenfe ls 1956, pi. 111D), in which , h o w ev e r . C h r is t 's scroll is o p e n at th e text Π ΝΕΥΜ Α ΚΥΡΙΟΥ.. ( ‘T h e Spirit o f the L o r d ' . .) (L u k e 4 .18); this recalls a well k n ow n ser ies o f C re tan icons ol the Virgin G ly k o p h i lo u sa , with Italian in f luences (C ha tz id ak is

1974 (1) . p. 202 and nos. 112, 113). A fu r th e r a llusion to the Passion can be seen in the g a rm en ts w orn by C hris t: a ch i ton tied with a sash and tw o v ert ica l s t raps , as in the icon of the K ard io t is sa (cf. H a d e rm a n n - M isguich 1983. p. 14).T h e tw o angels p a in ted in m in ia tu re at the u p p e r co rn e r s with th e i r cov­e red h a n d s in an a t t i tu d e o f p ray e r , an e le m e n t th a t occurs in o th e r re ­p re s e n ta t io n s o f the Virgin G ly k o ­p h ilousa (C h a tz id a k is (T h .) 1982. nos. 6, 23), a re also re la ted to this as­pect o f the com po s it io n .T h e icon is in a very go od s ta te of p r e s e rv a t io n , and has a gold b ack ­g ro u n d . T h e ha lo has a delicately incised floral d e c o ra t io n , s im ila r to th a t in a n o th e r icon o f the Virgin G ly k o p h i lo u sa in a p r iva te collection in L o n d o n (C h a tz idak is (T h .) 1982, no. 6). an d in an icon o f the Virgin H o d e g e t r i a in the B yzan tine M u ­seum o f A th e n s (L o v e rd o s C od ec t io n , A ffre sch i e icone 1986, no. 59) T h e p re s e n t icon has a n u m b e r ol fe a tu re s in c o m m o n with these two th a t suggest they are all the w ork ol th e sam e p a in te r : the excellent te c h n iq u e re f lec ted in the modell ing

1 7 4

o f the flesh , in th e d ra p e ry and in the gold w eb b ing , and the fine d raw ing o f the tw o angels p a in ted in m in ia ­tu re . A c o m p a r iso n o f these icons with those o f the Virgin o f the P as ­sion p a in te d by A n d re a s R itzos (C h a tz id a k is (T h . ) 1982, fig. pp. 318,

319) suggests that lliey shou ld In a t t r ib u te d , if not to the pinnlci him self, at least to his w ork sh o p

Bibliography. Fine Icons l ‘W0. no (if, liji V C hatzidakis (Th.) 1982. no. V

N ( h

4 1

N ik o la o s L am bou dis:T he V irg in E leou sa

15th cen tury 6 7 X 4 7 .5 cm

Athens. Private Collection

T h e Virgin is p o r t r a y e d in th e type of the H o d e g e t r i a . ho ld ing C hris t in he r left a rm a n d lean ing gently tow ard s th e child , w hile he lifts his h ea d to w a rd s his m o th e r , in a com p os it ion of m u tu a l t e n d e rn e s s an d affection. T h e re a re m in ia tu re p o r t ra i ts o f the a rchan ge ls M ichae l and G ab r ie l in th e to p co rn e r s . G o ld g ro u n d and fine gold d e c o ra t io n on the d ress . A de lica te p a t t e rn o f floral t race ry is s t ipp led o n th e haloes . T h e icon is o f th e sam e icon og raph ic type as the V irgin E le o u s a in th e M o n a s te ry o f G o n ia in K issam o u , C re te , which m ay be a t t r ib u te d to A n d re a s R itzos (B o rb o u d a k is 1985, no. 17, pp. 126ff.), a n d o th e r icons also by R i­tzos a n d his circle (C z e rw e n k a -P a p a - d o p o u lo s 1984. pp . 203ff., figs. 1, 3-4, 6-8): it has all the h a l lm a rk s o f a

4 2

C r e ta n m as te rp iece o f the late l ‘>lh c e n tu ry , with s t ro n g roo ts in 1‘nliu o logan a r t and e le m e n ts o f W es te rn sensit iv ity in th e m odelling . Oil the f r a m e , at the b o t to m is the signn tu re : ΧΕΙΡ Ν ΙΚ Ο Λ Α Ο Υ ΙΟ Υ ΑΛΜ Π Ο Υ Δ Η C n A P T lA T O Y . This is lit on ly k n o w n w ork by this h i th e r to u n k n o w n p a in te r f rom S pa r ta , w ho p ro b a b ly w o rk e d in C re te . I In fam ily is k n o w n from the N th ecu tu ry u n d e r the n a m e L a m b o n d io 1» (Z a k y th in o s 1975, pp. 9811 MM 114, 215), an d the 15 th-cen lm v scr ibe Μ α τ θ α ί ο ς σ ε β α ο τ ό ς Λ α μ π ο ή δ η ς ό Π ε λ ο π ο ν ν ή ο ιο ς ( M a l t ΙιιιΙο·. L a m b o u d is the P e lo p o n n es ian ) w ho w o rk e d in F lo ren ce and f'crrm a in I ta ly (L a m b ro s 1907, pp. I7(>fl / h ky th in o s 1975, pp . 215 and 1 Ml) wnt p ro b a b ly also a m e m b e r o f it

Provenance. A cquired at SolhefV s ( I'W M Bibliography. Sotheby’s ( ‘;it;tlo^iir ol Iimh L ondon 1984. no. 30. pp. I t I** (Ion· *tu· tion). Byzantine A rt 1986. no I I 1', |>|■ I I I 116. Affrcschi e icone I9H(», im Ή, |·|< 117-118.

Μ Λ I·

N ik o la o s T za fo u r is: V irg in and C hild 15th cen tu ry

5 6 .5 X 4 5 cm; 106X 85 cm (with frame) Athens. P. Kanellopoulos Collection

T h e V irg in is p o r t ra y e d in the fam il­ia r W e s te rn type o f the M a d re della C o n so la z io n e , as p a in te d by the C r e ­tan art ists o f th e 15th c en tu ry (C h a ­tz idak is 1977 (1) , p. 91). C h a ra c t e r ­istic f e a tu re s o f this type include the p lac ing o f the child in a posi t ion that p ro v id e s an e lem en t o f c o n lrap p o s to . the sp h e re in his left h an d , his

western-style shirt, tin· μοΜ Iminl with pseudo-kulii d e i o i . i l t o n ιΐΐιιιιμ the edges of the < i iholi· m i p l m i io n worn by the Virgin innl iiIm n .ill

the I.ate Gothic sI%Ί<· In w-lili h tin two f i g u r e s are pniiH , d A i m v* ιι11

l e a v e s a n d t h e s y m l i o l i o l i ln I <

sion is p a i n t e d o n t in i vt m nl t in

icon, on ιι μιοιι ιηΙ p i r p i i n I n i l g e s s o , a n d a I n t l u I n n fjCHimi In ; · | " tal l e l l i i N c a n l ie n im l i o u t it <i’

bo ttom , u I v 111 (.< i.ifi I h e l l i inn Ί |li< Inmotis I i'th i i ill in \ t f# l n (·*!}!*» Nlkohio1. l / ' i l o n i l M Mi 1 1 1 (· -

1 7 5

N tC O l.O Z .A F U K I ( . . ) A D I ( . . ) O T U ­B R I O . Ί l ie d a m a g e d a re a a f te r the w ord / M l I III. which has space for only two le t te rs , p re su m ab ly c o n ­ta ined th e y ea r M D (1500) and th e small space a f te r A D I will h ave c o n ­ta ined th e (.late, s ince the nam e of tin· m o n th O c to b e r can be recog ­nized in the w o rd O T U B R I O .

A ccord ing to d o c u m e n ts p re se rv ed in the archives in V en ice (C a t t a p a n 1972, pp. 202ff. C h a tz id a k is 1974 ( I ) , p. 183), T za fo u r i s lived and w o rk ed in the seco nd h a lf of the 15th cen tu ry , and was n o lo n g e r alive in 1501. H e is k n o w n from fou r icons bea r ing his s igna tu re : an icon o f the A k ra T ap e in o s is in V ie n n a (K reid l- P a p a d o p o u lo s 1970, p. 605, pi. 39. C h a tz idak is 1974 (1) , p. 184); the B etraya l in the M e t ro p o l i ta n M u ­se u m , N e w Y o rk (W e h le 1940, p. 1. C h a tz id ak is 1974 (1) , p. 187); the L e ­n ing rad tr ip tych (C h a tz id ak is 1974(1), pp . 184ff .); an d the icon of the Virgin an d C h ild in Tries te (B ian co Fiorin 1983, p. 164, fig. 1). All fo u r co m b in e I ta lian fea tu res with the express ive m e a n s o f 15th- c en tu ry C re ta n pa in t ing . U ntil

recen t ly , w e h a d no in fo rm at io n a b o u t the ico no g raph ic a n d stylistic f e a tu re s o f the fifth icon by T z a fo u ­ris d ep ic t ing th e Virgin w hich , a c ­co rd in g to B e tt in i , was once sold in V en ice (B e tt in i 1940, p. 72, no. 1. C ha tz id a k is 1974 (1), p. 184). O n the back it h ad an inscrip tion iden t ica l to the o n e on th e p re sen t icon. In the space b e tw e e n A D I and O T U B R I O . B ett in i r e a d th e n u m b e r IV , which w as still p re s e rv e d at th a t da te . T h e fact th a t th e inscrip t ion is identica l in w o rd ing m a k e s it ce r ta in th a t the icon exh ib i ted h e re is the V enice icon, w hich s o m e h o w ca m e in to the h and s o f the A th e n ia n collec tor . Stylistically, it b e longs to th e well kn ow n schoo l o f I ta lo -C re tan p a in t ­ings, and to a large g ro u p o f icons p o r t ray in g th e V irgin an d Child in the type o f the M ad re della C onso la - z ione (C h a tz id a k is 1977 (1) , p. 91) which have the sam e fe a tu res . This icon now fu rn ishes the defin it ive so lu t ion to th e p ro b le m o f th e orig ins and d a te o f th is g roup .

Bibliography. Baltoyanni 1986 (1). no. 10. Affrcschi c icone 1986. no. 62. pp. 107-108.

Ch. B.

4 3

T rip ty ch Seco n d h a lf o f th e 15th cen tu ry

2 5 x 4 3 .5 cm (open); 25X15 cm (closed) London. Private Collection

T h e cen tra l p an e l has a scene o f the Virgin and C h ild , in th e type o f the M ad re de l la C o n so laz io n e (cf. cat. no. 42). O n th e ins ide o f the left wing is dep ic ted the E m b ra c in g o f Pe te r an d Paul. T h e apost les are pa in ted full-length in an a u s te re style o f B yzantine orig ins . T h e su b jec t , which occurs in th e p e r io d befo re the fall o f C o n s ta n t in o p le (K re id l-P ap a- d o p o u lo s 1970, pp . 92ff. Kreidl- I’i ipad op ou lo s 1980-81. pp . 339ff., pis. 97b, 98a) , was r e p e a te d by C r e ­tan pa in te rs in the 15th cen tu ry , as in the / . a k y n th o s icon by A n g e lo s , now lost (C h a tz id ak is 1977 (1), n o tes 2, 8), a n d th e icon in the M o n as te ry o f

the H o d e g e t r i a in C re te (B yzan tin e A r t 1986, no. 104); it is also fo u n d in the 16th c e n tu ry , in an icon in the G re a t L av ra on M o u n t A th o s (Ba- b ic -C h a tz idak is 1983, fig. p. 336) and a n o th e r in lo a n n in a (B yzan tine A r t 1986. no . 145). In th e s e , th e p o s ­tu re s o f th e f igures , the t r e a tm e n t of th e d r a p e r y , an d even the co lours , a re fa i th fu l re p ro d u c t io n s o f those in the scene o n th e tr ip tych. T h e two apos t le s seem to have been a pa r t ic ­u lar ly p o p u la r su b jec t , which was given d efin it ive fo rm in this per iod and is fo u n d in v aria t ions like those on the r o u n d icon in the K rim bas C o llec tion (C h a tz idak is (N .) 1983, no. 15, p. 28), a n d o n the f r am e o f an icon by N ik o la o s R itzos in Sariije vo (B ab ic -C h a tz id a k is 1983, fig. p. 321). T h e rev e rse o f this panel has n fu l l- length f ron ta l p o r t ra i t o f St

- 1 7 6 —

G e o rg e w e a r in g m ili ta ry d ress , in a c co rd an ce with 15 th -cen tu ry C re ta n ico n o g ra p h y , as also seen in an icon in th e fo r m e r L ichachev C ollec tion (F e l ice t t i -L ieb en fe ls 1956. pi. 108b). O n th e inside o f the r ight w ing are d e p ic ted tw o a n o n y m o u s C atho lic sa in ts , b ea rd less , w ith sh o r t h a ir and to n su re . T h e y a re w e ar in g rich red s t icharia with gold em b ro id e ry , and each is ho ld ing a b o o k in his left h an d ; in th e right h a n d , o n e figure ho lds a ce n se r an d the o th e r a b a n ­ner. T h e style an d the sub jec t echo the I ta lian c h a ra c te r o f the scene on the cen tra l pane l . T h e gen e ra l f e a ­tu res , a n d par t icu la r ly the re laxed p o s tu re o f th e sa in t on th e right recall the figure o f the d ea co n S te ­p h e n on a p ane l o f the po lyp tych by L o re n z o V e n e z ia n o in V en ice (1371) (K afta l 1978, fig. 1227) H e is n o n e ­the less to be iden tif ied with St. D an ie l o f P a d u a , w ho is f req u en t ly p o r t r a y e d ho ld in g a la b a ru m (K afta l 1978, pp . 2 5 4 ff . , no. 80. fig. 304). T h e o th e r d e a c o n is p ro b a b ly to be iden tif ied with e i th e r St. S te p h e n o r St. L au re n c e (K afta l 1978, pp. 946ff., no. 283. pp . 587ff., fig. 741). T h e back o f th e r ight leaf is d e c o ra te d with a cross on a s tep ped plin th p a in ted in gold on a b a c k ­g ro u n d c o v e re d w ith f loral scrolls. B e tw een the a rm s o f the cross are the a b b rev ia t io n s IC XC NK ( 'Jesus C hr is t C o n qu ers" ) , Φ X Φ Π ( ‘T h e L igh t o f C hris t Sh ines on A l l ' ) , T Κ Π Γ ( ‘T h e P lace o f th e Skull is Parad ise N o w ') . S im ilar de l ica te d e co ra t io n is to be fo u n d o n a tr ip tych in R av e n n a

4 4

N ik o la o s T za fo u r is (?):T h e A k ra T a p e in o sis

S eco n d h a lf o f the 15th cen tu ry7 7 X 5 6 .5 c m

Patm os, Chora. Monastery of Zoodochos Pigi

T his B yzan tin e sub jec t is h e re r e n ­d e re d in ac co rd a n c e with W este rn m o d e ls , in the type tha t was fo r m u ­la ted in Ita ly , an d m o re specifically in F lo ren ce a n d V en ice , d u r ing I hi

a t t r ib u te d to a iMli i ιι ΐι ιιν Vein t i a n -F e ra r re se school (Piivim 197·» p. 93, no . 154), winch is e x m l ly 11 ·■- sa m e sh a p e as this m u O tli i’i In p tychs sh a p e d like this, with ii Mill lop an d b a se , include a C re ta n w oik from the sam e p e r io d in a L ondon co llec tion (B yzan tine G re e k ami R uss ian Icons 1979, p. 43, no. 29) a n d a tr ip tych in the V atican (Hetlini 1933. pi. X X II ) .T h is t r ip tych re p re se n ts the two pal allel styles a d o p te d by C re ta n painl e rs in the 15th cen tu ry , with the Ita lian m a n n e r on th e cen tra l panel md the right w ing, an d tr ad it iona l ( le tan style o n bo th sides o f the Ii II wing. T h e careful execu tion o f llie flesh a n d d ra p e ry , the bri ll iance ol th e red in th e c lo thes , and the com bi na t io n o f b ro w n and brick red in llie h im a t ia o f P e te r an d Paul, indii ite th a t all th ese scenes w'ere the w ork ol th e sam e p a in te r , w hose ta lent lot d raw in g a n d co lo u r recalls the a il ol N ik o lao s T zafouris . T h e typological a n d stylistic re sem b la n ce o f l In· M a d re de l la C on so laz io n e in I In ce n tra l pane l to the signed icons bv T za fo u r i s in T r ie s te (B ian co l io nn 1983) an d the K an e llo p o u lo s Colit t ion (A ffresch i e icone 1986, no < ’ ) fu r th e r su p p o r t th e a tt r ib u t io n ol tin tr ip tych to the C re ta n pa in tc i (< lin tz idak is 1974 (1), pp. 1X3 IHH i l B ianco F ior in 1983. p. 169)

Bibliography. Fine Icons 1981. no Mfi < IntUI dakis (T h .) 1982. no. 22. ( ΊιιΜ/hlnkU |N I 1983, no. 38. pp. -4-4-46.

N i h

1 4 t h a n t i 15th c e n l u i u .............

1 9 8 1 , p p . I I Kit ) 1 Is n Inl tor i h i p ■■ I t a l i a n p a i n t i n g is e l e n i n n l m i l \ f t m i i

t h e e x t e n d e d ai m s , n m l ·11* p> i >|" 1 t i v e in t in· s a r c o p l u i ^ u ί n m i i l c o p i e d b y I l u - i t pha i i · In l in M "

t e r y o f A n a p a l v i · ( I > I · I m k i

d a k i s 19 7 4 ( I ). |> ΊΜ . | Ί ' \ I bi l l a l s o f r o m III n m l · 11·i o l Hi· s i ,fo i l W llll ( m l l l l ipllm l l i i l l e l - 1

I In ' l o p o l I Ii i ii·· . I * | i l l l ' - >1 ( ! 1

III llllll lul l I M III· lu ll· lin H i :! Itn :il

1 7 7

of th e torsi) , the ren d e r in g o f the flesh in soft m o n o c h r o m e ton es , the w o n d e r fu l prec is ion in the incised design of th e halo , an d the m inu te de ta i l in the d raw ing o f the ha ir and th e crow n o f tho rn s ; all these are c h a rac te r is t ic o f th e m in ia tu re p a in t ­ing ol the C re ta n p a in te r N iko laos Γ/a fo u r i s (a t te s te d 1489-1500), to w h o m the icon is a t t r ib u te d . It has a

p a r t icu la r ly close affinity w ith the s igned w o rk by him in V ie n n a (K re id l -P a p a d o p o u lo s 1970. p. 30, fig. 39).

Conservation. S. Baltoyannis (1964). Bibliography. Byzantine Arl 1964. no. 213. p. 260. Chatzidakis 1977 (1). no. 40. pp. S9ff.. pis. 33 and 101. Byzantine A rl 19S6. no. 111. pp. 111. 112. Affrcschi c iconc 1986. no. 63. pp. 108-109.

M. C h .

4 5

P ietaS eco n d h a lf o f th e 1 5 t h c e n t u r y

7 1 X58 cm Athens. Benaki M useum, 3050

Egg te m p e ra on w o o d . T h e Virgin is sitting o n a rock and ho ld ing the body o f C h r is t on h e r knees . T h e sub jec t is Ita l ian in orig in (cf. the P ie ta by G io van n i Bell ini in V en ice) an d iden t ica l vers ions o f it a re fo un d in a g ro u p o f C re ta n icons from the secon d ha lf o f th e 15th c e n tu ry (icon by A n d re a s Pav ias in R o ssa n o , icons in th e P. K an e l lo p o u lo s (B a ltoy ann i 1986 (1), no. 8) an d D. E c o n o m o ­po u lo s C o llec t ions (B a ltoy ann i 1986(2) , pis. 16-17), icon fo rm erly in the C h u rc h o f S an ta M ar ia de lla Mise- r ico rd ia in V en ice , an d o th e r icons in Split, S a ra je v o , in th e N ik o le n k o G a lle ry ( l e o n e s 1975, fig. 9) and e ls ew h e re ) . T h e C re ta n art is t has b o r ro w e d no t only the overa l l co m p o s i t io n , bu t also a n u m b e r o f ico n o g raph ic de ta i ls f rom V en e tian p a in t in g b o th o f the 14th ce n tu ry (cf. the a t t i tu d e o f the V irg in 's h ead , and the h ead d re s s co vering he r h a ir and th ro a t in a co m p o s i t io n by P ao lo V en ez ia n o d e d ic a te d to the D o g e Fr. D a n d o lo in 1339. now in V en ice) (Rizzi 1972) a n d o f the 15th ce n tu ry (cf. the b a re rock in th e T ran s f ig u ­ra t ion by G io v an n i Bellini in the C o r r e r M u s e u m in V en ice an d the sim ilar de ta i l in th e P ray e r in G c lh s e m a n e by A n d r e a M a n te g n a in th e N a tio na l G a l le ry in L o n d o n ) .I he icon has a n u m b e r o f ico n o g ra ­

phic and stylistic fe a tu re s in co m m o n with the A k ra T ap e in o s is by N ik o ­

laos T za fo u r is (second h a lf o f the 15th c e n tu ry ) in V ien n a , an d is p r o b ­ably to be a t t r ib u te d to the sam e p a in te r .T h e ab b rev ia t io n s MP ΘΥ. in G re e k , do n o t p rov ide an a n sw er to the qu es t io n o f the na tiona li ty o f th e cu s­to m e r fo r w h o m the icon was in te n d ­ed , s ince we k now o f an icon with a su b je c t ta k e n from Italian pa in t ing , su i tab le fo r a C a tho l ic cu s to m e r , w hich has a G re e k inscrip t ion (cf. A ffresch i e icone 1986, no. 75). It thu s b e lo n g ed e i th e r to a C atho l ic c u s to m e r o f G r e e k e d u c a t io n , o r to an O r th o d o x with W e s te rn tastes. T h e p ro b le m of the cu s to m ers for w h o m icons in the G re e k m a n n e r and in the Italian m a n n e r w ere in te n d e d is thus a com p lex o n e that n eed s to be cons id e red in the light of a w ide va r ie ty o f evidence .

Conservation. K. Milanou (19X2). Bibliography. Chatzidakis 1973. pp. fiSKff.. figs. 52-53. Chatzidakis 1974 (2). pp. 10ΧΙΪ.. fig. 81. P rijatclj 1974. pp. 55ff. Chatzidakis (N .) 19X3. no. 45. p. 52. Affrcschi c iconc 19X6. no. 65. pp. 11(1-111.

Μ. V.

— 1 7 8 —

4 6

M a d re d ella C o n so la z io n e w ith S t. F ran cis

S eco n d h a lf o f the 15th cen tu ry 6 0 x 5 2 cm

Athens. Byzantine M useum, T. 233

A few small p ieces o f the w oo d panel a n d som e p a in t at the edg es are m iss­ing. G esso on canvas. G o ld g ro u n d an d ha loes , the la t te r d e c o ra te d in a po in t i l le te ch n iq u e w ith a stylized floral design.T h e V irg in is d e p ic te d in the well k n o w n I ta lian type o f the M ad re della C o n so la z io n e as r e n d e r e d by th e C re ta n pa in te rs o f the 15th c e n ­tury (cf. ca t. no. 42), ho ld ing Chris t in h e r right a rm ; the la t te r is m ak in g a b en ed ic t io n an d ho ld in g th e sph e re o f the w orld in his left h an d . T o his left is a fu ll- length p o r t ra i t o f St. F rancis o f A ssisi, with the s t igm ata , on a sm a lle r scale. H e is facing the Virgin an d C h ild , an d ho lds a cross in his left h a n d an d a closed bible in his right. T h e posi t ion o f the sain t, his gaze d irec ted to w ard s C hris t , and the cross th a t he is ho ld ing , suggest with a sub t le sym bolism the miracle o f the s t igm ata from th e w o u n d s of the crucified C hris t th a t St. Francis rece ived in a vision ( the th e m e is fo un d in I ta lo -C re tan icons o f the 15th c e n tu ry , cf. P av an 1979. no. 157, p. 95, C h a tz id ak is (N .) 1983, no. 37, p. 44) an d an tic ip a te s the fu t ­ure suffering o f Jesus .T h e p resen ce o f the sain t o f Assisi, w ho d o e s no t a p p e a r in o th e r Italo- C re ta n icons o f the M a d re della C o n ­so laz ion e , an d the e s tab l ish ed fact th a t the B y zan tin e M u s e u m icon c a m e fro m C re te , m ak e it very p r o b ­ab le th a t it e i th e r a d o rn e d a church o f th e F ranc iscans o n the is land, o r w as ow n e d by a m e m b e r o f the V e n e t ia n o r C re ta n nobility.T h e type o f the M a d re della C o n s o ­laz ione was par t icu la r ly p o p u la r in C re ta n p a in t ing and met the re ­q u i r e m e n ts o f b o th C atho l ic and

O r th o d o x C h u rc h e s until tlu· I /tli cen tu ry . T h is is a t te s te d by the uiclii val so u rce s , w hich re fe r to count li ,s icons o f the Virgin pa in ted a /<; ϊι,ι l ia n a , and by the large n u m b e r ol th e m tha t survives in G re e c e and e lsew 'here, am o n g s t which are two s igned icons by im p o r tan t I7 th-cen tu ry a r t is ts . E m m a n u e l T z an es (in a p r iv a te collec tion in A th e n s , un pu b l i sh ed ) an d V ic to r (in the Moil a s te ry o f A yioi T h e o d o ro i on Kei k y ra , u np u b lish ed ) .T h e B yzan tin e M u s e u m icon, o n e ol th e f inest and ea rl ies t , s tan d s out f rom tho se c o n te m p o ra ry with it loi its sp iri tua li ty a n d the severe c lu J a c te r o f the figures. Its typological f e a tu re s a re ak in to those ol tin· M a d r e della C o n so laz io ne by N iko laos T za fo u r is , k n ow n from eail ic i w ri t ten sources , w hich was recent ly d iscov ered by C h. B a ltoyann i ill the P. K an e l lo p o u lo s C ollec tion in A th e n s (cf. cat. no . 42), and also to π s im ilar icon o f th e Virgin signed Us N ik o lao s T za fo u r is , recen t ly di c o v e re d in a p r iva te co llection in I ιί e s te (B ia n c o Fiorin 1983. p p Id til fig. 1).N o ta b le fe a tu re s of the icon in. hide th e excep t ion a l ly fine tcchnn|iii ' mid the m a tu re use o f colon* t In Iu>i■ i ■ o f C h r is t with his red li iniallon. t In par t ia l lighting o f the flesh <ιιιιιΙ>ιι to th a t o f the Virgin in III t w o li Ol by T za fou r is ; th e soil I ill· C io ij l l l

d ra p e r y , st rongly lit ill the pi'uloi nl th e fo lds o f the m a p h o i io n wmfl )n th e V irgin; the soli slvli . d fnld* c row n in g her lace , n mi tin l i h th V irgin and in ano lh i I I r o n l>\ l ifouris in Vii mill (Ki t nil I*··|n ln | .....los 1970, pp. (> Ί I and 1 Ί I fig. 39): and I lit pt'i hi I ιι i i! . n nl the line gold di o i i i i i m ili'l.ill lilt’ ch ild 's sliu i I In \ ιι |iln ill ilm l io n , the lii‘loi'‘i and Μ I iiiiu l Icallii'i I>i1111id bllili l a k c n tojiv tin i III * l \ lM |i nul

lypologK nl li ill in < nl llil" li mi «un

I7>>

gest a ilatc in the seco nd half o f the 15th ce n tu ry , an d an a tt r ib u t io n to th e w o rk sh o p o f N ik o laos T zafour is , th ou gh p e rh a p s no t to the han d o f the artist h im self (cf. B ianco Fiorin I9N3, p. 167, fig. 8 , w ho e rro n eo u s ly iden t if ies the sa in t with St. A n th o n y o f P adu a) .

Provenance. C rete . D onated by I. Frangoudis in 1897 to the Christian Archaeological So­ciety (X A E 2338).Conservation. T h. Papageorgiou (1974). A. Sim andoni (1986).Bibliography. Chatzidakis 1977 (2). p. 688, fig. 49. Bianco Fiorin 1983. p. 167. fig. 8. Affrcschi c icone 1986. no. 67. pp. 113-115.

M . A .-P .

4 7

T h e D o rm ition o f S t. S a b b a s 15th cen tu ry

6 7 x 5 7 cm Lelkas. Collection in the Public Library

A m ulti- f igura l com pos i t ion with sccnes f ro m th e life o f th e h e rm its in the w ilderness . It follows the type o f th e D o rm i t io n o f E p h ra im the Sy­r ian . w hich occurs in a large n u m b e r of icons f ro m the 15th cen tu ry . A

typical e x am p le o f C re ta n pa in t ing th a t stric t ly follows the trad i t io na l style.

Provenance. Lcfkas.Conservation. F. Asim akou (1967). Bibliography. Chatzinikolaou 1966, p. 371. Chatzidiikis 1974 (1). pp. 190ff. Byzantine A rt 1986. no. 130. p. 128. Affrcschi c iconc 1986. no. 86. pp. 134. 136.

N. T.

4 8

S a n ctu a ry D o o rs , r igh t lea f V irgin o f the A n n u n c ia tio n , SS B asil

and N ich o la s S eco n d h a lf o f th e 15th cen tu ry

123X49 cm Patmos. M onastery of St. John the

Theologian, New Sacristy

T his sanc tu a ry d o o r is a n o th e r e x a m ­ple (cf. cat. nos. 38 an d 39) o f C re ta n w ood-ca rv ing w ith p u re V e n e t ia n L a te G o th ic t ra ce ry a n d floral motifs. A t the to p , the Virgin sitting in fron t o f a G o th ic bu ild ing is r e n ­d e re d in the I t a lo -C re ta n m a n n e r , while the figures o f SS Basil and N icholas at th e b o t to m have a less ref ined sty le , in w hich th e re are no Italian inf luences.

Provenance. The Church of Christ D im archias or Mcgalis Portas in C hora. Patmos.( om crvation. Ph. Zachariou (1977). F. Gala- kou ( 1987).Bibliography. Chatzidakis 1977 (1). no. 38, pp. 87IT.. pi. A and pp. 98-99 Byzantine A rt 1986. no 113. pp. 112. 114-115. Affreschi c iconc 1986. no. 68. pp 115. 116.

M . Ch.

— 1 8 0 —

49

C h rist an d the S a m a r ita n W o m a n L ast q u a rter o f the 15th cen tu ry

3 8 .5 x 4 8 cm Athens. Kanellopoulos Museum

C hris t is s ea ted b e fo re a well in the fo r e g ro u n d , with the S am a r i tan w o m a n s ta n d in g op p o s i te him. T h e land scap e is filled with p ic tu resq ue ep iso d e s set in d if fe ren t p lanes (for th e ic o n o g rap h y , cf. M ille t 1916, pp. 6U2ff.). O n th e left tw o g ro up s o f ap o s t le s a re w alk ing to w a rd s Chris t. O n the right th e re is a g ro u p o f p e o ­ple g a th e re d b e fo re the gate of the city w hich has the inscr ip t ion S A M A -

T I E . T h e re is a s im ilar scene on the left dep ic t ing th e city o f Je ru sa le m , with the inscr ip t ion J E R U S A L E M . T h e m o n k s on the right an d m an y o f th e o th e r figures a re p a in te d on a small scale , with g rea t a t te n t io n to d e ta i l (such as the tw o figures in the m id d le g ro u n d w alk ing to w a rd s a small bu ild ing on a hill, a n d the m an d ism o u n t in g fro m his ho rse b eh in d the city on th e righ t) . D e e r and o th ­

e r an im a ls can be seen s c a n n e d am o n g s t the tr e e s and hushes.T h e co m p os i t ion is in f luenced by 14th- an d 15th-cen tury I uscan p.mil ing: th e t r ad i t io na l gold b ack g ro u n d has b ee n rep laced by a landscape w ith b lue sky an d small c l o d s in Ilu d is tance , as f req u en t ly found in tin pa in t in g o f G en ti le da F a b r ian o ; and th e cities recall those in the wall pa in t in gs o f A m b ro g io L o rc n /c l l i (C arl i 1957, pis. 72, 83). T h e «flaw ing o f the faces in d ica tes a know ledge o f P a la eo lo g an pa in t in g ; but th e c o m b in a t io n o f this w ith tamiliai ity with I ta lian ar t suggests that th e icon was p a in ted in the m ixed cu l tu ra l e n v i ro n m e n t o f 15th-ccnlu ry C re te . T h is is a p a in t in g o f tin h ighes t quali ty .

Bibliography. Chatzidakis 1974 (I) , |>l XX X IV . Chatzidakis 1974 (2). p. 1 13. Ιιμ. Hll Chatzidiikis (Th ) 1982. no. 19. C ha t/itlnkr (N .) 1983. no. 48. p. 55. Byzantine A ll I'JMO no. 112. pp. 112. 113. Affrcschi e icone, no 66. pp. 112-113.

N. ( li

5 0

T h e E ntry in to J eru sa lem L ast q u a rter o f the 15th cen tury

4 9 .1 X 48.3 cm Athens. P. Kanellopoulos Collection

T h e co m p o s i t io n is d iv ided in to tw o equa lly b a la n c ed p a r ts by a tall t ree w hich rises o u ts id e the walls o f J e r u ­sa lem . C h r is t , the m ain figure , is sh o w n o n the left, s itt ing on the ass an d m ov ing to th e r igh t, a cc o m ­p an ied by the tw elve apos t le s in a co m p ac t g ro u p . T h e b ack g ro u n d consists o f a rocky lan dscap e , in which is set a dep ic t io n o f a sm aller w alled city; f ro m it a re d e p a r t in g a n u m b e r o f figures p a in te d in m in ia ­tu r e , o n e o f th e m m o u n te d on a w hite ho rse . O n the right o f the panel rise th e walls of J e ru sa le m , with the d if­fe re n t build ings precisely draw n. B efo re th e walls o f the city, two d en se g ro up s of Jew s a p p e a r Irom

tw o ga tes to m e e t C h r i s t , «>11 it' I

small figures a re lean ing mil n v ri I In wall. Y o u n g ch ild ren a n s ia l lc i d th r o u g h o u t th e com po s i t io n n g ag ed in lively activities sonn mi c lim bing trees to cut palm l> mu In o th e r s are sp read ing then i Imln ‘>>· the g ro u n d , and at tin liolloni ■ *ιIn i still a re w rest l ing and pliivinji mi ·> hill in fron t ol a ΓοιιιιΙιιίη I In i cow s in front ol this lotinlnln nml th r e e m o re on a low plait' ui il I In right a d d a bueolii rlt lilt ill I·· III· scene which is noi | it I til I In liinll t ional icon og rap hy I hi unlui all· m m a n n e r in which 11 it· s itn i in n . irecalls w in ks l im n li t t| tin .......... .....( B e i c n s o n IVfiK II 11 p i n i Ι Ι 1. Ί 1

' a r b i t r a r y in· l u s l o n in l ln ,■ ■ n iti·

b e c i n n p i u I w i t h lltitl n l Hi

a n i m a l · , i hu l m h i i l n i 11 ill t n l n i - ( i e l a n m m inl l i i m il i n J i l l · ■ ;n

i le f 111 r l > \ 11 <11 it 11 |mlM|]Hj> I*

INI

dak is 1974 ( I ) , pp. 203-204). T h is icon og raph ic type o f the E n try in to Je ru sa le m was p o p u la r in C re tan p a in t ing , as was th e type fo un d in a n u m b e r o f o th e r icons (cf. C h a tz id a ­kis (N .) 1983, no . 28. V o k o to p o u lo s1978-79, pis. 116, 117, 121). It also occurs in th e 15 th-cen tury wall p a in t ­ings al S k lav e ro c h o r i , a n d in an icon in the M o n a s te ry o f D ionvsios from 111* sam e p e r io d (C h a tz id ak is 1969­70. figs. 122, 130).I'he ico n og raph ic m od e l fo r the

co m po s i t io n is to be sough t in Mis- ira , in the wall pa in t ings o f the C h u rch o f th e P e r ib le p to s , and p a r ­ticularly th a t o f the P a n tan as sa (1430) (C h a tz id ak is 1981, figs. 52, 67, 68). C lose s im ilari ties can be d e te c te d in th e na r ra t iv e aspect o f the co m p o s i t io n , the very rocky la n d sc ap e , an d the g raphic details o f the ep iso d es with ch i ld ren , am o ng s t w hich is the sp inario ( the boy re m o v ­ing a th o r n f rom his foo t) (M ourik i 1970-72, p p . 5 8 ff . , pis. 23a-b) . T h e s im ilari ties e x te n d to o th e r details , like th e m in ia tu re figures o f w o m en

5 1

T h e M ira cle at C h on ae E nd o f the 15th cen tury

37X 30 cm Kephallonia, Lixouri. lakovatios Library

T h e icon dep ic ts th e miracle o f the A rc h a n g e l M ichae l at C h o n a e , a sub jec t a lr e ad y kn o w n from the M e n o lo g io n ' o f Basil (c. 980).

M ichael is using a po le to d iver t the w a te rs o f the r iver th a t had been tu rn ed to th r e a te n his church by evil pagans ( H e l le n iz o n te s -). T h e m o n k A rch ip p o s is p o r t ra y e d on a sm aller scale at th e righ t, bow ing in an a t t i ­tud e o f p ray e r , in g ra t i tud e for the in te rv en t io n by th e A rchan ge l . E ach ol the two b a la n c ed figures is set b efo re a so a r in g m o u n ta in p eak . A n im p o r tan t e le m e n t o f the ico n o g ra ­phy is the d o m e d church an d the bu ild ing with a p itched roo f next to il; this is lo be found in an icon in the I o v e rd o s C o llec t ion in th e B y zan ­tine M u seu m o f A th e n s , p ro b a b ly

lean ing o u t from the walls o f J e r u ­sa lem , a n d th e fo rm o f the spring. F inal ly , th e large n u m b e r of c lassicizing m ask-m otif s e x e cu ted in g risaille on th e buildings is a n o th e r f e a tu re o f the p a in t ing o f the P a n ta ­nassa (M o u r ik i 1980-81) th a t is also fo u n d in th e E n t ry into Je ru sa lem . T h e o b v io u s links b e tw e en this icon an d its m o d e l in the P an tan as sa i l lus tra te ju s t how w id esp rea d was C o n s ta n t in o p o l i t a n m o d e l am o ng s t th e lead ing p a in te rs w o rk in g in d if­fe ren t p a r ts o f G re e c e in th e 15th cen tu ry .T h e co m p o s i t io n o f th e icon is m o re s trictly o rg a n iz ed , and the g ro up s of apos t le s a re t r e a te d in a m o re co m p a c t w ay; the r e n d e r in g o f the de ta i ls o f the h u m a n figures and o f th e bu ild ings reflects the a cadem ic c h a ra c te r o f C re ta n icons p ro d u c e d in th e s eco n d ha lf o f the 15th cen tu ry .

Bibliography. Chatzidakis 1969-70. p. 325, fig. 129. Chatzidakis (Th.) 1982.no. 11 C hatzida­kis (N .) 1983. no. 27. Affrcschi c iconc 1986, no. 82. pp. 132. 133.

N. Ch.

f ro m th e 16th cen tu ry (X yn g o p o u lo s 1959, pp . 26ff., pi. 7. C ha tz id ak is 1977 (1) . pp . 7 If f . . pi. 20). T h e icon fo llows a P a laeo lo gan m o d e l , bu t has lost the sense o f d ra m a th a t is a f e a ­tu re o f these scenes (cf. the icon of th e G r e e k O r th o d o x P a tr ia rc h a te in J e ru sa le m (C h a tz idak is 1965 (2), p. X X X I I I , fig. 69). T h e b a lanced co m p o s i t io n in the p re se n t w o rk , the re s t ra in t o f the figures and the p r o ­n o u n c e d classicizing g race o f the a rch an g e l all po in t to th e w o rk sh o p s o f C re te in the 15th cen tu ry . M ore specifically , the geo m e tr ic t r e a tm e n t o f th e d ra p e ry , with its slightly scu lp ­tu ra l q u a l i ty , the rich range o f d e l ­icate co lo u rs and the soft m odell ing o f the h an d s and faces suggest that th e icon w as the w ork o f an out s t an d in g late 15 th-century artist .

Bibliography. Konomos 1966. p. 15. fig. 14 V okotopoulos 1969. p. 285. Byzantine Ail 19X6. no. 127. pp. 12-1. 126. Affrcschi c iconc 1986. no. 84. pp. 132-133. 135.

D l<

52

T h e S ev en S leep ers o f E ph esos c . 1500

42.5X 34.5 cm Athens. City of Athens Museum

T h e Seven S leepe rs o f E p h e s o s are d ep ic ted inside a cave th a t tak es up the en t i re surface o f th e icon, leaving only a small a re a o f gold b a c k ­g ro u n d . T h e i r p os tu re s recall those o f the ap os t le s in the trad i t ion a l ico no g rap h y o f th e P ray e r in G e th se - m a n e (M ille t 1916. pp. 654ff., figs. 659-662), as fo r ex am p le in the C h u rc h o f A y io s Ioan n is K o u d o u - m as in C re te (B o u g ra t 1982, fig. 27). T h e sa m e su b jec t , well kn ow n in B yzan tin e p a in t in g (cf. the V atica n 'M e n o lo g io n ' o f Basil I I ) , is also fo u n d in 15th- and 16th-cen tury W e s te rn engrav ings (M assignon1961. pp . 12ff .. 2 0 ff . , pis. V I, 1. V II . 1-5). an d in 15 th-cen tury C re ta n icons (cf. an icon from Sinai. M ass i­g non 1961, pi. V I I , 2). It also occurs in th e wall p a in t ings by T h e o p h a n e s

5 3

S a n ctu a ry D oors A n n u n c ia tio n and Sa in ts

15th cen tu ry 142X78 cm

Athens. Byzantine M useum, T. 737

T h is is the or ig inal sc en e , revea led in 1980 in the la b o ra to ry o f the B y z a n ­tine M u s e u m by th e re m ov a l o f the m o re recen t repa in t ing . T h e A n ­n un c ia t io n occup ies m ost o f th e a re a o f the tw o d o o rs , and includes the figures o f th e p ro p h e ts Isa iah and D av id , busts o f w h o m a re p a in te d on a sm a lle r scale. A t the to p o f the d o o rs th e r e a re tw o o th e r sa in ts , w ho have b een iden t if ied as St. N ic h o ­las an d th e apost le A n d re w . A t the b o t to m is th e f ad ed inscrip tion ALT I C1C TO Y Δ Ο Υ Λ Ο Υ TO Y Θ1-.ΟΥ Α Ν Δ Ρ Ε Ο Υ TO Y [Λ Ι)Μ Ο Γ Α Λ Λ |Ο Υ |. w hich exp la ins the inclusion o f the apost le A n d re w : he was the p a tro n sain t o f the m an w ho d ed ica ted lhis

in th e re fec to ry o f the Cireui I tivm (M ille t 1927, pi. 147, 2) and in I Hi a n d 18 th -cen tu ry icons in tin Itennki M u s e u m an d the L o v erd o s Col lec tion .T h e icon is th e w o rk o f a m a jo r ( t tan p a in te r ; the d raw ing is unusual ly prec ise and the p a in te r has a rau· sense o f co lour . Par t icu la r ly s tr ik ing is the t r an s lu ce n t quali ty o f the white an d b lue -g rey to n es , and the bold co m b in a t io n s o f d if fe ren t hues ol red . T h e small b a sk e t o f olives hang ing in th e cave is well m o d e l led d e m o n s t ra t in g th a t the artist w as fa m il ia r with I ta l ian pain t ing . It m ay be sugges ted th a t the icon is to be d a te d to c. 1500. O n the reverse is a cross s tan d in g on a s tep p ed plmlli p a in te d at a la te r d a te (1639).

Conservation. S. Stasinopoulos.Bibliography. Chatzidakis (Th.) 1982, no M C hatzidakis (N .) 1983. no. 35. p. 42 lly/m i tine A rt 1986. no. 129. pp. 126-127 A lin ■· hi e iconc 1986. no. 85, pp. 134. 135.

N. <Ίι

icon , w h o was also called A n d iew Iconog raph ica l ly it is re la ted lo I lit m in ia tu re by P lo us iadm o s in < oil Sin. 1234. w hich is daU d lo I lii'i (W e i tz m a n n 1973, p p Ή H pi X X X I) ; to the A n n u n c ia t io n in llii m arg in o f the icon by Nikolno· Hi tzos in S a ra jev o (C h a l /n l . iki I ' 1 (1) , pi. 202); to the satin m u · in lin m arg in o f the Menaki M i i mmi i i i i i h i i o f th e Virgin (Xyngopotiliin I'M1» pi 54); a n d to a ser ies ol l i o n . <itt·I S an c tu a ry d o o rs ( ΙΙιιΙΐογιιιιιιι I'im ip. 51) that follow a I’nI...... I·■ - inm o d e l , t r a n s f o r m e d .iflil .n l i ip l i Ί m t h e p r i n c i p l e s o l ( re Inn p i i l n l in T h e s ty l i s h · m l i i l l o n f h i p o l l in i m

t o t h e a b o v e w i n k s p o i n t ' , m I ill c e n t u r y ( r e t a i l p a i i i l l u i ' \MI Ιι II > > Inn H c tc r i s t i c i v l e t tii K in i di 111 ■ I ■ **

W e s l e t n e l t i m « n l In l in »■ ■ mi· l m t h e s e m e l o I·· I m in i ill ill llit p i i l i i l

i n g o l t III·· p e l toil in < n l > ) In ι Ι ι Ι ί ι Ι w μ 11 llii l o l u i n n u t m o m i l · ■! ·■» ·

1K.1

flow er po t se p a ra t in g the two fig­u res , which seem s ra th e r d e tac hed and u n c o n n e c te d with the c o m p o ­s i t ion , has b ee n sh o w n to be c o n n e c t ­ed with the c o lo n n a d e th a t was inva­riably inc luded in scenes o f the A n n u n c ia t io n p a in te d by th e S ien ­nese art is ts o f the 14th and 15th c e n ­tu r ies (B a l to y a n n i 1984, p. 58). A n u m b e r o f stylistic fe a tu re s , such as the d ia p h a n o u s , l ig h t-co loured eyes ot the an g e l , th e o v e r-sw ee t face of the Virgin an d th e realist ic e x p re s ­sion on the face o f D a v id , also have th e i r orig ins in W e s te rn art.T h e A n n u n c ia t io n , the su p rem e sym bol o f the In c a rn a t io n , here ga ins in m ean in g by vir tue o f its b e ing p a in ted on the leaves o f the S an c tu a ry d oors . T h e significance o f th e con n ec t io n b e tw e e n the S a n c ­tua ry d o o rs an d the A n n u n c ia t io n (C h a tz idak is 1973, col. 343) is p e r ­h aps in d ica ted by th e fact th a t the ev id en c e fo r the first use o f the scene on such a d o o r po in ts to a d a te in the 12th c e n tu ry (W e i tz m a n n 1964-65, pp. 17-18), w hen the doc tr ina l m e an in g o f th e In ca rn a t io n was widely d isp u te d (B ab ic 1968. pp. 368-386). It is also kn o w n th a t o n e of th e m ost f r e q u e n t m e ta p h o rs and similes used in B yzan tin e hym nogra-

p h y an d hom ilies re la ting to the V ir ­gin is th e ‘G a te ' o f E zek ie l ( ‘T h is g a te shall be c losed ') (E zekie l X L V .2 ) ; a t a very early d a te this c a m e to be reg a rd ed as a p re f igu ­ra t ion o f the ro le o f the Virgin in the In c a rn a t io n . O n e o f the app lica tions o f this sym bo lism , which was diffi­cult to r e n d e r iconograph ica l ly , was to pa in t a scene o f the A n n u n c ia t io n on th e S an c tu a ry d oors . T h is in te r ­p re ta t io n fu r th e r acco un ts fo r the inclusion o f Isa iah , w ho is also to be fo un d in W e s te rn scenes o f the A n n u n c ia t io n , in f luenced by the L a tin M e d i ta t io n e s V itae C hris t i ' o f P s e u d o b o n a v e n tu ra ; acco rd ing to this tex t , at the tim e o f the A n ­nu n c ia t io n the Virgin was read in g the p ro p h e c y o f Isaiah (R o b b 1936. p. 4 8 5 ) : Ι Δ Ο Υ Η Π Α Ρ Θ Ε Ν Ο Ο E N Γ A C T P I Ε Ξ Ε 1 Κ Α Ι Τ Ε Ξ Ε Τ Α Ι Υ Ι Ο Ν

K A l K A A E C O Y C l T O Ο Ν Ο Μ Α

Α Υ Τ Ο Υ Ε Μ Μ Α Ν Ο Υ Η Λ ; this is also the tex t on th e scroll he ld by the p ro p h e t in the icon.

Provenance. M essina. Italy.Conservation. S. Baltoyannis. S. Varotsis. A. Sim andoni. G. Skaraki (1981).Bibliography. Baltoyanni 1984. pp. 43-72. Affrcschi e iconc 1986. no. 87. pp. 136-138.

C h . B.

5 4

TIu- H o sp ita lity o f A b rah am 15 1 li cen tu ry

7 2 X 5 7 cm A th en s . Ily/.iiiiliiie M u s e u m , T . 911

T h e scene is an il lus tra t ion of G e n e ­sis (18 .1-15). d escr ib ing the d in n e r given by A b r a h a m to the th ree angels n e a r th e ‘o ak o f M a tu re ’. It inc ludes th r e e angels sea ted a ro u n d a sq u a re tab le lo a d e d with d ishes and food , A b r a h a m an d S a rah , two tall, n a r ro w build ings a t the sides, and tw o leafy trees lean ing inw ards , all a r r a n g e d in a c losed c o m p os i t ion , d ev e lo p e d vert ica l ly a ro u n d the fig­ure o f th e cen tra l angel. T h e two-line inscrip t ion on the gold g ro u n d b e ­tw een th e tw o t r ees re fe rs to the

theo log ica l co n te n t o f the scene: [H E N T H C j K H N I I T O Y Α Β Ρ Α Α Μ [ T | H C Ζ Ω [ A P ] X I K H C T P I A A O C Φ Α -

N t . P H C I C . T h e f r e q u e n t occurrence o f this O ld T e s ta m e n t scene from the B ible in the B yzan tine a n d Post- B y zan tine p e r io d s is a cco u n ted for by th e fact th a t it sym bolizes the I loly T rin i ty .The ico n o g ra p h y o f the H ospita li ty

o f A b r a h a m w as e s tab lished in E arly C hr is t ian t im es , bu t the iconograph ic type in th e B yzan tine M u seu m panel w as m os t p ro b a b ly fo rm u la te d in C o n s ta n t in o p le d u r in g the Palaeolo- gan p e r io d , as m ay be in fe rred from a n u m b e r o f ex am p le s in m anuscrip t m in ia tu re s , icons a n d wall paintings. T h e p reva i l ing aes th e t ic p re fe ren ces

— 1 8 4 —

o f th e re f ined circles o f art ists and p a tro n s in the capita l at this p e r ­iod w ere c e n tr e d on the revival o f an t iq u i ty , and can be d e te c te d in th is icon in a varie ty o f ways. W e m ay n o te , fo r ex a m p le , the classical p ro p o r t io n s , the e lega n t p os tu re s a n d the re f in ed faces o f the angels , the "pa tr ia rcha l ' a p p e a ra n c e of A b r a h a m , again fo l low ing ancien t iconog rap h ic types , an d also a n u m ­b e r of d e ta i ls , such as the cara fe cov­e re d by an u p tu rn e d glass on the tab le , w hich can be seen in a wall p a in t ing from H e rc u la n e u m , th e lion m ask w ith foliage com ing o u t o f its m o u th , ex e c u te d in grisaille on the facade o f th e bu ild ing on the right, a n d the red c lo th o n th e ro o f o f the o n e on th e left. T h e m o n u m e n ta l size o f th e figures an d th e re d u c e d scale o f the ach i tec tu re and trees in the b a c k g ro u n d , th e re tu rn to a f la t­te r co n c ep t io n o f spa ce , a n d th e dry m odell ing o f th e flesh and d rap e ry are so m e o f the fe a tu re s th a t p ro v id e a rg u m e n ts fo r d a t in g this icon to th e p e r io d a f te r 1453. T h e B y zan tine M u s e u m icon p ane l b een d a ted variously to the 15th cen tu ry (S o t i­r iou 1931. p. 74), to the first ha lf of the 16th cen tu ry , in re la tion to the ear ly c rea t io n s o f th e C re ta n School (C h a tz id ak is 1961. no. 3, with co lour p la te . C h a ra la m p o u s -M o u r ik i 1962­63. pp . 87 ff .), o r m o re precisely to th e m idd le o f the 16th cen tu ry , while still b e ing con s id e red a C re ta n w o rk (C h a tz id a k is 1969, fig. p. 45). H o w ­ev e r . th e view th a t this icon was the

w o rk o f the C re ta n School cun In q u e s t io n e d af ter the p n b ln iitJnn nl p e r t in e n t d o c u m en ts in llu V enn arch ives by C a t ta p a n , and I In· i I|h cove ry o f h i th e r to u n k n o w n p n ln u u l m a te r ia l ass igned to this school I h. resu lt is th a t th e da tes tha t have been sug ges ted for the m a jo r i ty o f icon1, f rom this circle have to be ra ised , by a c en tu ry in so m e cases. T a k in g tin- re ce n t d iscoverie s into acco un t , it m ay be sugges ted tha t the Byzanline M u s e u m icon o f th e H ospita li ty ol A b r a h a m shou ld be p laced in llu secon d half o f th e 15th cen tu ry , S o m e rese rv a t ion is also n e e d e d as lo its p rec ise re la t io nsh ip to the ( icliin S choo l, a t least until the s tudy o f (he d a te d 15 th -cen tu ry en sem b le s o f wall pa in t in gs is co m p le te d , am ong·) w hich th e dec o ra t io n of the Pan tanassa a t M is tra is of special im p o r ta n c e (c. 1428). T h e Byzantine M u s e u m icon has close iconographic a n d stylistic affinit ies with two m n i i icons dep ic t ing the sam e s u b j e c t . in th e H e rm i ta g e an d the N a ih o m n M u s e u m , which w ere p ro bab ly painl ed ea r l ie r , th o u g h still in the I “Mil cen tu ry . T h e sam e iconograph) nl type , w ith m in o r v a ria tions , is In q u en t ly r e p e a te d in la te r painim^·· m os tly icons.

Provenance. Acquired 1111 Zakynlhns Conservation. A. MargaritoM.Bibliography. Sotiriou 1931, p > I < Itu izidakis 1961. no. 3. with culom pliil 1 < Ιικ ιί lam pous-M ouriki 1962-63, pp, H711 1 IhiIcIiIh kis 1969. fig. p. 45. Affrcschi ν κοη»* (ίμιί ini H8. pp. 138-140.

I » M

55

S t. Nicholas c. 1500

9 0 X 5 6 cmIo a n n in a . C h a p e l o f the B ish o p 's P a lace

T h e severe m o de l l in g , th e d ra p e ry an d the conse rva t ive icono g raph y suggest th a t this icon belongs lo the sam e g ro u p as the icons from llu· M o n a s te ry o f the 1 Icousa on tIn-

Is land in I he I akt A ffrcsch i e icone 119).

n l li i i in illHii l> I l'*Hl> nn 1 ' ,

/'rovem tnte llu ΜηιιιΜι ι ι >·Ι I It· I I· ■■1 lit . · M u t u l i t i H i t - I i l k r n l I i k h i i i i i m

( i>n\rrvaUifH < h Λι< ΙιιημιηΙι Id· I I *> '! /iihtu»finipliv I i h m l i i p l t i I l n p H i i l i * I '

IίιΛΙΊ M v /iiiililii S 1 1 I'Ollt n n I 1 · |

Allirsi 111 i‘ l i h i m I ' IM l i lit: '■ |i ii· i

185

5 6

iM flJ

S t. N ich o la s w ith scen es o f h is m ira c les c . 1500

92X 62 cm Ioannina. Chapel of the Bishop's Palace

G e sso on canvas . G o ld g rou nd . F ram e with m ou ld in gs . B ust o f St. N icholas , willi C h r is t a n d the Virgin in m in ia tu re ab o v e h im , offering him the gospel an d o m o p h o r io n . T h e n a r ro w han d be low enc loses th ree scenes o f his m irac les p a in ted on a sm a lle r scale in a c o n t in u o u s c o m p o ­sition: the sa in t sav ing the th ree in n o cen ts fro m th e sw ord of the e x e c u t io n e r , p ro v id in g dow ries fo r th e th r e e d a u g h te r s o f th e im p o v e r­ished n o b le , an d rescu ing a ship in d a n g e r at sea. T h e ha loes have ro u g h po in t i l le d e c o ra t io n , and vivid co lo u rs a re u sed . T h e d a rk u n d e r ­p a in t o f th e faces co n tra s ts with the flesh to n e s a n d w h ite highlights. T h e scenes o f th e m irac les con ta in m an y

w es te rn e le m e n ts o f Ita lian origin. T h e se ascap e in the mirac le o f the sh ip is p a r t icu la r ly im press ive for this p e r io d . T h e icon is p a in ted in the m a n n e r o f C re ta n pa in t ing o f th e 15th-16th ce n tu r ie s , and the m odel fo r the sa in t is to be found in icons by A n d r e a s R i tzos (C ha tz id ak is 1977 (1), pi. 20 3a . B y zan tine A r t 1986, no. 107, p. 108). A n u m b e r o f e le ­m en ts , h o w e v e r , suggest th a t it should be a t t r ib u te d to a w o rk sh o p in Io a n n in a . A n icon o f the Virgin in th e M o n a s te ry o f th e E leo u sa o n the Is land in the L a k e o f Io a n n in a m ay be a t t r ib u te d to the pa in te r o f St. N icholas .

Provenance. The M onastery of the Eleousa on the Island in the Lake of Ioannina Conservation. Ch. A rchim andritis (1974). Bibliography. A cheim astou-Potam ianou 1973­74, p. 613. Byzantine A rt 1986. no. 123, pp. 122-124. Affreschi e icone 1986. no. 80, pp. 129, 130.

M. A.-P.

5 7

S t. N ich o la s w ith scen es from his life c. 1500

41 X 36 cm A th en s . U. A n d rc a d is C o llec tio n

E gg te m p e ra on w o od . The centra l scene is a p o r t raya l o f St. N icholas e n th r o n e d . In the b o rd e r su r ro u n d ­ing it th e r e a re tw elve scenes from th e life a n d m irac les o f the saint. S ta r t ing in th e to p left c o rn e r , and p ro c e e d in g left to r igh t, these are: th e b ir th o f the sa in t; his e lec tion as b ishop ; th e sain t rescu ing th e th re e d a u g h te r s f ro m p ro s t i tu t io n ; the sa in t rescu ing th e th r e e innocen ts from th e e x e c u t io n e r ; the sain t d e ­s t roy ing the idols in th e tem p le ; the m irac le o f the sh ip ( th e ca lm ing of th e w aves); th e th r e e genera ls in p r ison ; the sa in t a p p e a r in g in a d r e a m to C o n s ta n t in e th e G re a t ; the sa in t a p p e a r in g in a d r e a m to the g en e ra l ; the th r e e gen e ra ls o ffering gifts to C o n s ta n t in e the G re a t ; the

D o rm i t io n o f th e sa in t; and the th ree gen e ra ls o f fe r in g gifts to St. N ic h o ­las. T h e se e p iso d es f rom th e life and m iracles o f th e sa in t a re no t in the ch ro no lo g ica l o rd e r o f the synaxaria (lives o f th e sa in ts) . This is also true o f o th e r icons o f St. N icholas roughly c o n te m p o ra r y w ith this o n e (icon on P a tm o s fro m 1430-60, a n d a late 15 th -cen tu ry icon from K asto r ia ) an d also o f ea r l ie r icons (icon from Sinai , f ro m th e e n d o f the 12th c e n ­tu ry ) .T h e icon has b e e n a t t r ib u te d to a C re ta n p a in t e r an d is d a te d to c. 1500. C e r ta in P a laeo lo g an ico n o g ra ­phic fe a tu re s m ay have b e e n t r a n s ­m i t ted th ro u g h th e w orks of 15th- c e n tu ry C re ta n pa in te rs such as A n g e lo s A k o ta n to s (cf. th e type of th e th r o n e in th e D ees is icons by this p a in te r in th e M o n a s te ry o f V iannou an d the K a n e l lo p o u lo s Collec tion) a n d A n d r e a s R itzos (cf. th e type ol th e th ro n e in th e icon o f Chris t on

— 1 8 6 —

P a tm o s , an d the a rc h i te c tu re in the C hris to log ica l scenes in the icon o f th e V irg in E n th r o n e d in the B en ak i M u s e u m ) . H o w e v e r , the flowing d ra p e r y o f the sa in t 's g a rm e n ts , typical o f C re ta n icons in th e Ita lian m a n n e r (e .g . cat. no . 45), d e m o n ­s t ra te th a t I ta l ian fe a tu re s cou ld find th e i r p lace ev en in an icon like this.

w h ich o th e rw ise followed llie ( i ieek m a n n e r , in te rm s o f hot Ii ιι ο ιιομιιι phy a n d style.

Bibliography. Chatzidakis (Th.) 1982. no .M C hatzidakis (N .) 1983, no. 33, p. 41. Ιιμ. Sevccnko 1983. Affrcschi e iconc 1986, no. 81, pp. 130-131.

Μ . V.

5 8

N oli M e T an gere 16th cen tu ry

120x82 cm Zakynthos. M etochion of the M onastery

of St. Catherine Sinaiton

T h e icon d ep ic ts the a p p e a ra n c e o f C h r is t to M ary M a g d a le n e a f te r the R e su r r e c t io n , as n a r r a te d in the G o sp e l o f St. Jo h n (X X V II I . 14-17). T h e L o rd tu rn s back to M ary , w ho has fallen to h e r k ne es , a n d s tre tch es o u t his h an d to s to p h e r touch ing h im . T o the left, th e r e is a cave in the s ide o f a s te ep m o u n ta in with the o p e n s a rc o p h ag u s in which the sh ro u d lies, accord ing to the tex t of th e G ospe l .T h e Z a k y n th o s icon be longs to a var ia t ion o f the Noli M e T a n g e re

5 9

S t. G eo rg e o n H orseb ack B eg in n in g o f th e 16th cen tu ry

65X51 cm London. M. Peraticos Collection

St. G e o rg e is m o u n te d on a w hite re a r in g ho rse , with the u p p e r p a r t of his body tu rn ed to w ard s th e v iewer. W ith his lance he is s tr ik ing a d a rk , th r e a te n in g d ra g o n w hose tail is w o u n d a ro u n d th e h o rs e 's h ind legs. T h e tiny p rincess raises h e r h a n d s in supp l ica t ion to w a rd s h e r saviour. T h e d rago n -s lay ing scene (A u fh a u - se r , 1913. pp . 113-129) is co m p le ted by a su m m ari ly d raw n castle with to w ers at the co rners . O n top o f it s tan d th e king and q u e e n , a c c o m ­p a n ied by co u r t ie r s and t ru m p e te rs ; th e k ing h o lds ou t the keys of tin

th a t w as p ro b ab ly c rea ted in C re te in th e 15th cen tu ry and is f r eq uen tly fo u n d in w o rks by the C re ta n S chool. A str ik ing fea tu re o f it is the d if fe ren ce b e tw e en the t r e a tm e n t o f C h r is t 's g a rm e n ts , which a re b ased o n B y zan t in e m od e ls and have still a c c e n tu a te d d ra p e ry g leam ing with go ld , and th e soft, flowing d ra p e ry ol those o f th e knee l ing w o m a n , which w e re insp ired by L a te G o th ic art T h e icon sh ou ld be a t t r ib u te d to a C re ta n ar t is t o f th e beg inn ing o l tin 16th cen tu ry .

Conservation. M. Rousca-Bnrb.i Bibliography Chatzidakis 1967. p. 27. |il I III Byzantine A rt 1986. no. 135. pp. 1 '2 . I 'I Affrcschi e iconc 19X6. no. 91. pp. 1-1.’ I I '

l> I V

cast le to the c o n q u e ro r ol tin d ra g o n .T h e tiny w hite-c lad liguie on lh< ru m p o f th e horse relur^ lo iiiioiIh i o f St. G e o rg e 's miracles III is ill· y o u th o f M ytilene d e l iv e in l l im n cap tiv ity by the saint ( A 11111·<ii>>■ i 1913, pp . 100-1(13). In hr. li mil i" th e glass and tile wi i ol wlm Mini he w as ho ld ing at the mom» nt ol tin m ira cu lo u s in te rven t ion Al III· I >| left, th e hand ol t mil ι γ ί Ι ι π ι Ι ι Ί hi blessing.'I'he basil com po'.il Ion \Mlll ill- d ragon slayer *>ιι1111 on In ί I n i o ccu rs w ith .lli'lit v j l li i llm u in ■ g ro u p o l al I fiml I« · l> · lui| ico n s , 11 *.i in 11 v o l I ii 11: >l· in V o m e r . Iv ι ί K \ 111 ι ι· i i | nil I'alm o·. A n l io n nl Hi ( : · ■ •« φ m |!W

I S 7

chu rch o f the G r e e k co m m un ity in V en ice in fact suggests tha t icons like these m ay h ave se rv ed as p ro sk yn e- ta r ia o f th e p a t r o n sain t (C ha tz id ak is1962, pp . 38-39). It has recen tly been sh o w n by P. V o k o to p o u lo s and M. V ass i lakes th a t th ese icons w ere b ased on an a rc h e ty p e by the fam ou s C re ta n p a in te r A n g e lo s , w ho lived in the first h a lf o f the 15th cen tu ry (V a ss i la k e s -M a v ra k a k e s 1981, pp. 290-298), the f igu res o f the d rag o n

an d th e h o rse b e ing insp ired by an e a r l ie r w o rk by P ao lo V e n e z ian o (H o rse s o f San M arc o 1979, p. 83. fig. 109).T h e p ro p o r t io n s o f the r ider , the d e c o ra t io n o f his lea th e r cuirass and a ce r ta in stiffness in the draw ing , d a te the w o rk a f te r A n g e lo s 's d e a th , poss ib ly to the beg inn ing o f the 16th cen tu ry .

Bibliography. U npublished.L. B.

60

S t. D em etr iu s 16th cen tu ry

108X82 cm Kerkyra. Museum of the Antivouniotissa

T h e p a t ro n sa in t o f T hessa lo n ike is p o r t r a y e d m o u n te d on a ho rse , a type insp ired by m o de ls from the I ta ­lian R en a is sa n c e . H e is being blessed by the h a n d o f G o d , while th e city o f T h e ssa lo n ik e (as we are in fo rm ed by th e inscr ip t ion ) rises in the b ac k ­g ro u n d . p ro te c te d by very high walls. T h is type o f the saint on h o rs e b a c k , in which th e h orse is show n from the s ide , m ov ing slowly

fo rw a rd , while the sain t is tu rn e d to w ard s th e v iew er, was p ro b ab ly c re a te d in C re te in the 15th cen tu ry f ro m a co m b in a t io n o f B y zan tine a n d I ta lian e le m e n ts , and was not very w id esp re ad . T h e harsh m o d e l ­ling o f th e icon suggests tha t it sho u ld be a t t r ib u te d to a c o n se rv a ­tive C re ta n p a in te r at th e en d o f the 16th e n tu r y w ho was insp ired by 1 5 th -cen tu ry m odels .

Conservation. F. Asimukou.Bibliography. Vokotopoulos 1972. C hatzida­kis (N .) 19K3. no. 31. pp. 38. 40. Byzantine Art 1986. no. 134. pp 130 133. Affcschi c iconc 1986. no. 90. pp. 141-142.

P. L. V.

61

The A k ra T a p e in o sis Iti'gim iiiig o f th e 16th cen tu ry

23X 18.5 cm London. M. I’craticos Collection

T h e u p p e r part o f C h r is t 's nak ed bo dy is p o r t r a y e d against a gold b a c k g ro u n d . 11c is s tand ing in a m a r ­ble s a r c o p h a g u s , in front ol the arm s o f the cross. T w o small angels at the to p a re m o u rn in g , with expressive ges tures .T h e su b je c t occu rs in Byzantine icons from the 12th cen tu ry on w ard s (cf. cat. nos. 8 a n d 27). T h e B yz an ­tine t rad i t io n can be seen in the co m p ac t t r e a tm e n t o f the b od y , in w hich th e p ro m in e n t vo lu m es , e s p e ­cially o f the chest muscles , recall the

figure o f C hris t in a 14th-century d ip tych a t M e te o ra (B yzan tine A n 1964. no . 210).T h e f igu re o f C hris t in the presenl icon d o es no t follow the robus t, h e a l th y ty pe with the large , almosl sq u a re h ead fam il iar f rom o th i i B y zan tin e w ork s (cat . nos. 8, 27); ils a ff in it ies a re r a th e r with the type used by T h e o p h a n e s in a wall paml ing in the C h u rc h o f A yios N ikolaos A n a p a fs a s at M e te o ra (1527) (Clin tz idak is 1974 (1). p. 201, pi. Ι Δ ’. Ί F e a tu re s s h a re d by the tw o that sc I th e m a p a r t f rom the trad it iona l typi· are the frail bod y an d the shape ol the h e a d , se t on a th ick neck , which d o es no t d ro o p on to the shouhle t T h e a rm s a re crossed at the wrisl imil no t fo ld e d , as in the icons ol I In

— INK -

B y zan tin e p e r iod . T h is fe a tu re , w hich is f o u n d in ea r l ie r vers ions o f th e typ e in I ta ly , such as th e 14th- c en tu ry d ip tych in F lo rence (B elt ing 1981, fig. 10), was used in I ta lo -C re - tan icons like the A k ra T ap e in o s is by N ik o lao s T zafo u r is in the K unsth is- to r isch e M u s e u m , V ie n n a (K reidl- P a p a d o p o u lo s 1970, p. 93, no. 2, fig. 39), an d a large C re ta n icon f rom the e n d o f the 15th cen tu ry in the R ec k l in g h a u se n M u s e u m ( Ik o n e n 1981. no. 250, fig. 17); in this last w o rk , the sty le , as well as the su b je c t , is sim ilar to th a t o f the p r e ­sen t icon. O th e r fe a tu re s c o m ­m o n to th e tw o are th e inclusion o f the tw o m o u rn in g angels at th e to p , an d th e p a le p in k m arb le sa rcophagus .In the small icon p re s e n te d h e re , the

62

T h e D orm ition S eco n d h a lf o f th e 16th cen tu ry

116X77.5 cm Kos. M etropolitan Chapel of the

Annunciation

fine deta i l , seen in llu· rendi ■ 111μ ol th e veins o f the m a rb k ol ih r ν ιπ ι χ p h a g u s and the th ree so in 11 ι < I It-1 l ion 's h e ad s , show s tha t Ihe ufltai w as fam il ia r with Italian p a m lm g th e p rec is ion o f the d raw ing in lli m in ia tu re pa in t ings of th e angel·, m o u r n in g at th e to p recalls C re ta n icons from the e n d o f the 15th i o n tu ry . T h e soft m odelling o f the flesh, an d th e use o f an ico n o g rap lm m o d e l sim ilar to tha t em p lo y ed by T h e o p h a n e s at M e te o ra suggests th a t th e icon sho u ld be d a te d to the b eg in n in g o f the 16th cen tu ry .

Bibliography. Fine Icons 1981. no. 69. < luit/l dakis (T h.) 1982, no. 8.

N . C l'

G e sso on canvas . G o ld g ro u n d . P a in t ing d a m a g e d . T h e tu r b a n e d fig­u re o f J e p h o n ia s in the fo re g ro u n d d a te s in p a r t f rom a re s to ra t io n of th e icon in 1831.T h e scene is a multi-figural c o m p o ­s i t ion , d e v e lo p e d vert ically in a sy m ­m etr ica l . o rd e r e d fash ion ; it is b a lan c ed a ro u n d the ho r izo n ta l and vert ica l axes a n d th e d iagona ls , w hich d e te r m in e the a r r a n g e m e n t o f the c row d to the right a n d left o f th e V irg in on the bier .T h e r e is livelier m o v e m e n t at the low er fron t o f the icon, an d in the th r e e -s to re y R en a issance build ings in the b a ck g ro u n d at e i th e r side: h e re , on the ba lcon ies a n d at the w in do w s, an d on the s ta ircase o f the bu ild ing to the right, o ld m e n , w o m e n an d a you ng m o th e r , all e x e c u te d in m in ia tu re , a re following ev e n ts from a d is tan ce , ta lk ing a n x ­iously to each o th e r and m o urn ing . In the heav ens , th e re are scenes of

th e apos t le s a rr iv ing on c louds , and th e ascen t of the soul o f th e V uy in In te rm s o f the m o n u m e n ta l com p t ion a n d am b i t io u s t r e a tm e n t , 111' c loses t para l le ls to this icon '·>. m I· be th e ea r l ie r vers ion of the I >■ ί ml t ion by A n d re a s R itzos in In i in (C h a tz id ak is 1977 ( I ) , pi 211(1). .mil th e icon c loser to it in d a te by I >mm n ik os T h e o to k o p o u lo s recuinSy ill· c o v e re d on Syros (cat. no o l )It is th e w ork o f an im po it im l Huh c e n tu ry p a in te r , and I hi m ln ln lm i a n d de ta i led execu t ion in tl IM s tr iv ing for p e r s p e c t iv e . nnl »l*> facial types po r t ray ed in ill n mint scen t o f the a il ol (η ο ιμ Ι ο · I Imi tzas , th o ug h the > no t close en o u g h lo m ake it im ilu t t ion to K lo n l /a s cei lam T*h· > >>> resem b la n ce s , h o w v e i >iihI ilii icon og raph ic ii l lmllloi u il li I In I m ition by K Ion I / ιι ί mi 11 >■ I' (Ini tr ip tych (< Ιιιιΐ/l ilnl·u I 1 1 I I I n<· <i2. pp Id / l l pi·. II 111 tin V ■ in ■

— IOT

tr ip tych (C h a tz id ak is 1962, no. 51, pp . 77ff ., pi. 38), an d especially with an icon o f the D o rm i t io n o f the V ir ­gin in th e Sinai M o n a s te ry (W eitz- n iann 1980, no. 23) a t t r ib u te d to the sam e ar t is t , sugges t th a t the icon w'as possibly p a in ted by a m e m b e r of the family o f G eo rg io s K lon tzas . m any o f w hom w ere p a in te rs .

6 2 a

D o m en ik o s (T h eotok op ou los): T h e A d o ra tio n o f the M agi

c. 156 5 -1 5 7 5 4 0 x 4 5 cm

Athens. Benaki M useum, 3048

T his is c o n s id e re d o n e o f the most im p o r ta n t e a r ly w o rk s o f D o m en ik o s T h e o to k o p o u lo s . T h e art is t is still using egg t e m p e r a , bu t has a b a n ­d o n e d th e ico n o g rap h y and pain t ing te c h n iq u es o f his native C re tan School. T h e s ig n a tu re on the s tep of th e c ross-vau lted ru in reads: ΧΕΙΡ Δ Ο Μ Η Ν ΙΚ Ο Υ ( ‘by the h a n d o f D o ­m e n ik o s ') .A m o n g th e n o ta b le fe a tu re s o f this w ork a re th e th ree -d im en s io n a l

6 3 *

D o m en ik o s T h eo to k o p o u lo s:T h e D o rm itio n

S eco n d h a lf o f th e 16th cen tu ry 61.4X 52.2 cm

Syros, Ermoupolis. Church of the Koime- sis tis Theotokou (Panayia ton Psarianon)

Panel with a p re p a r a t i o n o f a thin layer o f gesso on canvas . T h e p a in t ­ed surface is now c lean an d in places show s c lear signs o f rep a in t in g and changes o f g laze . T h e silver th a t was la ter a d d e d to th e tw o m ain figures has caused i r r e p a ra b le d a m ag e to small a reas in th e c en tre o f the icon. By goo d fo r tu n e , th e s ig na tu re o f the art ist , th o u g h difficult to re ad , is p rese rv ed in its en t i re ty at the b o t ­tom in cap ita l le t te rs : Δ Ο Μ Η Ν Ι Κ Ο Ο B E O I O K O I I O Y A O C Ο A E IH A C .

The main scene o f the icon has a r e p ­resen ta t io n of th e D o rm i t io n o f the

Conservation. M. R ousea. D. Bakalis and colleagues (1976-77).Bibliography. A cheim astou-Polam ianou 1976. p. 16. pi. 18α-β. A cheim astou-Polam ianou 1977, p. 8. pi. 9. V okotopoulos 1984, p. 397. no. 25. Byzantine A rt 1986, no. 144, pp. 139-140. Affrcschi e icone 1986. no. 99, pp. 150. 151. A cheim astou-Potam ianou 1987 (in print ).

M. A .-P.

space c re a te d by th e p erspec t ive r e n ­d e r in g o f th e a rch i tec tu ra l b a c k ­g r o u n d , th e use o f the Chris t Child as an ‘i n n e r ’ so u rce o f light a n d the m a n n e r is t ic t ra its in th e ag ita ted m o v e m e n t o f the th re e horses on the right.D e sp i te th e f r e e h a n d u n d e rd raw in g , fo rm s a re m o ld e d in light an d co lour , w ith to ta l d is reg a rd for o u tl ines , w hich is a typical t ra i t o f 16th-cen­tury V e n e t ia n p a in t ing (S tee r 1983, pp . 41-43).

Conservation. S. S tasinopoulos, K Milanou(1986).Bibliography. W et hey 1962. II, p. 165. El G reco Exhibition 1986. p. 171.

L. B.

V irg in , in a type w hich , in its basic c o n c e p t io n , is qu i te well k no w n in O r th o d o x C re ta n icons fro m the 15th a n d 16th cen tu r ie s . T w o g roups , co m p r is ing the apost les . C hurch fa th e rs a n d a n u m b e r o f w o m e n , are lean ing w ith re s t ra in ed grief tow ards th e b ie r on which the Virgin is lying. In the c e n tr e C hris t , f lanked by ange ls , is s to o p in g to receive the soul o f his H o ly M o th e r , in the form o f a baby . T h is strictly o rgan ized tradi t iona l co m po s i t io n has a scene o f tin· A scen t o f the soul o f the Virgin paint ed o n a sm a lle r scale in an Italian style at th e to p , w'hich inc ludes tin· h an d in g o f the gird le to the aposlli T h o m a s . In th e c en tre o f the co m p o s i tion , in th e m id d le g ro u n d . is a do ve , sym boliz ing the H oly Spirit , th is is c lea r ly insp ired by W e ste rn ico n o g ra p h y an d has a d d e d signifi

- 1 9 0 -

cance w h en we recall th a t the p a in te r su b s e q u e n t ly tu rn e d to R o m a n C atho l ic ism . B usts o f the apost les ‘g a th e r in g from the ends o f the e a r th ' a re d ep ic ted on c louds agains t the gold b ac k g ro u n d .T h e p a in te r d isplays a w ide range o f skills in this icon, reveal ing , above all , his fam il iari ty with a v arie ty of d if fe ren t styles. T h e m ain sub jec t is p a in te d effortlessly in the Pa laeo lo- g an style o f the 15th cen tu ry , while th e e leg an ce an d c o n t r a p p o s to of the V irg in 's soul and the angels a c c o m ­p a n y in g it a re c o n n e c ted with M a n ­ne r ism . T h e w ork belongs to the g en e ra l c l im ate o f C re ta n ar t o f the p e r io d ; this had P a laeo lo gan roo ts , th o u g h th e C re ta n pa in te rs ' k n o w ­ledge o f I ta l ian , and part icu lar ly V e n e t ia n pa in t in g , f r equ en tly led th e m to a m o re o r less d isc ree t ec lec­ticism. T h is icon is d is t inguished by th e ten d e n c y o f the artist to select u n u sua l fe a tu re s . It is p e rh a p s the m a tu re s t of the you th fu l w o rk s by th e p a in te r , w ho was bo rn in 1541 an d w as a l read y re fe r red to as a ‘m a s te r ' in C re ta n d o c u m e n ts o f 1566. T h is multi-f igural scene il­lu s tra te s his d e p th o f kn ow led g e , his o u ts ta n d in g sensitivity , and his su p e r b te c h n iq u e , all o f w hich help us b e t t e r to u n d e rs ta n d the signifi­can ce o f his o th e r you th fu l w orks . St. L u k e the Evangelis t and the A d o ra t io n o f th e M agi , in the B en ak i M u s e u m , and the M o d e n a tr ip tych ( th e re is no longer any d o u b t a b o u t the a t t r ib u t io n of these to T h e o to k o p o u lo s ) . T h e p re sen t icon shed s a gen e ra l light on the ear ly c a re e r of, an d fo rm a tiv e in f lu ­e n ces o n . the art is t an d reveals a n u m b e r o f t r e n d s , such as M a n n e r ­ism. th a t w ere la te r to be d ev e lo p e d in his m a jo r w orks.T h e p o l ished m eta l c a n d e la b ra on th e g ro u n d a re part icu larly str ik ing; th ey a re p a in te d with a facility r e m a rk a b le in a C re ta n artist . T h e o n e in th e m id d le , o f a clearly R en a is sa n c e ch a ra c te r , b ea rs the s ig n a tu re o f the p a in te r , which is th us in c o rp o ra te d in to the c o m p o ­sition in a d e p a r tu r e from the usual

c u s to m . T h e form ula used in t lit· s ig n a tu re is a lso original l i e w i r . In

r e p e a t it la te r , in 1577, in his lir .l S p an ish w o rk , the A ssu m ptio n in tin C h u rc h o f S an to D o m in g o el ΛιιΙι g u o , in T o le d o . T h e ve rb ΐ>ηκνι<μι (ao r is t par t ic ip le , δ ε ίξ α ς ) occurs in

an c ie n t G r e e k , th ou gh rarely (in L uc ian a n d S tr a b o ) , with llu m e a n in g ‘c rea te a w ork o f a r t ’ . W e m ay n o te th a t the w ord was used in th is sense in the ‘E n h y p n io n ' ol L u c ia n , which we know the p a in te r h a d in his library . It is used by A i l , p e rso n if ied , with re fe ren ce to lust re sp ec t fo r g rea t artists. It is thus c le a r th a t T h e o to k o p o u lo s , even b e fo re he left C re te , was not only a m a s te r p a in te r o f ra re abil ity , but a lso a cu l tu red m an in the broai le i sen se . H e will certa in ly have l i l t h im se lf a p a r t f rom his fellow paint e rs , ready to tak e the s tep to w ard s th e te m p t in g art ist ic horizons of t i n

W est . W h e n he left C re te , how evei he to o k with him a firm foundaliofl b a sed on his ap p ren t ic e sh ip in B y za n t in e pa in t ing . In this con tex t th e co m po s i t io n o f the D o rm i t io n . w ith its ea r th ly an d h eaven ly level·, o f ac t io n , the co n g reg a t io n n l t in

a p o s t le s , and th e figure o f ( hfr . l s to o p in g low o ver the body ol t in

V irg in , and the com ple te ly dill lenl a tm o s p h e re of the Pow ers a b o v r . m igh t be th ou gh t to be ic l lc i l i I a lb e i t in a d is tan t fash ion , in llu B u r ia l o f the C o u n t o f < ϊ ιμη /T h e icon, which was f t i s e o v e i c d In1983, w as p ro b ab ly brought lo S v m i d u r in g the G re e k W ar nl l in lrp i ιι d e n c e by re fugees from llu ill ■ «* ta te d is lands of the A egcun f p n * * l l i h

fro m P sa ra ) , w ho lo im e d llu m u m th e p o p u la t io n o f I im oH pulh

Conservation. S UalloyiMiMi1· ( I1111 1 ·Μ Bihfiogra/ihy M.islnii>|nmlihi ΙΊΜ I I I μ 1 Exhibition tor I hi- < im rn iiiy nl ι Ιι I l l)N4. no. 2 I . |>p. '-I, U

II AI

* I 01 iriiMins util m nnci Ιι·ι| Mil III 1 n iilu in·, nl ilr I H jiii nl* Illy ■ i uiinii ■ . ■ * 11 ■ noi In- n | il'li In linlinl* llil - . 'I xliihlllon

I ' JI

64

E m m a n u el L am b ard os:T h e A d o ra tio n o f tlje M agi

16th cen tu ry 46X 50 cm

Athens. R. Andreadis Collection

T h e scene o f the A d o ra t io n is set in a typical S ienn ese lan d sca p e , with d is tan t cities, t r e e s an d huge rocks. Jo sep h and M ary are on the left, u n d e r a w o o d e n sh e l te r , tu rn ing to w ard s th e M ag i, w ho have jus t d i s m o u n te d and a re k n ee l in g b efo re Chris t . T h e s ig n a tu re at th e left, above th e h e a d s o f the tw o s h e p ­herds , ΧΕΙΡ Ε Μ Μ Α Ν Ο Υ Η Λ AAM- Π Α ΡΔ Ο Υ . gives us th e n a m e o f the fam o us fam ily o f 1 6 th -cen tu ry p a in t ­ers w ho w o rk e d in C a n d ia (I rak l ion ) on C re te . In iconograph ica l te rm s the scene is s im ilar to th a t on the signed icon by M ichae l D am a sk in o s in Irak l ion (C h a tz id ak is 1953, p. 13. pi. X V I . B o rb o u d a k is 1985, p. 146, pi. 38), and o n e like it in the C o r re r M u seu m in V en ice (M u seo C o r re r1957, p. 75), w hich is th o u g h t to be a la te r copy by M ich ae l D am ask in os . Stylis tically it is s im i la r to the icon o f the Crucif ix ion in the B yzan tine M u ­seum , L o v e rd o s C o llec tion (C h a tz i ­dak is 1953, pi. X V I I ) , s igned by the sam e p a in te r , th o u g h the au then t ic i ty o f the s ig n a tu re is d isp u ted . T h e e le m e n ts c o m m o n to b o th icons

include the sub t le c o n to u r s o f th e f e a ­tu res , the soft m o de l l in g o f th e flesh, the fine use o f gold especially on the u n d u la t in g gold bo rd e rs o f the g a r ­m en ts , th e de lica te m o v e m e n ts and the nobil i ty o f the figures. T hese e le m e n ts exis t a longs ide the p r o ­n o u n c e d W e s te rn inf luence th a t can be d e te c te d in the icon og rap hy and stylistic m a n n e r o f bo th w orks. T h e fact th a t th e p re sen t icon der iv ed its ico n o g rap h y from a W este rn m odel is d e m o n s t r a t e d by its close affinity with the A d o ra t i o n o f the Magi by B a r to lo di F red d i in the S ienna A r t G a lle ry (C ecch i 1928, pi. C C X X IV ) . It fo llows the S ien na m od e l m o re faithfully th a n the icon by D a m a s k i ­nos, a n d seem s to be the ea r l ie r of the tw o , a n d s ince it also has a n u m b e r of stylistic e le m e n ts assoc ia ted with ea r ly C re ta n p a in t ing . If the s igna­tu re is a u th e n t ic , the ar t is t in q ues t ion w as the E m m a n u e l L a m b a rd o s w ho also p a in te d the C rucif ix ion in the L o v e rd o s C o llec t io n and is ea r l ie r than his n a m e s a k e , the E m m a n u e l L a m b a r d o s w h o p a in te d the V en ice icon o f th e C ruc if ix ion at the b eg in ­ning o f th e 17th c en tu ry (M an o u s s ak a s 1971, pp . 7ff ., pi. A ).

Hibliogrttpfjy. Baltoyanni 198fi (1 ). n o . 1Affrcschi c iconc 19X6. no. 92. pp. 143. 144

C h . H

6 5

M ichael D am ask inos:SS S e r g iu s , lla c c h u s and J iistin a

A lter 1571 112X119 cm

Kerkyra. Museum of the Antivouniotissa

T h e g rea t v ic tory o f the fleet o f the H oly L ea g u e o f V en ic e . Spain and the P o p e o v e r th a t o f the T u rk s at L e p a n to . on 7 O c to b e r 1571, was a source o f in sp ira t ion no t on ly for I ta ­lian art ists (cf. Palluchini 1974, p. 279), bu t also fo r G re e k s , since m an y G re e k s to o k p a r t in it and an

u n fa v o u ra b le o u tc o m e w ould have· h ad a d irec t effect on the G reek is lands o ccu p ie d by V en ice (cf. Ma n o u ssa k a s 1974, pp. 215ff .). Iln C re ta n p a in te rs usually chose In dep ic t th e b a t t le itself. M ichael Da m a sk in o s , o n e o f the m ost im portan t art is ts f ro m Irak lion in the second half o f th e 16th cen tu ry , chooses In pain t the sa in ts w ho se day was cclc b ra te d on th e d ay o f the victoiy. t r e a d in g o n a head le ss lion, which sym b o lized the T u rk ish lo u r · . A b o v e th e m , five figures in a clom l

— 1 9 2 —

ho ld pa lm b ran ch e s , sym boliz ing V ictory . In the ce n tre . C hris t is h o ld ing a b o o k with a G re e k tr a n s la ­t ion o f the w ord s P ax lib i M arce Evangelista m ens. N ext to him are M a rk , th e p a t ro n saint o f V en ice , a n d St. S y m e o n . w hose feast day was the d ay a f te r the b a t t le . T h e icon is typical o f the w o rk in which

D a m a s k in o s was in lh icnsed hy Io n t e m p o ra r y V e n e t ia n a r t , pai Iiculni lv tha t o f P ao lo V ero n ese .

Conservtuittn. E. Kar;iynnm Bibliography. Vokolopoulos 19,S3, pp 1HI1 pi. V I. 2. Affrcschi c iconc 19X6. no. *M. μ 14ft.

IV I V

66

M ich a e l D a m ask in os:S t. J o h n the B aptist

S eco n d h a lf o f the 16th cen tu ry 111.4X60.2 cm

Zakynthos. Museum

T h e w inged figure o f St. J o h n the B ap tis t is facing to the left; his right h an d is ra ised in a ges tu re o f speech a n d he is ad d ress ing C hris t , a tiny figure at th e to p left. His w ord s are w ri t ten in e le g a n t capita ls and with flawlessly a c c u ra te spelling on the long, u n ro l led scroll he is ho ld ing in his left h and : O PAC O lA ΠΛ- CXOYCIN... S igna tu re : ΧΕΙΡ ΜΙ­ΧΑΗ Λ TOY A AM ACKHNOY. T h e d e c a p i ta te d h e a d in a bowl at the b o t to m is a re fe ren ce to the festival o f th e In v en t io n o f the H e a d o f the B aptis t . In the b ack g ro u n d th e re are tw o rocky p innac les and the axe is lean ing aga ins t the foo t o f a tree at the b o t to m right. T h is is o n e o f the finest icons by D a m a sk in o s (w ho d ied in 1592). trad i t io na l in icon o ­g ra p h y an d style, r e m a rk a b le bo th for its sim ple co lo u r h a rm o n y , with g re e n , blue a n d b lue-grey , and for the prec is ion o f the d raw ing ; this can be seen in th e t r e a tm e n t o f the tall, a r is tocra t ic f igure with its expressive g e s tu res , a n d also in the gold w e b ­bing in the c lo th ing. E le m e n ts d e r iv ed by D a m a sk in o s from 15th- c e n tu ry C re ta n p a in t ing include in p a r t icu la r th e p e rspec t iv e t r e a tm e n t o f th e scroll, an d the m ou n ta in s , w hich a re rem in iscen t o f A ngelos ; th e m an n e r is t ic a r r a n g e m e n t o f the s ig n a tu re , w hich is ha lf h idden b eh in d a rock is typical o f his own p e r io d .

I Tv

Provenance. The Church of Ayios Spyridnn Flam bouriaris on Zakynthos (retrieved in 1953).Bibliography. D randakis 1962. pp. 12611 Babic-Chatzidakis 1983. p. 313. fij>. p. 360 (in English and French). Byzantine Art I9X(>, no 139. pp. 135-136. Affrcschi c iconc I9H6. no 95. pp. 147. 148.

Μ. O i

67

S t. J o h n the B aptist 16th cen tu ry104 .5 X 3 2 cm

C r e t e , I ru k l io n . C h u r c h o f S t . M a t th e w S in a i to n

I his iconog rap h ic type of St. Jo h n the Biiptist de r ives f ro m a m od e l d a t ­ing from the P a la eo lo g an pe r io d , which was also fo l low ed by the C r e ­tan p a in te rs o f th e 15th cen tu ry . T h e very tall figure o f the sa in t , p o r ­t rayed f ron ta l ly , is w ear ing a m e lo te ( sh eep sk in ) an d a h im a tion : his right ha n d is ra ised in b lessing , and in his left he ho lds an o p e n scroll a n d a long s ta ff th a t te rm in a te s in a cross. T h e fo r e sh o r te n in g o f th e left a rm in this icon is a charac te r is t ic o f the type . T h e add i t io n o f the wings, h o w ev e r , w hich a re no t fo u n d in the P a laeo lo g a n m o d e l a n d the absence o f the d e c a p i ta te d h ead on the g ro u n d , a re n ew fea tu re s . T h e style

an d th e m o de l l in g , in w hich the flesh is p a in ted o n a b row n u n d e rp a in t , an d the f r e e d o m with w hich th e v o l­u m e s a n d th e p ro m in e n t c h e e k ­b o n e s a re r e n d e r e d , a re fea tu re s tha t are also to be fo un d in the figure o f S ym e o n (cat . no 68), and suggest th a t th e icon shou ld be a t t r ib u te d to M ichael D a m a sk in o s . B o th icons have th e sam e d im en s ion s , an d seem to have co m e from th e sam e ico n ­ostasis.

Conservation. T . Moschos.Bibliography. B orboudakis 1971. p. 529. pi. 544γ. Byzantine A rt 1986, no. 141. pp. 137-138. Affrcschi c icone 1986. no. 96. pp. 147, 148.

Μ. B.

68

S y m eo n T h eo d o ch o s 16th cen tu ry

9 9 x 3 2 cmC r e te , I r a k l io n . C h u r c h o f St. M a t th e w

S in a i to n

T his rare scene o f S y m eon T h e o d o ­chos ( ‘R ec e iv e r o f G o d ') with the Chris t C hild in his a rm s is th o u g h t to be an a b b re v ia te d fo rm o f the P r e ­sen ta t io n in the T e m p le , and derives m ain ly f ro m th e m in ia tu re s in the m arg in s o f i l lum ina ted m anuscrip ts . T h e m a n n e r in w hich S ym eon is ho ld ing C h r is t , t o g e th e r with th e text on the scroll, a re des ig ned to focus th e w o rs h ip p e r ’s a t t e n t io n on the holy in fan t. T h e te c h n iq u e used in th e v e n e ra b le f igure o f S ym eon is tha t o f C re ta n p a in t ing , and the b rush w ork is r a th e r free ; it gives him a dis tinctly ind iv idua l , persona l qua l i ty , full o f s t r e n g th , which is in tensif ied by the p r o f o u n d , ref lec­tive gaze. T h e figure o f S y m eo n is

re la te d to th e figures o f aged bishops in the icon o f the First E cum en ica l C o un c il (1591) by M ichael D a m a s k i ­nos, a n d th e p lum p figure o f the y o u n g C h ris t is rem in iscen t o f Christ in this sam e icon, in the V ision o f S t . P e te r o f A le x a n d r ia . T h e icon ol S y m eo n m ay also be a t t r ib u te d to D a m a sk in o s . A fu r th e r fea turi c o m m o n to the two is th e realistic t r e a tm e n t o f the veins on the hands a n d te m p le s of the aged figures ol th e b ishops and o f S y m eo n , which ref lects the p a in te r 's exp e r ien ce o| Ita l ian art .

Conservation. T . Moschos.Bibliography. Borboudakis 1969. p. 527. pi Ρ Λ Δ \ Borboudakis 1971. p. 529. Borbomln kis 1985. no. 33. p. 137. Byzantine A rt I9H6, no. 142. p. 138. Affrcschi c icone 1986. no. 97. pp. 148. 149.

Μ 11

— 1 9 4 -

69

T rip tych E nd o f the 16th cen tury

2 0 x 2 8 c m (open) ; 2 0 x 1 5 c m (closed) A th en s . C i ty o f A th e n s M u s e u m

T h e c en tra l p an e l has a r e p r e s e n ­ta t ion o f the D e es is , with C hris t in the c e n t r e an d the Virgin and St. Jo h n the B ap tis t o n e i th e r side. A t the to p a re busts o f SS G e o rg e and D e m e tr iu s . E a c h o f the side leaves has tw o C h u rc h F a th e r s dep ic ted fron ta lly : St. G re g o ry the Theolo­gian an d St. Jo h n C h ry so s to m on the left, an d SS Basil and S pyridon on the right, a c c o m p an ied by busts of SS P e te r an d Paul respectively . T h e o u ts id e o f the tw o wings is d e c o ra te d w ith th e A n n u n c ia t io n . T h e p a in te r is clearly fo llow ing 15 th-century m o de ls . T h e m ain scene o f the D e e ­sis a n d th e f igures o f the C hu rch F a th e r s re sem b le tho se in the icon by N ik o la o s R itzo s in S a ra jev o . C hris t is ho ld ing an o p e n G o sp e l b o o k , and the Virgin and the B aptis t are s tan d in g in a t t i tu d e s o f p ray e r (B a b ic -C h a tz id ak is 1983. p. 321). T h e g a rm e n ts w o rn by th e C hu rch F a th e r s a lso fo l low m od e ls fro m the en d o f the 15th c e n tu ry (cf. B y za n ­tine A r t 1986. no. 133, A ffreschi e icone 1986, no . 78). T h e scene o f the A n n u n c ia t io n o n th e ou ts ide o f the w ings, h o w e v e r , has no a rch i tec tu ra l b a c k g ro u n d , a n d th e Virgin is sitting on an im p os in g w o o d e n th ro n e ; in b o th respec ts the com po s i t io n differs

7 0

T rip ty ch w ith to p o g ra p h ica l v iew o f M o u n t Sinai

F irst h a lf o f the 17th cen tu ry35X38 cm (open)

A th en s . I . Y a n n o u k o s Collection

T h e m os t s tr ik ing fe a tu re o f the tr ip tych is its unu su a l ca rved w o o d e n to p , w hich has a to po g rap h ic a l view o f M o u n t Sinai. O n the inside o f the th r e e pane ls a re th re e m in ia tu re scen es o f th e life o f Chris t: the T ra n s f ig u ra t io n in the ce n tre , with the R e su r r e c t io n an d the Crucifixion

l ' )S

f ro m th e usual early C re ta n icono g rap h y , and a lso from that used liv T h e o p h a n e s in th e 16th curriLPy (C h a tz id ak is (N .) 1983, no. 4Q C h a tz id ak is 1969-70, figs. 34, <iN). T h e v ig o rou s s tr ide o f the a rchange l an d the figure o f the Virgin se a led u p o n the th ro n e follow a m odel fo u n d in the well kno w n bil ingual. G re e k - I t a l i a n m a n u sc r ip t from the e n d o f th e 13th c en tu ry Par. gr. 51 (L a z a re v 1967, fig. 390).T h e sh a p e o f th e tr ip tych is similar to tw o la te r o n e s in th e Berlin M u seu m an d the B en ak i M u s e u m , A th e n s (E lb e r n 1979, no. 4, p. 16. Xyngo- p o u lo s 1936, no. 53, p. 76). ΓΙιι· o vera l l design w ith th e D ees is in Ihe cen tra l p an e l a n d th e sain ts on the s ide leaves is the sam e but the p re s e n t w o rk is o f a m uch bell i i qua l i ty , re f lec ted in the careful te c h n iq u e an d the polish ing o f ihe gold b a c k g ro u n d . T h e figures an· so lid , a n d th e i r express ions severe , th e m o d e l l in g co m p a c t , using pie d o m in a n t ly d a rk to n e s , anil ihe t r e a tm e n t o f the d ra p e ry is liaishei th an th a t in w o rk s from the end o f the 15th an d beg inn ing ol tl· 16th cen tu r ie s ; th e tr ip tych seem s th e r e fo re to have been pa in ted by it f ine ar t is t f rom the en d o f tin- loili c en tu ry .

Bibliography. Byzantine A il I'WC, ι,,ι | | pp. 142-143.

N l li

o n e i t h e r s i d e . T he s c e i iu o l ill· T r a n s f i g u r a t i o n is a c c o n i p .m i i ι i

t w o s e c o n d a r y e p i s o d e · , ',Ιιον,Ιιψ C h r i s t l e a d i n g h is p up i l · , lo M ount T h a b o r a n d f o l l o w i n g l l i e in ιι-, l ln \

d e p a r t . T h e a r l i . t wa< t l r i n l v m il t a t i n g a g o o d C r e t a n mini Ί ι| I In 1 5 th c e n t u r y llu- Μι «ιι κ·ι tlmi f o l l o w s th e i c o n o g n i p l m lyp· n | ,m i c o n in V e n i i v wllli I In a n :■ K h o l d i n g t in symbol·, o l l lu l ' , i»« lnn

a n d I h e a n g e l lit il ir l i o l l n n i > 11 .ι ιι ιι i ijf I l a d e s ; l l i e hiiiuc IV|n iippi'iii t in in i c o n by I m i m i n n r l I · i ih m i I

kyr;i (C h o re m is 1981. pi. 5). T h e Crucif ix ion follows the type widely e s tab l ished by th e C re ta n School in the 16th cen tu ry , w h ich can be seen in an icon in th e B e n a k i M u seu m a t t r ib u te d to N ik o lao s R itzos. In it the e n d s o f th e a rm s o f the cross are d raw n in p e rsp ec t iv e , an d th e re is a g ro u p o f fou r w o m e n on the right anil the grieving Jo h n with Long inus on the left. In the p re s e n t icon, ho w ev er , the walls o f Je ru sa le m in the b a c k g ro u n d sugges t a so m ew h a t la ter d a te .T h e o u ts ide o f th e p ane l with the R e su r rec t io n has a scene dep ic t ing th re e fo u n d e r s o f m onas t ic ism in E g y p t and P a les t in e , show n fron ta lly and full-length: SS A n th o n y , S a bb as and E u th y m io s . F inally , o n th e o u t ­side o f the t r ip tych a t th e back of the C rucif ix ion , th e f igu re o f St. C a th e ­rine can be d is t in gu ished , desp i te the d a m a g e , w ea r in g im peria l ro bes and re n d e re d in th e I t a lo -C re ta n type th a t b e cam e a sso c ia ted with the M o n a s te ry o f Sinai f ro m th e b e g in ­ning o f th e 17th c e n tu ry o n w ards (W e i tz m a n n 1982 (2) , p. 40). This last scene is also d irec tly co n n e c ted w ith th e re l ie f at th e to p o f the t r ip ­tych . w hich d ep ic ts M o u n t Sinai. In the c en tre o f it is a scene o f the b u r ­n ing bush , f ro m b eh in d w hich the angel is em e rg in g at the left, and c o m m a n d in g M o ses to take off his san da ls (E x o d u s 3 .5 ) , while at the right M o ses is kn ee l in g befo re his flock, in o rd e r to obey . A t the su m m it o f the m o u n ta in M o ses is sh o w n for a th ird t im e , receiving the T a b le s o f th e L aw f ro m the h an d of G o d . O n a low er p e a k , at the right, can be seen th e relic o f St. C a th e r in e b e tw e e n tw o ange ls , in the sam e form in w hich it w as p a in te d by M ichael D a m a sk in o s in the icon with the B u rn in g B ush in Irak l io n , C re te . Finally , the cave o f th e P ro p h e t Elias can be seen on the left, o n a third p e a k , b eh in d w hich rises the sun, c a rv ed in relief.T h e inclusion o f th e th r e e fo u n d ers o f m onas tic ism suggests th a t the tr ip tych was p ro b a b ly co nn ec te d with a m o n k . M o r e o v e r , th e d ep ic ­

tion o f St. C a th e r in e on the ou ts ide , and o f M o u n t Sinai at the to p leave no ro o m for d o u b t th a t the tr ip tych was c o n n e c te d with the M o n as te ry o f St. C a th e r in e on Sinai. This re la t io n sh ip fu r th e r accoun ts fo r th e choice o f th e T ran s f ig u ra t io n for the cen tra l pan e l .M o u n t Sinai m a k e s its first a p p e a ­ran ce in p a in t ing in the seco nd half o f the 16th c e n tu ry , o n e o f th e e a r ­liest e x a m p le s being th e fam o us tr ip tych by D o m e n ik o s T h e o t o k o ­p o u lo s in M o d e n a , d a te d to c. 1567 (W e th e y 1962, pi. 33). M o u n t Sinai is p a in te d in s im ilar fash ion in the large icon with St. C a th e r in e by Iere- m ias P a l ladas , w hich is d a te d to 1612 (W e i tz m a n n 1982 (2), pi. 52). T h e re thu s s e e m to be k no w n iconog rap h ic para l le ls fo r th e dep ic t ion o f Sinai. Its r a th e r u n u su a l ren d e r in g in relief, w hich is also to be fou nd on a n o th e r t r ip ty ch , in th e M o n as te ry o n Sinai, s igned by V ic to r an d d a te d to 1684 (C h a tz id ak is 1966 (2) , p. 56) is p r o b ­ably d u e to W e s te rn inf luences .T h e I t a lo -C re ta n type o f St. C a th e ­r ine , with th e m an n er is t ic tu rn o f the h e a d in the o p p o s i te d irec tion to that o f th e b o d y , the c loak with gold e m b r o id e r e d eagles , t r im m e d with e rm in e , an d th e lec t ionary with R e n a is san ce style d e c o ra t io n , r e n ­d e re d in go ld w e bb in g , is a lso to be e n c o u n te r e d in pa in t ings fro m thi beg in n in g o f th e 17th cen tu ry . Tin· sa in t 's r igh t h a n d , h o w ev e r , which is ra ised in f ro n t o f h e r b reas t , is mil h o ld ing a pa lm leaf , as in th e icon by P a l ladas , b u t follows the varia tion in the icons by V ic to r and by Silvestrn T h e o c h a r i s , o n Sinai and P a tm os. T h e se icon o g rap h ic fe a tu re s , com b in ed w ith th e archa iz ing C hris to logical scen es , suggest tha t llu tr ip tych sh ou ld be a t t r ib u te d lo ιι C re ta n ar t is t f rom the beg inn ing nl th e 17th c e n tu ry , and possibly In S ilves tros T h eo ch a r i s (attcsleil 1633-1638), o n e o f w hose tr ip tych1 (cat . no . 71) has a w ood-ca rv ed busi· sim ilar to th a t o f the p resen t w m k

Bibliography. Bouras 1985. pp. 62-6.1. A lin · chi e iconc 1986, no. 100. pp 150-152.

I u

— 1 % —

71

S ilv estro s T h eoch ar is: T rip ty ch in a p o rta b le a ltar

A ltar: seco n d h a lf o f the 15th cen tury T rip ty ch : first h a lf o f the

17th cen tu ry 5 5 x 5 7 .2 cm (open)

Athens. Private Collection

O n th e o u ts id e o f th e tw o wings of th e a l ta r can be seen fou r figures, q u i te bad ly d a m a g e d by use: those of K ing D av id a n d K ing S o lo m o n at the to p an d tw o o th e r p ro p h e t s , possibly E z ek ie l an d I sa iah , a t the b o t to m ; all f o u r ho ld o p e n scrolls . T h e inside of the tw o w ings a re d e c o ra te d w ith two p a r ts o f an A n n u n c ia t io n scene. T he p o s tu re s and the p ro p o r t io n s o f the tw o figures an d th e a rch i te c tu re in th e b ack g ro u n d b e a r obv io us re s e m ­b lances to the A n n u n c ia t io n on the f ram e o f th e icon by N ik o laos R itzos in S a ra je v o (B ab ic -C ha tz idak is 1983 p. 321). T h e co m b in a t io n o f the p ro p h e t s an d th e A n n u n c ia t io n on th e w ings o f the a l ta r recalls the d e c o ra t io n o f S an c tu a ry D o o rs , in w hich em p has is is laid on the ro le o f th e Virgin in th e In ca rn a t io n .T h e tr ip tych has a carv ed w o o d e n to p rem in iscen t o f an iconostasis cross, with m in ia tu re ' lyp ira ' and a w o o d -ca rv ed base . O rig inally two co lu m ns c o n n e c te d th is ca rved top w ith th e base , bu t these a re now missing. O n the ins ide , th e tr ip tych has a scene o f the D ees is , with C hr is t , in th e li turgical type p a r excellence o f the H ig h Pries t , f lanked by th e figures o f th e Virgin and St. J o h n th e B ap tis t . C h r is t is su p p o r ted on w hee ls o f fire a n d is enc irc led by the sym b o ls o f th e fo u r evangelists . T h e side wings have scenes o f the th re e C h u rc h F a th e r s , SS Basil, Jo hn C h ry so s to m a n d G re g o ry the T h e o ­logian (left) an d SS S p y r id o n , N ic h o ­las an d A rse n iu s th e G re a t (r ight) . T w o angels (in the form o f naked cup ids) a re ho ld ing an o p e n G ospe l b o o k ab o v e the h ead s o f the th ree C h u rc h F a th e r s , an d the c o r r e s p o n d ­

ing ang e ls ab o v e St. N icholas m e i> tu rn in g to h im his b is h o p ’s insignia th e G o sp e l b o o k an d o m n p h o n o n , an d a c row n . O n the back o f the Itfl leaf, th e apos t les P e te r and Paul are h o ld in g a m o d e l o f a d o m e d ch in c h , a b o v e w h ich can be seen the I Inly T r in i ty . F inally , the back o f the light w ing has th e m os t carefu lly exeeult>cl scene o f th e t r ip tych , with a dupit t ion th e T h e o to k o s - Z o o d o c h o s Pigi (F o u n ta in o f L ife) an d the signaling o f th e a r t is t at the b o t to m left: X ΓΊI· C Y A B E C T P O Y Ι Ε Ρ Ο ( M O N ) Λ Χ ( ) Y / T OY Θ ( Ε ) Ο Χ Α Ρ Ι . T h e o u te r surface o f the ph ia le is d e c o ra te d willi a l te rn a t in g A tla ses and l ion ’s head w a te rs p o u ts . T h e ph ia le rises from ιι r e c ta n g u la r c is te rn , to which flocked th e fa i th fu l - the de a f , the lam e, tin b lind , th e p a ra ly se d a n d the pos sessed , all o f th e m seek in g a mi racu lo us cu re (Pal las 1971, pp. 201-224). T h e ar t is t S ilvestros T h e n charis (a t te s t e d 1633-1638), w ho wns fa m o u s fo r his skill in m in ia tm e p a in t ing , w as a m o n k w ho set I lad ill I r ak l io n , C re te (K azan ak i J .appa 1981, pp . 177-267), and w ho was om· o f th e co nse rv a t ive pa in te rs ol III· first ha lf o f the 17th cen tu ry ( ( 'hiiltti d ak is 1977 (1) , p. 122). ΓΙι« ca ivcd w o o d e n base o f the t r ip tych , vvitli II· b a ro q u e vo lu te s , and its ca rved to p copy in g an iconostasis cross, nn a lm o st iden tica l with the cm veil d e c o ra t io n o f a n o th e r ex· cp tinnnll t well p re s e rv e d tr ip tych in the Mv/ini t ine M u s e u m , A th e n s (< h n l / ld i iU 11969. fig. 54). T h e faithful imiliillnii o f the iconostasis c ross , mid ll> d e c o ra t io n o f the a lta r will))·. m i l fi rm an ea r l ie r o b se rv a t ion by K W e i tz m a n n , that triptych*, w en Inin gical o b jec ts which had ffl my I . tu re s in c o m m o n with 11 if Ιι ηιιη«ι·ι«ίι (W e i tz m a n n l ‘W2 I I I |i V ■

a / i l l \ I m l t l i it M i l l * | · f i n i ■,. i m

< I l i l l M l l l l k l * ( N I Ι Ί Η Ι M i l I I I | I M i l .

cln i" i m n r I'JMti. nit / / |i|i I j | 1

I ll

197

72

C a rto o n o f th e R esu rrectio n 17th cen tu ry 4 1 .5 x 3 0 .5 cm

Athens. Benaki M useum. Xyngopoulos Collection, Φ 22.113Α

Pricked c a r to o n with th e R e s u r r e c ­tion im p r in ted in b lack and red and ac c o m p a n ie d by a p r ick ed copy. T h e p a p e r has a w a te rm a rk consisting of an e ig h t -p o in ted s ta r and a lily, with the in itials G P. T h e prick ing m ust have b e en d o n e w ith the aid o f a to o th e d w hee l. C hris t is show n in the cen tre o f the co m p o s i t io n b e tw e e n two g ro u p s o f ances to rs . H e is s tand ing firmly on th e b ro k e n ga tes o f H a d e s , ra is ing A d a m from a sa rcop hag us ; A d a m is fo l low ed by E v e , A be l an d o th e r s o f the r igh t­eous . T h e o th e r g ro u p is led by St. Jo h n the B ap tis t , fo l low ed by the p ro p h e ts D av id an d S o lo m o n , with o th e r kings b eh in d th e m . A t the to p , b e tw e en tw o c raggy m o u n ta in pea k s , a re angels ho ld ing the sym bols o f the Pass ion ; a th i rd angel at the b o t to m is cha in ing H ad e s . T h e s igna tu re ’Α θ α ν ά σ ιο ς can be seen at the b o t ­tom righ t, an d be low the tw o angels with the sym bols o f th e Passion is the reverse inscrip tion: Η ΑΓΙΑ TOY XI’ICTOY A N A IT A C IC .The ico no g rap hy is inspired by the ap o cryp ha l gospe l o f N ico dem u s (K a r tso n is 1986), an d has a n u m b e r o f P a laeo lo gan fe a tu re s , such as the large n u m b e r o f figures in the co m po s i t io n and th e angel chain ing H ad e s . T h e figure o f C hris t pull ing A d a m fro m th e sa rc op hag us , insp ired by the im peria l iconography o f late an t iq u i ty , sym bolizes the r e d e m p tio n o f m a n k in d (M ourik i 1985. p. 147). T h e tw o angels with the sym bols o f th e Pass ion , how ever , w ere a d d e d by th e C re ta n pa in te rs , an d first a p p e a r in the 15th cen tu ry (C h a tz id ak is (N .) 1983. no. 29. p. 38). T h e sam e ico n o g ra p h y can be seen in the tr ip tych with a t o p o g r a ­phical view o f M o u n t Sinai (cat . no.

70) f ro m th e b eg inn ing o f the 17th cen tu ry ; in an icon by E m m a n u e l T z a n e s (1610-1690) on K e rk y ra (C h o re m is 1981. pp. 2 2 1 f f .); an d in an in fe r io r 17th-cen tury icon in Paris ( le o n e s 1977, no. 17).T h is is th e bes t d raw n c a r to o n in the B e n a k i M u s e u m ; it follows the ins truc t ion s in the ‘P a in te r ’s M a n u a l ' by D io ny s iu s o f F o u rn a (cf. H e th e - r ing ton 1978, p. 5). T h e o u t l in es and de ta i ls o f the d ra p e ry are r e n d e re d in b lack , w hile the h ighlights are d ef in ed by red ou tl ines . T h e p ricked design was the w ork o f an acco m p lish e d d ra u g h tsm a n , th ou gh it has a ce r ta in stiffness. T h e s ig na ­tu re ’Α θ α ν ά σ ι ο ς occurs in ten o t h ­e r c a r to o n s in the sa m e B enak i M u s e u m por t fo l io w hich are not u n ifo rm in style. T w o of th e m re la te to w o rk s by T h e o d o ro s P ou lak is (1622-1692). It seem s likely th e r e ­fore th a t the draw ings are no e a r ­lier th a n the m idd le o f the 17th c e n ­tu ry , th o u g h th e only w ay in which this can be d e m o n s t r a te d beyonil d o u b t w ou ld involve the fu tu re id e n ­tifica tion o f th e w a te rm ark .

Conservation. J. Brown (1983).B ib lio g r a p h y . U n p u b l i s h e d .

L. U.

I 9 H -

73

C a rto o n o f the B ap tism o f C hrist 17th cen tu ry 42X 31.6 cm

Athens. Benaki M useum, Xyngopoulos Collection, Φ 22.88

P ricked d raw in g with the B ap tism of C hr is t im p r in te d in red an d black. T h e p a p e r has a w a te rm a rk with a b ird , an d tw o str ips have been a t ­ta c h e d at the b o t to m an d r igh t-hand s ide; on the reverse is a grid for t r a n s fe r r in g the co m p os i t ion on a d if fe ren t scale. T h e figure o f C hris t , in th r e e q u a r t e r s v iew , is tu rn e d to w a rd s St. Jo h n th e B ap tis t . D i re c t ­ly ab o v e C h ris t a re the d ove sy m b o l­izing the H o ly Spir i t , an d th e hand o f G o d em erg in g f rom a rad ian t circle. T h e scene is v iew ed from a b o v e , so th a t C h r is t 's bo dy is set ag a ins t the b ack g ro u n d o f the R iver J o rd a n . Fish sw im in the w a te rs o f th e r iver, an d in the fo r e g ro u n d can be seen th e person if ica t io ns o f the Sea an d the R iv e r Jo r d a n , inspired by Psalm 113 (114), 3. T h e Sea , with its back tu rn e d to the v iew er, is rid ing o n a sea m o n s te r , an d the R ive r Jo r d a n is ho ld ing an u p tu rn e d p i tch e r f rom w hich w a te r is flowing, fo llow ing a type e s tab l ish ed in the E ar ly C hr is t ian p e r io d (M ourik i1985, pp . 135-136). A s the rocky b an k s o f th e river con v e rg e , they end in tw o s teep pea k s . A t the left are fo u r an g e l-d e aco n s , set o n e beh in d th e o th e r w ith n o a t t e m p t at p e rs p e c ­tive. ex te n d in g th e i r h an d s , which a re co v e re d by th e i r h im a tia , to ­w a rd s C h r is t . St. J o h n the B aptis t s ta n d s ab ov e C hris t on the op po s i te b an k a n d , with a lively m o v e m e n t , is s to op in g to im po se his h an d on C h ris t 's h e a d , in a ges tu re signifying the transm iss ion o f the H oly Spir it (W a l te r 1980. p. 24). T h e axe le an ­ing agains t a bush below him is a r e fe ren ce to the biblical accoun t of the B ap t i sm (M a t th e w 3.10, L uk e 3.9).T h e ico n o g rap h ic type is know n

fro m the beg inn ing o f I ho I (>■ Ii c m tu ry o n w ard s in w ork s a l t i ib u lc d In the C re ta n p a in te r IhcoplmiH". (C h a tz id ak is 1969-70, pi. 37). Il also oc cu rs in an icon on th e Island in llie L a k e at Io a n n in a (T r ian tap h y l lo p o u los 1977, pi. 101), an d in a D odo k a o r to n icon on K e rk y ra allrihuti .i l to E m m a n u e l T z a n e s (1610 lo9(l) ( C h o re m is 1981, p. 220).T h is p r ick ed c a r to o n , which was o n ginally fo lded in to fo u r , was niiidi acco rd in g to th e ins truc t ions o f I >io nysius o f F o u rn a , like the prev ious o n e (cat . no . 72). D raw in gs like this fac i l i ta ted th e d issem in a tion Of lin ico n o g rap h ic ty p e , an d account foi its use w ith a lm os t im percep tib le v a r ia t io n s in w o rk s th a t must be til leas t a h u n d re d y ears apart .

Conservation. J. Brown (1983).Bibliography. U npublished.

i li

I W

MAP WITH THE PROVENANCE OF THE WORKS

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY ABBREVIATIONS

A A A Α ρ χ α ι ο λ ο γ ι κ ά Α ν ά λ ε κ τ α ε ξ Α θ η ν ώ νΑ Δ Α ρ χ α ι ο λ ο γ ι κ ό ν Δ ε λ τ ί ο νA E Α ρ χ α ι ο λ ο γ ι κ ή Ε φ η μ ε ρ ί ςΔ Χ Α Ε Δ ε λ τ ί ο ν τ η ς Χ ρ ι σ τ ι α ν ι κ ή ς Α ρ χ α ι ο λ ο γ ι κ ή ς Ε τ α ι ρ ε ί α ςΕ Ε Β Σ Ε π ε τ η ρ ί ς Ε τ α ι ρ ε ί α ς Β υ ζ α ν τ ι ν ώ ν Σ π ο υ δ ώ νΕ Ε Λ Μ Ε π ε τ η ρ ί ς Ε τ α ι ρ ε ί α ς Λ ε υ κ α δ ι κ ώ ν Μ ε λ ε τ ώ νθ η σ α υ ρ ί σ μ α τ α Θ η σ α υ ρ ί σ μ α τ α , Π ε ρ ι ο δ ι κ ό ν τ ο υ Ε λ λ η ν ι κ ο ύ Ι ν σ τ ι τ ο ύ τ ο υ

Β υ ζ α ν τ ι ν ώ ν κ α ι Μ ε τ α β υ ζ α ν τ ι ν ώ ν Σ π ο υ δ ώ νΚ ε ρ κ υ ρ . Χ ρ ο ν . Κ ε ρ κ υ ρ α ϊ κ ά Χ ρ ο ν ι κ άΚ λ η ρ ο ν ο μ ι ά Π ε ρ ι ο δ ι κ ό ν δ η μ ο σ ί ε υ μ α τ ο υ Π α τ ρ ι α ρ χ ι κ ο ύ Ι δ ρ ύ μ α τ ο ς

Π α τ ε ρ ι κ ώ ν Μ ε λ ε τ ώ νΚ ρ η τ . Χ ρ ο ν . Κ ρ η τ ι κ ά Χ ρ ο ν ι κ άΜ α κ ε δ ο ν ι κ ά Μ α κ ε δ ο ν ι κ ά , Σ ύ γ γ ρ α μ μ α π ε ρ ι ο δ ι κ ό ν τ η ς Ε τ α ι ρ ε ί α ς

Μ α κ ε δ ο ν ι κ ώ ν Σ π ο υ δ ώ νΝ Ε Ν έ ο ς Ε λ λ η ν ο μ ν ή μ ω νΠ Α Ε Π ρ α κ τ ι κ ά τ η ς ε ν Α θ ή ν α ι ς Α ρ χ α ι ο λ ο γ ι κ ή ς Ε τ α ι ρ ε ί α ς

A r t B A r t B u l le t inB C H B u l l e t i n d e C o r r e s p o n d e n c e H e l l e n i q u eC A C a h i e r s A r c h e o l o g i q u e sD O P D u m b a r t o n O a k s P a p e r sJ O B J a h r b u c h d e r O s te r r e i c h i s c h e n B y z a n t in i s t i kP K g P r o p y l a e n K u n s tg e s c h i c h t e

J. B E C K W IT H , E arly C hristian and Byzan­tine A rt. H arm ondsw orth 1970.

C A T A L O G U E E X H IB IT IO N . A ffrcschi c icone dalla G rccia (X-XV 1I secolo). A tcn e e F irenze, Palazzo Strozzi (16 Scttcm brc - 16 N ovcm brc 1986). A ten e 1986.

C A T A L O G U E E X H IB IT IO N , B yzantine and Post-B yzantine A rt, A th en s , O ld U ni­versity (July 26th 1985 - Jan u ary 6th 1986), A thens 1986.

M. C H A T Z ID A K IS . leones de Saint-G cor- gcs des G recs c t dc la C ollection dc l ln stitu t, Institu t G rcc de V en ice , Ncri Pozza-V enicc 1962.

M . C H A T Z ID A K IS - V D JU R IC , Les ico- nes d an s les C ollections Suisscs. B erne 1968.

M. C H A T Z ID A K IS . Icons o f Patm os. N a­tional B ank o f G reece , A thens 1985.

T H C H A T Z ID A K IS . E xhibition C ata logue , L 'art des icones cn C re te el dans les lies aprcs B yzancc. E uropalia G recc 1982. C harlero is. Palais des B eaux A rts , 3 O cto b re - 21 N ovcm ­brc 1982.

N. C H A T Z ID A K IS . E xhibition C ata logue. Icons o f the C retan School (15th - 16th cen tu ­ries). Bcnaki M useum . A thens 1983.

R. C O R M A C K . W riting in G old . London1985.

G . G A L A V A R IS . T he Icon in the Life o f the C hurch . Iconography o f Religions X X IV . 8. L eiden 1981.

A. G R A B A R . B yzantine Painting. G eneva1953.

P. H E T H E R IN G T O N . T h e P ain ter s M anual o f D ionysius o f F o u rn a , London 1978.

M A N G O . T he A rt o f the B yzantine E m pire 312-1453. N ew Jersey 1972.

A. P A P A G E O R G IO U . Exhibition C a ta ­logue. B yzantine Icons o f C yprus. Bcnaki M u­seum . A th en s 1976.

K. W E IT Z M A N N . T he M onastery o f Saint C a therine at M ount S inai. T he Icons, vol. I: I tom the Sixth to the T en th C en tu ry , P rince­ton 1976.

K W E IT Z M A N N . T he Icon. C h a tto and W indus, L ondon 1978.

K W E IT Z M A N N . M. C H A T Z ID A K IS . S. U A D O J ilC . Icons. New Y ork 1980.

K W E IT Z M A N N . G . A LI B E G AS VI L I . A . V O L S K A JA . M. C H A T Z ID A K IS . G . B A ­KU M. A L P A T O V . T . V O IN E S C U . The lin n . A lfred A. K nopf. New Y ork 1982.

A C H E IM A S T O U 1966 = Α χειμάστου M .. Α μ φ ιπ ρ ό σ ω π ες ε ικόνες της Ρόδου . Η εικόνα της Ο δ η γ ή τρ ια ς κ α ι του Α γ ίο υ Ν ικολά ου, Α Δ 21 (1966): Μ ελέτα ι. pp. 62-83.

A C H E IM A S T O U -P O T A M IA N O U 1973­74 = Α χε ιμ ά σ το υ -Π ο τα μ ιά νο υ Μ .. Β υ ζα ν­τ ιν ά . μεσα ΐίονικά κα ι νεώ τερ α μνημεία Η π ε ί­ρ ο υ . Α Δ 29 (1973-1974): Χ ρο ν ικά , pp. 609-614.

A C H E IM A S T O U -P O T A M IA N O U 1976 = Α χε ιμ ά σ το υ -Π ο τα μ ιά νο υ Μ .. Κ έντρο Σ υν- τηρή σεω ς Α ρ χα ιο τή τω ν . Α Δ 31 (1976): Χ ρο­ν ικ ά , pp. 14-20.

A C H E IM A S T O U -P O T A M IA N O U 1977 = Α χε ιμ ά σ το υ -Π ο τα μ ιά νο υ Μ .. Κ έντρο Συν- τηρή σ εω ς Α ρ χ α ιο τή τω ν , Α Δ 32 (1977): Χ ρ ο ­ν ικ ά , pp. 8-14.

A C H E IM A S T O U -P O T A M IA N O U 1987 (in p rin t) = Α χειμ ά σ το υ Π ο τα μ ιά νο υ Μ .. Η Κ οίμηση τη ς Θ εοτόκ ου σε δύο κρη τικές ε ικ ό νες τη ς Ken, Δ Χ Α Ε , περ . Δ - τ. ΙΓ '(1987) (in p rin t).

A FFR ESC H 1 Ε IC O N E 1986 = Exhibition C ata logue . A ffrcschi e iconc dalla G rccia (X -X V II seco lo ). A tene c F irenze, Palazzo Slrozzi (16 S cttcm brc - 16 N ovcm brc 1986), A ten e 1986.

A IN A L O V 1917 = A inalov D .. B yzantine Pain ting o f the F o urteen th C entury (in R us­sian ). P ctro g rad 1917.

A U F H A U S E R 1913 = A ufhauser B.J . Mi- racula S. G eorg ii. Leipzig 1913.

B A B IC 1968 = Babic G .. Les discussions C hristo log iqucs ct 1c deco r des eglises byzan- tins au XII sicclc. F ruhm ittclaltcrlichc S tu­dio n. Berlin 1968, pp. 368-386.

B A B IC -C H A T Z ID A K JS 1983 = Babic G -

C ha tz idak is M ., Le iconc della penisolu Mul canica c dcllc isolc G rcche (2). W eil/nuiim Κ .. A libegasvili G .. V olskaja A ., liable <i C hatz idak is M .. A lpatov M .. Voincseu I I ι iconc. M ilano 1983. pp. 305-371.

B A L T O Y A N N I 1984 = Μ π α λτογιά ννη Χμ Π α ρά στα ση Ε υαγγελ ισ μ ού κάτω ιι>ιή νεοιτερη επ ιζίογράψ η ση στο βημ όθυρο I Μ / το υ Β υ ζα ντ ιν ο ύ Μ ουσείου, Λ Α Λ XVIII (1984), pp. 43-72.

B A L T O Y A N N I 1985 = Μ π α λτογιά ννη \»ι Ε ικ ό νες. Συλλογή Δ ημ η τρ ίου Οικονομο>ιοι· λου . Α θ ή ν α 1985.

B A L T O Y A N N I 1986 (1) - Halloytuim t Ιι E xhibition C a ta logue , Icones ilc t oll· · linn· p rivecs en G rcce , A thcnes 1986

B A L T O Y A N N I 1986 (2) lialtoym tni < li Icons, D cm etrios E konom opoulos ( ollt i llmi A th en s 1986.

B A N K 1977 = Bank A .. I ‘a it hy/iiiiilii «I....les m usccs de l'U n ion S ovietism I ι itlniHHlhl1977.

B E L T IN G 1980-81 Belling II Λιι hinn and its F unction in the I ϊΐιιιμν Ihe Mnn "I Sorrow s in B yzantium . IX >1* M L | | 1 n 1981), pp. 1-16.

B E L T IN G 1981 Belting II Mu· M*l«l und sein Puhlikum im M illcliillei M iilln l ,J| I

B E R E N S O N 1968 IU h i i ,imi It Iitill.m P ictures o f the K enaissiiiut A Imi ι ·I Μι» |Hfli cipal artists and then w nil wllli nil III·li “ I p lates , vol. Il l ontlon MJliH

111 M IN I I') 1 ί Mil I Mil S I < |·«Ι I (M ill iconc c ie lese veinvliiiiii ι I iiiihIinun 1 1 Γ ■ ι ■ ■1933.

HI 1 I INI I'MII II· Mini IMllun · · ■

vcnczianc . slave ed italiane del M usco Nazio- nale di R avenna. R avenna 1940.

B IA N C O F IO R IN 1983 = B ianco Fiorin M ., Nicola Z afu ri. C rc tcsc del Q u a ttro ccn to . c una sua incd ita 'M ad o n n a '. A rte V cneta , X X X V II (1983). pp. 164-169.

B O R B O U D A K IS 1969 = Μ π ο ρ μ π ο υδά κ η ς Μ .. Β υ ζα ντ ιν ά κα ι μ εσ α ιω ν ικ ά μνημεία Κ ρήτη ς. Κ ρητ. Χ ρον. Κ Β ' (1969). pp. 521­528.

B O R B O U D A K IS 1971 Μ π ο ρ μ π ο υδά κ η ς Μ .. Μ εσ α ιω νικά μνημεία Κ ρήτης. Α Λ 26 (1971): Χ ρ ο ν ικ ά , pp. 520-533.

B O R B O U D A K IS 1973 - Μ π ο ρ μ π ο υ δά κ η ς Μ .. Β υ ζα ντ ιν ά κα ι μ εσ α ιω ν ικ ά μνημεία Κ ρήτη ς. Κ ρητ. Χ ρον. Κ Ι;' (1973), pp. 478­511.

B O R B O U D A K IS 1973-74 Μ π ορμ πουδά - κ η ς Μ ., β υ ζ α ν τ ιν ά κα ι μ εσ α ιω ν ικ ά μνημεία Κ ρήτη ς. Α Δ 29 (1973 1974): Χ ρο ν ικά , pp. 935-945.

B O R B O U D A K IS 1985 = Μ π ο ρ μ π ο υ δά κ η ς Μ .. Η μερολόγιο 1985. κοσμημένο με κρη τικές φ ο ρ η τές ε ικ ό νες , έχδ . Δ ήμου Η ρα κ λείου . Η ρ ά κ λ ειο Κ ρήτης 1985.

B O U G R A T 1982 B ougrat Μ .. L cg lisc S ain l-Jcan . prC sde K oudoum as. C re te . C A 30 (1982). pp. 147-174.

B O U R A S Μ π ούρα A .. Έ ν α τρ ίπ τ υ χ ο με ο ιν α ϊτ ικ ή ε ικ ο ν ο γ ρ α φ ία σε ιδκοτική συλλογή τω ν Α θη ν ώ ν. Π έμπτο σ υ μ πόσ ιο Β υ ζα ντινή ς κ α ι Μ ετα β υ ζα ντινή ς Α ρ χα ιο λ ο γ ία ς κ α ι Τ έχνη ς. I Ιερ ιλή ψ εις ανακοιν ιόοειον, θ ε σ ο α ­λονίκη 1985. pp. 62-63.

Β Υ Ζ Α Ν Τ ΙΝ Ε Α Κ Ι 1958 In h ib itio n C at- a loguc. H y/an tine A il , I d in b u ig h , Royal Scottish M useum . 1958.

B Y Z A N T IN E A R I 1964 1-xhihition ( at a logue, B yzantine A il, an I u to p ean A il . 9th Exhib ition o f the C ouncil ol I .u io p c . A lliens 1964.

B Y Z A N T IN E A R T 1986 In h ib itio n ( at a logue. B yzantine and Post H y/an lm e A it, A th en s , O ld U niversily (July 26th Junuary 6th 1986), A th en s 1986.

B Y Z A N T IN E F R E S C O E S 1976 I Exhi­b ition C ata logue , Β υ ζαντινές α> ιχογραφ ίες κ α ι ε ικ ό νες . Ε θν ική Π ινα κ οθή κ η (£ ιπ τ έ μ 6 ρ ιο ς-Δ εκ έμ β ρ ιο ς 1976), Α θή να 1976.

Β Υ Ζ Α Ν Τ ΙΝ Ε IC O N S 1976 - Exhibition C a ta lo g u e . B yzantine Icons of C yprus, Benaki M useum . A th en s 1976.

B Y Z A N T IN E G R E E K A N D R U SSIA N IC O N S 1979 = E xhibition C ata lo g u e . B yzan­tine G reek and Russian Icons (exhibition 18th A pril - 6 th A ugust 1979. T em ple G allery). London 1979.

C A R L I 1957 — Carli E .. Lcs prim itifs sicn- nois. Paris 1957.

C A T T A P A N 1973 = C a ttap a n Μ . I pittori A n d rea e Nicola R izo da C and ia , θ η σ α υ ρ ί- σ μ α τα 19 (1973). pp. 238-282.

CECC HI 1928 = C ccchi E .. T rccentisti Senesi. R om a 1928.

C l I A R A l .A M PO U S -M O U R IK I 1962-63 = Χ α ρ α λ ά μ π ο υ ς-Μ ο υ ρ ίκ η N .. Η π αράσ τασ η τη ς ‘Φ ιλοξενίας του Α β ρ α ά μ σε μ ια εικόνα του Β υζαντινοί» Μ ου σείου , Δ Χ Α Ε , περ . Δ - τ. Γ (1962-1963), pp . 87-1 14.

C H A T Z ID A K IS 1950 = Χ α τζη δά κ η ς Μ .. Ο Α ομήνικος θ ε ο τ ο κ ό π ο υ λ ο ς κ α ι η Κ ρητική ζ ιο γρα φ ικ ή . Κ ρητ. Χ ρον . Δ ' (1950). pp. 371-440.

C H A T Z ID A K IS 1953 = C hatz idakis Μ .. C o n trib u tio n a I’c tu d e de la pc in tu rc post- byzan tine . A th cn cs 1953.

C H A T Z ID A K IS 1956 = Χ α τζη δά κ η ς M ., Μ ετα β υ ζα ντινές το ιχ ο γ ρ α φ ίε ς στη Ζ ά κ υ νθ ο . Α ' μέρος. Ζ υ γ ό ς , Μ ά ρ τ ιο ς 1956.

C H A T Z ID A K IS 1960(1) = Χ α τζη δά κ η ς Μ ., Β υ ζα ντ ιν ές το ιχ ο γ ρ α φ ίε ς στον Ω ρω π ό , Δ Χ Α Ε , περ . Δ ' - τ. Α ' (1960), pp. 87-107.

C H A T Z ID A K IS 1960(2) = Χ α τζη δά κ η ς Μ .. Β υ ζα ντ ινό Μ ουσείο . Α Δ 16(1960): Χ ρονικά , pp. 1 1-13.

C H A T Z ID A K IS 1961 = Χ α τζη δά κ η ς Μ .. Δ ώ δ εκ α β υ ζα ν τ ιν έ ς ε ικ ό νες (έκδ. Ε μ πορ ική ς Τ ρ α π έζη ς Ε λλ ά δ ο ς). Α θ ή ν α ι 1961.

C H A T Z ID A K IS 1962 = C hatz idakis Μ ., leones de S ain t-G corges dcs G recs c t de la C ollection de I 'ln stitu t. Institu t G rec de V enice. N cri Pozza-V cnice 1962.

C H A T Z ID A K IS 1964-65 = Χ α τζη δά κ η ς Μ ., Ε ικ ό νες επ ισ τυ λ ίο υ α π ό το Ά γ ιο ν Ό ­ρ ο ς . Δ Χ Α Ε , π ερ . Δ ' - τ . Δ ' (1964-1965), pp.377-403.

C H A T Z ID A K IS 1965(1) = Χ α τζη δά κ η ς Μ . . Β υ ζα ντ ιν ό ν κα ι Χ ρ ισ τια ν ικ ό ν Μ ουοείον , Α Δ20 (1965): Χ ρ ο ν ικά , pp. 11-15.

C H A T Z ID A K IS 1965 (2) = C hatz idakis Μ .. Ikonen aus G ricch cn lan d . W eitzm ann Κ., C h a t/id ak is M ., M iatcv Κ ., R adojcic S., I riihc Ikonen , Sinai - G ricchcn land - Bulga- lien - Jugoslaw ien, W ien und M unchen 1965, pp. X X III-X X X X .

Cl 1A T Z ID A K IS 1966 (1) = Χ α τζη δά κ η ς M .. Β υ ζα ντ ιν ό ν κ α ι Χ ρ ισ τια ν ικ ό ν Μ ουσείον. Α Δ21 (1966): Χ ρ ο ν ικ ά , pp. 16-35.

C H A T Z ID A K IS 1966 (2) = Χ α τζη δά κ η ς Μ .. Τ α χυ δ ρ ό μ ο ς 24 .12-1966, p. 56.

C H A T Z ID A K IS 1967 = Χ α τζη δά κ η ς Μ .. Β υ ζα ντ ιν ό ν κ α ι Χ ρ ισ τ ια ν ικ ό ν Μ ουσείον. Α Δ22 (1967): Χ ρ ο ν ικ ά , pp. 16-33.

C H A T Z ID A K IS 1968 = C hatz idakis Μ .. C iricchcnland. PK g, Bd. 3. von W. F. V olbach und J. L afon ta ine-D osognc. Berlin 1968. pp.231-241.

C H A T Z ID A K IS -D JU R IC 1968 = C hatz ida­kis M - D juric V ., Lcs icones dans lcs Collec­tions Suisscs, B erne 1968.

C H A T Z ID A K IS 1969 = C hatzidakis M .. M uscc B yzantin d ’A th cn cs , Icones. Ed. A po llo , A thcncs 1969.

C H A T Z ID A K IS 1969-70 = C hatzidakis M .. R cchcrches sur le pein tre T heop h an e le C rc- tois. D O P 23-24 (1969-1970), pp. 309-352.

C H A T Z ID A K IS 1972(1) = Χ α τζη δά κ η ς M .. Π ερί Σ χο λή ς Κ ω νστα ντινουπόλεω ς ο λ ίγα , Α Δ 27 (1972): Μ ελέτα ι, pp. 121-137.

C H A T Z ID A K IS 1972 (2) = C hatzidakis Μ .. A spects de la pc in tu rc m uralc du X Ilie sicclc cn G recc . S tud ies in B yzantine A rt and A rchaeo logy . V ario rum R eprin ts, London1972, c h ap te r X III . pp. 59-73.

C H A T Z ID A K IS 1973 = C hatzidakis M . Ikonostas , R callcxikon zur B yzantinischcn K unst (1973), III . col. 343.

C H A T Z ID A K IS 1974 (1) = C hatz idakis M .. Lcs d eb u ts de I’ccolc crcto isc et la question de I’ccolc d itc ‘ita lo g rccq u c ', Μ νημόσυνον Σ ο ­φ ία ς Α ν τ ω ν ιά δ η . Β ενετία 1974. pp. 169-211.

C H A T Z ID A K IS 1974 (2) = C hatzidakis M .. Essai su r I’ecolc d itc ‘ita logrccquc ' prcccdc d ’unc n o te sur les rapports de 1‘a rt vcniticn avec l 'a rt c rcto is ju sq u ’a 15(K), V enezia e il L evan tc fino al secolo X V , F irenze 1974, pp. 69-124.

C H A T Z ID A K IS 1974(3) = Χ α τζη δά κ η ς M .. Β υ ζα ντ ιν ό Μ ουσείο , Τ α Ε λληνικά Μ ουσεία . Ε κδο τικ ή Α θ η ν ώ ν , Α θή να 1974.

C H A T Z ID A K IS 1974 (4) = C hatz idakis Μ.. C lassicism c c t tcndanccs populaircs au XIXe siccle. Lcs rcchcrches su r revo lu tio n du style, A ctes du X IV c C ongres In ternational des E tudes B yzantines (B ucarcst. 6-12 S eptem bre 1971). B ucarest 1974. pp. 153-188.

C H A T Z ID A K IS 1976 = C hatzidakis M . L 'cvo lu tion de l iconc au 1 lc-13e sicclcs et la transfo rm ation du tcm plon . X V e Congnis In ternational d 'E tu d c s B yzantines. R apporls ,III. A rt c t A rcheo log ic , A thcncs 1976. pp. 159-191.

C H A T Z ID A K IS 1977(1) = Χ α τζη δά κ η ς M . Ε ικ ό νες τη ς Π ά τμ ο υ . Ε θνική Τ ρ ά π εζα της Ε λλ ά δο ς, Α θ ή ν α 1977.

C H A T Z ID A K IS 1977 (2) = C hatzidakis Μ La pc in tu rc dcs *m adonncri’ ou ‘vcnctocrc toisc* c t sa d es tin a tio n , V enezia C en tro dl M cdiazionc tra O rien tc c O ccidente (sccoii X V -X V I). A spetti c p roblcm i. A tti del II C onvcgno In ternaz iona le di Storia della C ivilta V cncz iana (1973). II. F irenze 1977 pp. 675-690.

C H A T Z ID A K IS 1977-79 = Χ α τζη δά κ η ς M Ν εώ τερα γ ια την ισ το ρ ία κα ι την τέχνη· 11 | Μ η τρόπ ολη ς του Μ υστρά . Δ Χ Α Ε , περ , Λ τ. 0 ' (1977-1979). pp. 143-175.

C H A T Z ID A K IS 1979 (1) = C hatzidakis Μ L 'cvo lu tion de I'iconc au llc -1 3 e si£clcs el I it transform ation du tcm plon. A ctes du XVi1 C ongres In te rn a tio n a l d 'E tu d cs Byzanlltl· » A th cn cs (S ep tem bre 1976). I. Athene?» 19/9 pp. 333-366.

C H A T Z ID A K IS 1979 (2) = C hatzidakis M

— 2 0 2 —

W eitzm ann Κ .. R adojc ic S .. Le g r a n d livrc dcs icones, A gcnce I n t e r n a t i o n a l e d ' e d i t i o n . Paris 1979.

C H A T Z ID A K IS 1981 = C hatz idak is M .. M yslra . E k d o lik c A lh inon . A thens 1981.

C H A T Z ID A K IS (T h .) 1981= C hatz idak is T h ., P rdsenccs classiqucs dans lcs m osaiqucs dc H osios L oukas. X V I In tc rn a tio n a lc r B yzan tin istcnkongrcss. A k ten . 11/5. JO B 32/5 (1982). pp. 101-109.

C H A T Z ID A K IS (T h .) 1982 = C hatz idakis T h .. E xh ib ition C a ta lo g u e . L 'a rt dcs icones cn C re te e t dans les lies ap rcs Byzance, E uropa- lia G recc 1982. C ha rlc ro is Palais dcs Beaux A rts . 30 O cto b rc - 21 N ovcm brc 1982.

C H A T Z ID A K IS (N .) 1983= C hatz idak is N .. Exhibition C ata logue , Icons o f the C retan School (15th- 16th cen tu ries). B enaki M u­seum . A th en s 1983.

C H A T Z ID A K IS-B A B IC 1983 = C hatz idakis M. - B abic G .. Le iconc della Penisola Bal- canica c dcllc isolc G rechc (1 ). W eitzm ann Κ .. A libegasvili G ., V olskaja A .. Babic G .. C hatz idak is M .. A lpatov M ., V oincscu T .. Le iconc. M ilano 1983, pp. 129-199-

C IIA T Z IN IK O L A O U 1966 = Χ α τζη ν ικο - λ ά ο υ A . , Β υ ζα ντ ιν ά κ α ι μ εσ α ιω ν ικ ά μνημεία Η π ε ίρ ο υ . Α Δ 21 (1966): Χ ρο ν ικά , pp. 295-298.

C H O R E M IS 1981 = Χ ω ρέμης Α .. Νέο ει- κ ο ν ο γρ α φ ικ ό του Τ ζά νε στην Κ έρκυρα , Κ ερκυρ. Χ ρον. 25 (1981), pp. 217-227.

C O R M A C K -M I M A L A R IA S 1984 = C or mack R. - M ihalarias S .. A C ru sad er Painting o f St. G eo rg e : m anicra g rcca ' o r ‘lingua fran ca’? . B urlington M agazine. 126 (M arch 1984). pp . 132-141.

C O R M A C K -M I H A L A R IA S 1986 = C or- m ack R. - M ihalarias S .. Tw o Icons M ore o r Less B yzantine, A pollo . July 1986. C X X IV (1986). pp . 6-10.

C Z E R W E N K A P A P A D O P O U L O S 1984 = C zcrw cnka-P apadopou los Κ ., E inc W iener Ikonc aus dcm U m krcis des A ndreas R itzos, Β υ ζά ντ ιο ς . Festschrift fur H erb ert H unger, W ien 1984, pp . 203-212.

D A L T O N 1901 = D alton M .O ., C ata logue of I arly C hristian A ntiqu ities and O b jects from the C hristian E ast in the British M useum , London 1901.

D A L T O N 1909 = D alton M .O .. A Byzantine Panel in the British M useum , B urlington M agazine. 14 (Jan u ary 1909). pp. 230-236.

I )A L TO N 1911 = D alton M .O ., Byzantine Ail and A rchaeo logy , O xford 1911.

D A L T O N 1925 = D alton M .O .. East i hrisiian A rt, O xford 1925.

I >1 1 A G A R D E 1882 = D c L agarde P ., loan- III*» E uchaito rum m ctropo litac quae supe r­mini . C ottigac 1882.

Ml L E IIA Y E 1909 = D clchayc H . Les Ic-

gendcs g rccqucs dcs Saints m ilitaircs. Paris1909.

D E L IV O R R IA S 1980 = Δ ελ η β ο ρ ρ ιά ς A ., Ο δ η γό ς του Μ ουσείου Μ πενά κη , Α θή να1980.

D E M U S = D em us Ο .. T he M osaics o f N o r­m an Sicily, L ondon 1949.

D E M U S 1975 = D em us O ., T he Style o f the K ariye D jam i and its Place in the D evel­o p m en t o f P alacologan A rt, T he Kariye D jam i. 4. E d. P .A . U nderw ood . Princeton 1975. pp. 109-160.

DJURIC!? 1961 = D juric J .V ., Fresqucs m cdicvalcs a C h ilan d ar, A ctcs du X lle Con- grcs In te rn a tio n a l d 'E tu d cs Byzantines (O h rid e , 10-16 S ep tem b re 1961), III . Beograd 1964, p p . 59-98.

D JU R IC 1979 = Dj uric J .V ., La pcin tu rc m urale B yzantine , A ctcs du XVc Congres In ternational d 'E tu d c s B yzantines (A th cn cs. S ep tem bre 1976). A th cn cs 1979. vol. 1, pp. 159-252.

D R A N D A K IS 1962 = Δ ρ α ν δ ά κ η ς B .N ., O Ε μ μ α νου ή λ Τ ζά νε Μ π ό υ ν ια λ ή ς, θεω ρούμ ε­νο ς εξ ε ικ ό νω ν του σω ζομ ένω ν κ υ ρ ίω ς εν Β ενετ ία . Ε ν Α θ ή ν α ις 1962.

D R A N D A K IS 1969 = Δ ρ α ν δ ά κ η ς Β .Ν .. Ε ικ ο ν ο γ ρ α φ ία τω ν Τ ρ ιώ ν Ιερα ρχώ ν. Ιω ά ν­ν ιν α 1969.

E L B E R N 1979 = E lbern V ., D as Ikonen- kab inctt d c r F ruhchristlich-B yzantinischcn Sam m lung in d c r S kulp tu rcnga le ric B erlin , B ilderhcft d c r S taatlichcn M usecn Prcus- sischer K ultu rbcsitz-B crlin . H eft 34/35, B er­lin 1979.

E L G R E C O E X H IB IT IO N 1986, Exhibition C a ta lo g u e . El G rcco , T okyo 1986.

E M B IR IC O S 1967 = E m biricos A ., L ’ccolc crc to isc . D crn ic re phase de la pc in tu rc byzan- tin c . Paris 1967.

E X H IB IT IO N F O R T H E C E N T E N A R Y O F C h .A .E . 1984 = E xhibition C ata logue, Ε κθεση γ ια τα 100 χ ρ ό ν ια τη ς Χ ρ ισ τιαν ικής

Α ρ χα ιο λ ο γ ικ ή ς Ε τα ιρ ε ία ς (1884-1894), Β υ ζα ντ ιν ό κ α ι Χ ρ ισ τια ν ικ ό Μ ουσείο Α θ η ­νώ ν (6 Ο κ τω β ρ ίο υ 1984 - 30 Ιουνίου 1985), Α θ ή ν α 1984.

F E L IC E T T I-L IE B E N F E L S 1956 = Fclicctti- L icbenfcls W ., G cschichtc d e r byzantinischcn Ikonenm alcre i, O ltcn -L ausannc 1956.

FIN E IC O N S 1980 = C ata logue of Fine Icons. S o theby’s. 18th D cccm ber 1980, L ondon.

G A R IS S O N 1949 = G arisson E .B ., Italian R om anesque Panel P ain ting , F lorence 1949.

G R A B A R 1975 = G rab a r A ., Lcs im ages de la V icrge dc T cndrcssc - T ype iconographiquc ct them e, a p ropos de deux iconcs a D ecani, Z ographc 6 (1975), pp. 25-30.

H A D E R M A N N -M IS G U IC II 1975 = H ader- m ann-M isguich L .. K urbinovo, Lcs fresqucs

dc S ain t-G corges et la pc in tu ie hy/itiiMm ilti X II si6clc. B ruxelles 1975,

H A D E R M A N N -M IS G U IC I! 198 U I Uni. i m ann-M isguich L , Pclagonitissa »i k a itllo tissa: V arian tcs ex trem es du lype Virtu» th T cndrcssc , Byzantion LIII (I9H3), |»|‘ ,J I*1

IIE T H E R IN G T O N 197H - I lelltc i ............ I*The P a in te r 's M anual o f D ionysius ol I ouuiti L ondon 1978.

H O R S E S O F SAN M A R C O 19/9 | Oil bition C ata logue , T he H orses «>1 Sun M a n n V cnise, R oyal A cadem y of A its . I omltm M ilan t979.

IC O N E S 1975 = Icones g rccqucs el 111·. i G a le ric N iko lcnko , Paris 1975.

IC O N E S 1977 = Icones g rccqucs el iu , . G a le ric N iko lcnko , R ecklinghausen 1 9 //

IK O N E N 1981 = Ikoncnm uscum Uei k linghauscn , 6 A usgabc 1981. Reckhn^haiisi n 1981.

IO A N N O U 1959 = Ιω άννου Α Β υ ζα ν ιιν ι . το ιχ ο γ ρ α φ ίε ς τη ς Ε ύ β ο ια ς , Α A /xhiok τρ ίτο υ κ α ι δ έκα το υ τέτα ρτου ακ ίινα , Α θήνα 1959.

K A F T A L 1978 = Kaftal G .. Icono^wnpli ν ol the Sain ts in the Painting o f N orth I nsl lluly Sain ts in Italian A rt. Florence 1978

K A L O K Y R IS 1973 = K alokyris ( I In B yzantine W all-paintings o f C re te . New Yoik1973.

K A R A M A N 1932 = K aram an I . Noli sin Part byzantin ct les Slaves C a thohqm s dt li D a lm atic , L ’art B yzantin c h e / les Shiv· R cccuil dcd ic a la me m oire de I lu 'o tlon U spen sk ij, II. Paris 1932. pp. 332 '80

K A R T S O N IS 1986 = K arlsonis D A All·· tasis. T he M aking o f an Image, l*i im ·* 11 n« New Jersey 1986.

Κ Α Ζ Α Ν Α Κ Ι 1974 = Κ αζανάκι] Μ I hmM|σ ια σ τική ξυ λογλυ πτικ ή σ ι ο ΧιινδοΜ..........17ο α ιώ ν α , θ η σ α υ ρ ίσ μ α τα II ( | 9 / | ] |·|· 251-283.

K A Z A N A K I-L A P P A 1981 K oi.ovoio)Α ά π π α Μ .. Ο ι ζω γρ ά φ ο ι του ,\« ιν δ ο μ........ ο ιτο 17ο α κ ό να . Θ η σ α υ ρ ίσ μ α ια |Μ (|9Μ |) |·|ΐ177-267.

K O N O M O S 1966 Κ ονόμο Ν· II ■ ■■ σ τ ια ν ική τέχνη στην K n |o > o v io M hpo 1966.

K O N O M O S 1979 Κ ονόμο Νι ■θος . Κ α οτρόλοφ ος χοι Α ιγ ιο ιλ ο . \ Ι ■·■ 1979.

K O U T E L A K IS 19ΚΙ Κ ο ο ιιλ ο - . | Μ . Τ ή νο ς . Ιστορ ία Ι ϊχ ν η Α ρ χ α ιο λ ό γ ο M hp j1981.

K RI I DI ΡΑ ΡΑ ΙΧ )|·( )U | I >S |9 /Η \ t nil P apadopou los Κ D u ΙΚοιι«ίι im I tin i h istorischen M useum in Wh n ImIiiI·««· li i K unslh islorisehcn Simmthmjii ti in W h n ■■ i I ''Tii! pp Ci | \.\

KRI I DI Ι Ά Ι Ά Ι K H*( M i| i I*. |<ii«lini

- 2 0 3 —

I C O N O G R A P H I C A L IN D E X

A d o ra tio n o f the M agi. nos. 62a. 63. 64 A gony in the G ard en , no. 22 A k ra T apeinosis. cf. C hrist A n d rew , apostle , no. 53 A ngels , nos. 5, 21. 54A n n e , S t.. with the V irgin, nos. 31, 34, 36A n n u n c ia tio n , nos. 6, 12, 39, 48. 53, 71A n th o n y , S t., no. 70A po stle s , no . 21A rch ippos, m onk. no. 51A rscn ius the G re a t, S t.. no. 71A scension , nos. 5, 62B acchus, no. 65B aptism , nos. 12, 73Basil. S t.. nos. 17, 48, 71B etrayal, ntj. 22Birth o f the V irgin, no. 23C a th e rin e , S t., no. 70C hrist, nos. 6, 7, 15, 16, 28, 33, 36, 45, 46, 56,

64, 68; A k ra T apeinosis , nos. 8, 20. 27, 44, 61; E m m anuel, no. 2; E n th ro n ed , no. 33: High Priest, no. 71; P an to cra to r, nos. 14, 26; W isdom o f G o d , no. 20; Z oodotis , no. 20

C hrist and the Sam aritan W om an, no. 49 C hurch F a th e r , no. 4 C rucifix ion , nos. 21. 64, 70 D am ian , S i ., no. 2 D avid , p ro p h e t, nos, 39. 53. 71 D eesis. nos. 57, 71 D em etriu s, S t.. nos. 14, 37. 3H. (ill D escen t from the C ross, no. 6 D orm ition o f llphra im the Syrian , no. 47· D orm ition o f Si. Sahhas, no. 47 D orm ition o f the V irgin, nos. 10. 23, 29. 62,

63E m bracing o f P eter and Paul. no. 43 E n try in to Je rusa lem , nos. 29. 50 E up los, anonym ous D eaeon . no. 3 E u thym ios, S t.. no. 70 F an o u rio s, nos. 32, 37, 38 F lagellation , no. 22 F rancis, S t., o f A ssisi, no. 46 G ab rie l, archangel, no. 41 G eo rg e , S t.. nos. 9. 19, 32, 38. 59 G regory the T heo log ian . S t.. nos. 17. 71 H oly T rin ity , nos. 36. 54 H osp ita lity o f A b ra h a m . no, 54 Isa iah , no. 53Jo h n the B aptis t, S t.. nos. 1 1. 66, 67 Jo h n C hrysostom . S i., nos. 17, 71 Jo h n D am askinos. hym nographer no. 23 Jo h n the T heo log ian . S t., no. 39 Jo sep h , hym nographer. no . 23 Jo sep h . S t., no. 64 Ju s tin a , S t., no . 65 K osm as. S t., no. 2K osm as. M aioum a. hym nographer. no. 23Last S upper, no. 22M arin a . S t . . no. 31M ark , evangelist and Saint, no . 65M eeting o f Joach im and A n n e . no. 23M clism os, no. 6

M ichael, a rch an g e l, nos. 41. 51 M iracle at C ho n ae . no. 51 M oses, p ro p h e t, no. 70 N ativity, nos. 12. 23. 30 N icholas. S t., nos. 17, 18. 25. 55, 56, 57, 71;

w ilh scenes o f his life and m iracles, nos. 56, 57

Noli Me T an g e re . no. 58 Paul, apostle and S ain t, nos. 6. 71 P e te r, apostle and S ain t, nos. 6, 16. 71 P ie ta , no. 45P resen ta tio n in the T em p le , nos. 29, 68; P res­

en ta tio n o f the Virgin in the T em ple , no.23

Procession lo C alvary , no. 22 R aising o f L azarus, nos. 7. 28. 29 R esu rrec tion , nos. 70, 72 S abbas, St . no. 70 S arah , no. 54 S o lom on, K ing. no. 71 Sergius, no. 65Seven S leepers o f E phesos, no. 52 Spina rio, no. 50 S pyridon . S t.. no . 71 S tephen , d eacon , no. 43 Sym eon , S t., no. 65 Sym eon T hco d o ch o s, nos. 67. 68 T h eo d o re the T iro , S t., no. 32 T h eo d o le , S t.. no. 2 T heop lum es. hym no g rap h er. no. 23 Three C hurch F a th e rs , no. 17

T ran sfig u ra tio n , nos. 7. 12, 45, 70 Virgin, nos, 6, 27. 36, 45. 56; and C hild , nos.

13, 42, 43; I Icousa, no. 41; G a te o f E ze­kiel, no. 53; G lykophilousa , no. 40; Ho- d cg e iria . nos. 8, 13, 15, 18. 24; K ardio- lissa. nos. 34. 35; M adre della Consola- z io n c , nos. 42, 43, 46; P la ty lera , no. 6; o f the Passion, nos. 35, 40; Virgin blessed by llie P riests, no. 23

Vision o f St. P e te r o f A lexandria , no. 68 W ashing o f the F ee t, no. 22

IN D E X O F N A M E S

A eschylus, p. 32A k o tan to s A ngelos, p. 48. no. 57A lex an d er the G re a t, p. 32A ngelos, nos. 32, 33, 35, 3 6 ,3 7 , 38, 43, 59, 66A n g cv in s , p. 47A risto tle , pp . 31. 32A ugustus, p. 31B arrozi, p. 47B arto lo di F rcdd i. no. 64Basil 1, p. 34Basil 11. nos. 51. 52Basil o f C a esa rea , pp. 32. 37Bellini G iovanni, no. 45C harlem agne, p. 37C’hon ia tes N icetas, p. 46C lem ent o f A lexandria , p. 32C om nenus A lexius, p. 33C onstan tine the G re a t, pp. 31, 36Cyril o f A lexandria , p. 32

D am ask inos M ichael, pp. 50, 53, 55, nos. 64,65, 66, 67. 68

D ando lo F r., D oge, no. 45 D an d o lo , p. 47 D em o sth en es, p. 31D ionysius o f F o u rn a . pp. 44, 54, nos. 72. 73E u phrosynos, p. 50G em istos P le thon , p. 32G erm an u s, S t., p. 38G hisi, p. 47G reg o ry , o f N azianzus, pp. 32, 34H ero d o tu s , p. 32H o m er, pp . 31, 33Jo h n , a rchb ishop , no. 20Jo h n , C hrysostom , p. 32Jo h n , o f D am ascus, pp. 36, 37, 38, 39Justin ian , p. 33K lontzas. no. 62K lontzas G eorg ios, pp. 50, 53. no . 62 K ontoglou Photios, p. 39 L am b ard o s E m m anuel, no. 64 L am boud ios . no. 41 L am boud is M attha ios, no. 41 L am boud is N ikolaos. no. 41 L eo I II . p. 35L im ogallos A ndreas, no. 53 L o rcn zc tti A m brogio , no. 49 L ucian , p. 32, no. 63 M antegna A n d rea , no. 53 M avropous loann is, nos. 17. 32 M engenos loann is, no. 35 N ikephoros, p. 36 O rsin i, p. 47 P alladas Ierem ias, no. 70 Pavias A n d reas , pp. 49, 52. no. 45 Pericles, p. 32 Phocas. p. 48 P isane llo . no . 30 P la to , pp . 32, 34 P lo tinus, p. 34 P lusiad inos, nos. 36, 53 P oulak is T h eo d o ro s . p. 55 , no. 72 P roc lus, p. 32 P seu d o b o n a v en tu ra , no. 53 Q u erin i. p. 47R itzos A n d re a s , pp. 49, 52, 56, nos. 23. 33.

36, 38, 39, 41. 56, 57, 62 R itzos N iko laos, p. 49. nos. 43. 53, 71 S anud i, p. 47 S ophocles, p. 31 S trab o , no. 63T h eo ch aris S ilvcstros, nos. 70, 71 T h eo d o re S t., the S tud ite . p. 36 T h eo p h an es. nos. 44, 72 T h eo to k o p o u lo s D om enikos (El G reco ), pp.

50. 53, 56, nos. 62, 62a, 63 T occh i, p. 47, no . 5 T ra ja n , p. 31T zafouris N ikolaos, p. 49. nos. 42, 43, 44, 45.

46, 49T zan es E m m an u e l, nos. 33, 34, 35. 36, 46, 72T zan k aro la s S tephanos, no. 32U lp ius the R om an , p. 44V enez iano L orenzo , no. 43V enezia no P ao lo , nos. 45. 59V en ie r . p. 47V ero n ese P ao lo , p. 50. no. 65 V ic to r, nos. 46, 70

- 2 0 6 —