Formal and Informal Language-Cambridge Dictionary

8/18/2019 Formal and Informal Language-Cambridge Dictionary

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Formal and informal language

from English Grammar Today

We use formal language in situations that are serious or that involve people wedon’t know well. Informal language is more commonly used in situations that aremore relaxed and involve people we know well.

Formal language is more common when we write; informal language is morecommon when we speak. However, there are times where writing can e veryinformal, for example, when writing postcards or letters to friends, emails or textmessages. !here are also examples where spoken "nglish can e very formal, forexample, in a speech or a lecture. #ost uses of "nglish are neutral; that is, theyare neither formal nor informal.

Formal language and informal language are associated with particular choices of

grammar and voca ulary.$ontractions, relative clauses without a relative pronoun and ellipsis are morecommon in informal language.

Compare

She has decided to accept the job.

formal

She’s decided to accept the job .informal% She’s &contraction

Compare

The girl whom I met inSingapore was interested inworking in Australia.

formal

The girl I met in Singapore wasinterested in working in

Australia.

informal% relative clausewithout the relativepronoun whom

Compare

We went to Barcelona for theweekend. We have a lot ofthings to tell ou.

Formal

Went to Barcelona for theweekend. !ots to tell ou.

Informal% ellipsis 'more likelyto e written or texted thanspoken(

#ore formal voca ulary commonly involves longer words or words with origins in)atin and *reek. #ore informal voca ulary commonly involves shorter words, orwords with origins in +nglo -axon. #ost dictionaries indicate very informal and orformal words.


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formal informal

commence start

terminate end

endeavour tryWe often choose to use certain modal ver s to e more formal and polite%

Can I suggest ou tr this new model" 'neutral(

May I suggest ou tr this new model" 'more formal(

Might I suggest ou tr this new model" 'very formal(

-ee also%

ContractionsEllipsis

Speech into writing

Politeness

'/Formal and informal language0 from "nglish *rammar !oday 1 $am ridge2niversity 3ress.(

$ontractions


We use contractions ' I’m# we’re ( in everyday speech and informal writing.$ontractions, which are sometimes called 4short forms’, commonly com ine apronoun or noun and a ver , or a ver and not , in a shorter form. $ontractionsare usually not appropriate in formal writing.

We make contractions with auxiliary ver s, and also with be and have when theyare not auxiliary ver s. When we make a contraction, we commonly put anapostrophe in place of a missing letter.

!he following are the most common contractions.

Contractions with I, you , he , she , it , we , and they

’m & am ' I’m (

’re & are ' ou’re# we’re# the ’re (

’s & is and has ' he’s# she’s# it’s (

’ve & have ' ’ve# ou’ve# we’ve# the ’ve (

’ll & will ' I’ll# ou’ll# he’ll# she’ll# it’ll# we’ll# the ’ll (

http://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/contractionshttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/ellipsishttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/speech-into-writinghttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/politenesshttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/ellipsishttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/speech-into-writinghttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/politenesshttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/contractions


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What’s happened" & What has happened"

We don’t use more than one contraction%

&e’s not free.

6ot% he’sn’t free.

We don’t use a8rmative contractions at the end of clauses%

!

I think we’re lost .

"!

)es# I think we are .

6ot% I think we’re

However, we do use negative contractions at the end of clauses and we docommonly use contractions in tag 7uestions%

!

)ou’ve contacted %an# haven’t ou"

"!

(o# I haven’t .

In 7uestion forms, am not is contracted to aren’t %

I’m getting a pa rise# aren’t I"

6ot% amn’t I9

-ee also%

postrophe #$%

Let , let’s

It’s or its &

Spelling

Tags

'/$ontractions0 from "nglish *rammar !oday 1 $am ridge 2niversity 3ress.(

"llipsis


http://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/apostrophehttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/let-let-shttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/let-let-shttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/let-let-shttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/it-s-or-itshttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/it-s-or-itshttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/it-s-or-itshttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/it-s-or-itshttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/spellinghttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/tagshttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/apostrophehttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/let-let-shttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/it-s-or-itshttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/spellinghttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/tags


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"llipsis happens when we leave out 'in other words, when we don’t use( itemswhich we would normally expect to use in a sentence if we followed thegrammatical rules. !he following examples show ellipsis. !he items left out are in

rackets : %

I am absolutel sure *that+ I have met her somewhere before.

!

:&ave ou Seen m gloves an where"

"!

The ’re in the kitchen .

She sang and *she+ pla ed the violin at the same time.

!: Are )ou read et"

"!

)es . : I’m ,ead now . : I’m Sorr to keep ou waiting .

In fact, when we use ellipsis appropriately, no one thinks we have 4left out’anything, and ellipsis is normal and very common, especially in informalconversation.

Textual ellipsis

When we can easily understand everything in the sentence ecause of thesurrounding text, we use textual ellipsis. For example, we know that certain ver sand ad


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-o ou want to sta in or *do ou want to+ go out tonight"

We can also leave out the complement of a ver when it is o vious what thecomplement is%

!

Wh don’t the move to a bigger place"

"!

The don’t want to : move to a bigger place . The ’re happ where the are .

!

&ave more co'ee .

"!

I’d better not : have more co'ee . I won’t be able to sleep later .

-ee also%

Clauses! coordinated

Situational ellipsis

Sub'ect pronouns

When we do not need to mention someone or something ecause it is o viousfrom the immediate situation, we use situational ellipsis. -ituational ellipsis oftenmeans we do not need to use the su


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There’s something wrong with the car. *It+ Started making a funn noise on thewa home.

Sub'ects and auxiliary verbs

In informal conversation, we can leave out oth a su


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*)ou+ Wrote to the local newspaper# did you " 3ood idea.

!

&e was asked to leave the room .

"!

)es . : &e -idn’t like it , did he "

!

(o. &e wasn’t at all happ .

!

4at and 2ath certainl had a long break from work .

"!

)eah . : The Went awa for a month , didn’t they "

rticles

In informal conversation, we can sometimes omit articles ' a5an# the ( when theyare o vious from the context and when we use them at the eginning of asentence%

*The+ -og wants to go out. 2an ou open the door for him"

!

What are ou looking for"

"!

: A 4en. 2an ou see one an where"

*The+ 4ostman’s just been. There’s a letter for ou.

*ixed expressions

We often leave out the =rst word of a =xed expression in informal conversationecause we know the listener will understand the expression%

I’d love to go with ou. *The+ Trouble is # I’ve got to work on Saturda this week.

I can’t read that. I’m *as+ blind as a bat without m glasses.

Substitution

-u stitution is similar to ellipsis in many ways, ecause oth ena le the speakerto reduce what they are saying. "llipsis is simply leaving something out that is

usually o vious. -u stitution involves using words suchas do and so and not instead of a clause.


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Compare

ellipsis su stitution

!

She could sleep in thestud on the sofa .

"!

)es# she could : sleep inthe stud on the sofa .

The 2hairman threatened toresign# and he 1nall did so in6778. ' did so & resigned (

!

Will ou have anothercake"

"!

I’d better not : haveanother cake . I’msupposed to be on a diet .

!

Is 2harlie coming too"

"!

I hope not . There’s onl enoughfood for three . ' not & $harlie isn’tcoming(

-ee also%

Substitution

'/"llipsis0 from "nglish *rammar !oday 1 $am ridge 2niversity 3ress.(-peech into writing


>oth speech and writing can e formal or informal. Whether language is formal orinformal depends on who our readers and listeners are, for what purpose we usethe language and the situation in which we use it. For example, an o8cial noticewould e written in formal "nglish, whereas the same information would e morecommonly written informally y an individual in a less pu lic situation%

2ustomers are reminded that parking is not permitted in front of this entrance.Thank ou.

4lease don’t park in front of this gate. Thanks.

+ lot of writing these days is informal. $ommon examples of such writing areemails, text messages, advertisements, postcards, notes and a lot of thelanguage used in internet discourse. Informal writing creates a direct dialoguewith the reader.

-ome maga?ines and newspapers also include a lot of informal writing. Informalwriting contains forms which are more commonly found in speaking, such as

http://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/substitutionhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/substitution


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Excuse me # I’m looking for 2athedral Street.

6ot% Where’s $athedral -treet9

In formal contexts when we don’t know people and we want to show respect, weuse titles such as $r < family name, $s < family name, sir# madam# doctor =-r>#

professor =4rof.> %

:checking out at a hotel reception desk

!

&ere’s our credit card , Mr Watts. &ave a safe trip .

"!

Thank ou .

:at a restaurant

Shall I take our coat# Madam "

:emailing a professor that you dont know

-ear Pro . ?insella ;

6ot% Hi Cohn D

-ee also%

-ames and titles! addressing people

Politeness! ma ing what we say less direct

When we speak and write, we usually try not to e too direct. !here are a num erof ways in which we can do this.

Softening words #hedges%

We can use softening words or hedges to make what we say softer.

Comparesofter more direct

It’s kind o cold in here# isn’t it" Could we close thewindow"

It’s cold in here. !et’s close thewindow.

Could you !ust turn theradio down a little, please "

Turn down the radio. '!heimperative is very direct whenused in re7uests.(

)our pla ing could possiblybe improved.

)ou must improve our pla ing.)ou need to spend more time

http://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/names-and-titles-addressing-peoplehttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/names-and-titles-addressing-people


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Might I ask if ou are related to $rs Bowdon" 'rather formal and more polite lessdirect than $a I ask ;" (

$ould ou follow me# please# sir" 'more polite less direct than Will ou follow me;" (

$ould ou mind moving our car# please"

!

Could ou take a look at m laptop" It’s taking so long to start up .

"!

Well I’ll certainly take a look. Is there a possibility that it might have a virus"

!

Well# the anti@virus is supposed to be up to date .

)ou are likely to feel stressed before our e/am. 'less direct than )ou will feelstressed before our e/am .(

-ee also%

1odality! introduction

1odal expressions with be

Please and thank you

.e)uests

Changing tenses and verb forms

-ometimes we use a past ver form when we refer to present time, in order to emore polite or less direct. We often do this with ver s such as hope# think#want and wonder . !he ver may e in the past simple, or, for extra politeness, inthe past continuous%

!

Where’s the ke to the back door"

"!

I was hoping ou had it . 'less direct than I hope ou have it .(

I thought ou might want to rest for a while since it’s been a long da .

I wanted to ask ou a uestion.

http://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/modality-introductionhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/behttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/behttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/please-and-thank-youhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/please-and-thank-youhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/please-and-thank-youhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/requestshttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/modality-introductionhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/behttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/please-and-thank-youhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/requests


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I am ha#ing problems with m internet connection and I was !ust wondering if ou could tell me how to 1/ it. 'less direct and forceful than I have a problemwith m internet connection and I wonder if ou could tell me how to 1/ it .(

2arning!

In formal contexts, we sometimes use past forms in 7uestions, invitations andre7uests in the present so as to sound more polite%

%id ou want another co'ee"

I thought ou might like some help.

We were rather hoping that ou would sta with us.

In shops and other service situations, servers often use past ver forms to epolite%

ssistant!

What was the name please"

Customer!

4err # 4@9@,@,@) .

ssistant!

%id ou need an help# madam"

Customer!

(o# thanks. I’m just looking .

-ee also%

Past verb forms referring to the present

I and politeness

In speaking, we often use if followed y will# would# can or could to introduce a

polite re7uest%

I we can move on to the ne/t point for discussion. 'more polite than 2an wemove on ; (

I I could just sa one more thing ; 'more polite than !isten to me# I want to sasomething .(

I ou will follow me# please. 'more polite than 0ollow me# please .(

We use other expressions with if to express politeness% if ou don’t mind# if it’s

:? with ou# if I ma sa so# if it’ll help %I you don’t mind # I think I need that cup of tea.

http://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/past-verb-forms-referring-to-the-presenthttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/past-verb-forms-referring-to-the-present


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I’ll sta here# i it’s &' with you .

Two3step )uestions

In speaking, we sometimes ask two 7uestions rather than one so as to e lessdirect. !he =rst 7uestion is an introduction for the listener and the second oneasks a more speci=c 7uestion%

!

-o ou like sport" I mean , do ou pla sport"

"!

)eah. I pla basketball. I’m on the school team .

!he =rst 7uestion introduces the topic of sport; the second one asks a more

speci=c 7uestion a out it. !he listener answers the second 7uestion.We sometimes use es@no 7uestions one after the other%

!

Is this your pen(

"!

)es# that’s mine .

!%o you mind i I borrow it or a minute(

"!

(ot at all .

!his is less direct than asking 2an I borrow this pen" as a 7uestion on its own.

-ee also%

(uestions! two3step )uestions4sing names

We can make what we say more polite and less direct y using a person’s name%

What’s the time# )ohn " 'less direct than What’s the time" (

I’m not sure I agree with ou# Liam . 'less direct than I’m not sure I agree with ou .(

-ee also%


http://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/questions-two-step-questionshttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/names-and-titles-addressing-peoplehttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/questions-two-step-questionshttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/names-and-titles-addressing-people


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Politeness! what is impolite&

>eing direct is impolite so we need to e careful when using direct forms.

The imperative form

In most contexts, the imperative is very direct and is usually impolite when usedoutside of family and friends%

:in a cafE

*ive me a co ee.

4olite form 2ould I have a co'ee# please"

:asking the time

!ell me the time.

4olite form Would ou mind telling me the time# please"

However, it is accepta le to use an imperative in warnings, o ers, writtenre7uests and when giving directions or instructions%

Mind our step

*a#e another co'ee.

Turn left once ou get past the cinema. Then take a right along a narrow road ;

To stop in an emergenc # press this button.

-ee also%

5mperatives as o6ers and invitations

5mperative clauses # +e uiet- %

Telling the time

2arnings

4sing titles inappropriately

We use titles efore names, for example $r :akle # -r $orrison %

:in a letter or email to 3rofessor Harry #urray

4olite form title < famil name -ear 4rof. $urra

6ot% Gear 3rof. Harry

-ee also%


http://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/imperative-clauses-be-quiethttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/imperative-clauses-be-quiethttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/imperative-clauses-be-quiethttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/imperative-clauses-be-quiethttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/timehttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/warningshttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/names-and-titles-addressing-peoplehttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/imperative-clauses-be-quiethttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/imperative-clauses-be-quiethttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/timehttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/warningshttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/names-and-titles-addressing-people


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4sing very familiar terms of address inappropriately

When people know each other very well, for example, couples or very closefriends, parents and their children, they may address each other using termssuch as love# hone # darling# pet . In certain dialects, you may also hear people

use these terms in shops and cafEs, for example. It is impolite to use these termsin formal contexts%

:in an interview

Where do you come from, love9

:in a restaurant

#r ane, pet, your ta le is ready.

-ee also%

Sexist language

'/3oliteness0 from "nglish *rammar !oday 1 $am ridge 2niversity 3ress.(

+postrophe '’(


postrophe to show two words have been connected #contraction%

We sometimes connect two words to make one shorter word. We use anapostrophe to show that we have left out one or more letters%

do not C don’t The don’t like salt in their food.

it is C it’s It’s a long wa to walk.

is not C isn’t Isn’t that such a prett dress"

ou have C ou’ve .ou’#e broken m watch

cannot C can’t We can’t tell our father.

will not C won’t She won’t eat an vegetables.

wh@word < ’s# ’d ,etc.

$hat’s he doing" $ho’d like someco'ee"

2arning!

We use ’s for has and is %

She ’s seen that movie alread . 'has(

&e ’s m brother. 'is(

2arning!

http://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/sexist-languagehttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/sexist-language


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We use ’d for had and would %

The ’d never been to %apan before. 'had(

She ’d love to live in the DSA. 'would(

-ee also%

Contractions

postrophe 7 s to show possession

When we show who owns something or has a close relationship with something,we use an apostrophe 5 s after the name or the noun. When the noun is plural,we put the apostrophe after the s %

Is that /rank’s camera"

There was a big teachers’ conference last week in $e/ico 2it . 'a conference forteachers(

-ee also%

Possession # )ohn’s car , a riend o mine %

postrophe with time

We can use an apostrophe 5 s to show duration. When the time noun is plural,the apostrophe comes after the s %

0or me# writing an essa involves at least an hour’s work.

It was just ten minutes’ walk from m house to m oEce. 'the walk from myhouse to my o8ce takes


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Possession # )ohn’s car , a riend o mine %

Possessive ’s

Possessives with o

Punctuation

'/+postrophe '’(0 from "nglish *rammar !oday 1 $am ridge 2niversity 3ress.(

!et , let’s


Let ! permission

We use let to talk a out permission. !et is followed y an o


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Let there be no doubt about it. 'impersonal(

!here are two negative forms of let’s %let’s not and don’t let’s . !et’s not is morecommon%

Let’s not argue about mone . We can share the costs.

%on’t let’s throw awa the good books with the damaged ones. We can sellthem.

We can use the full forms let us# let us not and do not let us in very formalsituations such as political documents and speeches, and religious and otherceremonies%

Let us remember all those who have died in this terrible con ict.

We must forgive# but let us not forget# what happened on that da ten ears

ago.

%o not let us deceive ourselves that our economic problems can be easilsolved.

-ee also%

"llow , permit or let &

5mperative clauses # +e uiet- %

O6ers

Suggestions

Let meaning 8rent$

We use let with a direct o


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:talking a out a famous +merican # becoming its editor@in@chief andeventuall its principal owner =F8K6LFM7N>.

We don’t use its as a possessive pronoun.

Compare

!

Whose isthis ball"

"!

$ine .

3ossessive pronoun mine used alone.

!

Whose isthis ball"

"!

The dog’s .

6ot% Its.

3ossessive determiner its is not used alone. Werepeat the noun which is eing referred to.

-ee also%

Pronouns! possessive # my , mine , your , yours , etc9%

'/It’s or its 90 from "nglish *rammar !oday 1 $am ridge 2niversity 3ress.(

-pelling


Words in "nglish are not always spelled as they are pronounced. -pelling in"nglish follows some asic rules and the maritish "nglish ut also covers some asic di erences inspelling etween >ritish and +merican "nglish.

Spelling! pre:xes

When there is a pre=x, we do not normally add or take away more letters%

dis < obe C disobe mis < spell C misspell

http://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/pronouns-possessive-my-mine-your-yours-etchttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/pronouns-possessive-my-mine-your-yours-etchttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/pronouns-possessive-my-mine-your-yours-etchttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/pronouns-possessive-my-mine-your-yours-etchttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/pronouns-possessive-my-mine-your-yours-etchttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/pronouns-possessive-my-mine-your-yours-etchttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/pronouns-possessive-my-mine-your-yours-etchttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/pronouns-possessive-my-mine-your-yours-etchttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/pronouns-possessive-my-mine-your-yours-etchttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/pronouns-possessive-my-mine-your-yours-etc


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dis < satis1ed C dissatis1ed over < hear C overhear

in < humane C inhumanesuper < human Csuperhuman

in < sane C insane un < natural C unnatural

inter < national Cinternational

un < sure C unsure

mis < rule C misrule under < pass C underpass

Pre:xes il0, im0 , ir0

We commonly change the pre=x in@ to il@# im@ or ir@ when the =rst letter of a wordis l# m# p , or r .

in ecomes il@ ef ore l

in ecomes im@ eforem or p

in ecomes ir@ ef ore r

il legible

il literate

il logical

im moral

im mature

im possible

ir relevant

ir responsible

ir replaceable

Spelling and plurals

!here are rules for the plurals of regular nouns and the s forms of regular ver s.

!he general rule is add s %bring C bring s da C da s ear C ear s smile C smile s speak Cspeak s town C town s

If the ending is pronounced as 4ch’ 5tO5 or 4s’ 5s5 , we add @es 5PH5 %

noun plurals ver @s forms

bu s C bus es cross C cross es

church C church es fetch C fetch es

kiss C kiss es guess C guess es

If a word ends in an e , we add an s %

bas e C base s fac e C face s judg e C judge s los e C lose s

If the word ends in a consonant plus , we change to i and add es %

noun plurals ver @s forms

bab C bab ies marr C marr ies

opportunit C opportunit ies repl C repl iesWe add @es to some words ending in o %


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noun plurals noun plurals ver @s forms

tomato C tomato es echo C echo es

cargo C cargo es embargo C embargo es

hero C hero es go C go es ' go :n & attempt (However, some words ending in o only re7uire s %videos# discos# pianos# memos#

photos .

For some nouns ending in @f or @fe, we form the plural y changing the @f or @fe to @ves %

loaf C loa #es shelf C shel #es thief C thie #es wife C wi #es

-ee also%

*orming the plural of nouns

Spelling! doubling consonants

We often dou le the =nal consonant of a word ' b# d# g# l# m# n# p# r# t ( when asu8x eginning with a vowel is added ' @ed# @er# @est# @ing(%

hop < @ed C ho pped slim < @ing C sli mming

red < @ish C re ddish thin < @er C thi nner

rub < @ed C ru bbed travel< @er C trave ller

sit < @ing C si tting wet < @er C we tter

When we add a su8x to a word with more than one sylla le, we dou le theconsonant only when the word ends in a stressed sylla le 'the stressed sylla le of the ase form is in old(%

ad mit < @ing C admi tting pre er < @ed C prefe rred

for get < @ing C forge tting trans mit < @ed C transmi tted

oc cur < @ence C occu rrence up set < @ing C upse tting

$ompare, however, visit or enter where the spoken stress is on the =rst sylla le%

#is it C visi ting en ter C enter ed

6ot% visitting 6ot% enterred

6ote too that in each case the vowel efore the last consonant is a short vowel.

2arning!

We don’t dou le the =nal consonant efore a su8x%

A if the word ends in two written consonants, e.g. e/po rt Q e/ported# 1 nd1 1nding# insi st 1 insisted# li t Q lifted# persi st Q persistence

http://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/nouns-formhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/nouns-form


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realistic C realisticall

tragic C tragicall

2arning!

>2!% publicl

Changing 3 y to 3 i

When we add a su8x to a word ending in a consonant 5 , we normally change to i%

amplif < @er C amplif i er happ < @l C happ i l

bus < @ness C bus i ness hurr < @s C hurr i es

da < @l C da i l purif < @cation C purif i cation

eas < @l C eas i l repl < @ed C repl i ed

fur < @ous C fur i ous sp < @s C sp i es

2arning!

-ome words with one sylla le keep the efore a su8x% dr ness# sh ness#sl ness .

We keep @ efore @ing stud ing# worr ing .

We keep @ efore ’s %the ’s wings# And ’s house .We usually keep the in most words that end in a vowel 5 %

bu C bu er

destro C destro s

2arning!

>2!% da M dail

Spelling! ie or ei &If in dou t a out ie or ei , when the sound of the vowel is as in brief 5i 5 , we spellit ie ; ut after the letter c , we spell it ei %

ie ei after c

ach ie ve c ei ling

bel ie f conc ei t

d ie sel dec ei ve

n ie ce rec ei pt


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rel ie ve perc ei ve

Words in which has changed to i end in ies even after a c%

emergenc C emergencies

bureaucrac C bureaucracies

2arning!

In most words that do not have the pronunciation 5i 5 as in brief , the usual orderis e efore i, e.g. neighbour , leisure# height ; friend , ancient ,science are commonexceptions.

Spelling and verb forms

Past and 0ed forms

!he past and @ed forms are the same in regular ver s. !he following are thespelling rules for regular ver s.

We add @ed to the ase form of the ver %

clean C clean ed echo C echo ed email C email ed sail C sail ed

If the word ends in @e, we add d to the ase form of the ver %

agree C agree d dine C dine d love C love d

If the word ends in a consonant 5 , we change the to i efore @ed%appl C appl i ed cr C cr i ed

!here are three common exceptions, where we change the to i after a voweland ut if the word ends in @ee, e , or @oe, we keep the e %

agree C agre e ing d e C d e ing 'compare% die5d ing ( see C se e ing

If the word ends in ie , we change the i to and we drop the e efore ing %

die M d y ing lie C l y ing tie M t y ing


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ddition of :nal 3 e to indicate long vowel

We use a =nal silent e to indicate that the stressed vowel is long%

long vowel short vowel

hate# fate hat# fat

theme# impede them# fed

dine# bite din# bit

2arning!

!here are some common exceptions%

come have none there

done live 'as a ver ( one were

give love some where

gone

"ritish and merican English Spelling

Here are some common di erences etween >ritish and +merican "nglishspelling. + good learner’s dictionary will give information a out other spellingdi erences%

>ritish "nglish +merican "nglish

anal se anal He

aeroplane airplane

centre center

che ue ' ank( check

colour color

criticise criticiHe

defence defense

labour labor

neighbour neighbor

programme program

theatre theater

'/-pelling0 from "nglish *rammar !oday 1 $am ridge 2niversity 3ress.(

!ags



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Tags! uses

!ags are either 7uestions, statements or imperatives added to a clause to invite aresponse from the listener%

!

)ou’re a musician , aren’t you "

"!

Well# es# but I’m just an amateur .

!

She can’t swim , can she "

"!

(o. Apparentl she never learnt as a child .

-onna pla s football# doesn’t she "

&e was our teacher# was he "

!

4ass me that 2- , will you "

"!

:passes the $G

!

Thanks .

Tags! form

!ags consist of one of the auxiliary ver s be# do or have , or the main ver be , or amodal ver , plus a su


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main clausebe# do# have ,modal

su


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:main clause )ou’ re %oe’s cousin# :tag are ou"

She got the email# did she(

We can use type B tags when we do not know if the answer is es or no . !heintonation is usually a rising tone%

!

$aureen li#es in &amden , does s U he 9 '!he speaker wants to know if #aureenlives in Hamden or not.(

"!

)es# She does. She was born there in fact .

!

)ou’ re a graphic designer , are Uou 9

"!

(o# not actuall a designer# but I work with graphics .

!

:h# right .

5mperative tags

+ tag after an imperative clause softens the imperative a little. !he tag ver ismost commonly will ut we can also use would# could# can and won’t %

Turn the TV down# will you "

-on’t shout# will you " I can hear ou perfectl well.

2ome here a minute# can you(

+fter the imperative with let’s , we can use shall in the tag%

Let’s have some lunch now# shall we(Statement tags

We can use a statement tag to emphasise or reinforce an a8rmative statement. !he tag is also a8rmative. !hey typically invite the listener to agree orsympathise in some way, or to o er a parallel comment. -tatement tags are veryinformal%

!

I’m bored with this# I am . 'stronger than I’m bored with this (

"!


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$e too .

!

$ $aths teacher was lovel . &e was a great teacher# he was .

"!

&m# ou were luck . $ine wasn’t so good .

When the main clause has a pronoun su


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!he following words and phrases are commonly used as su stitutes%

=a> little each less one=s (

another either man other=s (

all enough much several

an few neither some

both half none

!

There’s this card with a clown on it and this one with a monke . Which do outhink $ark would prefer"

"!

I think he’d like either .

!

-oes she have a lot of friends at work"

"!

(o# not one .

Substituting with do

We use do# do so# do it# do the same to su stitute for a ver and whateveraccompanies it 'complement(%

!

We alwa s have toast and co'ee in the morning .

"!

We do too. I can’t function without breakfast . ' -o su stitutes for have toast andco'ee in the morning .(

-ee also%

%o as a substitute verb

Substituting with so

We can use so as a su stitute in a num er of ways% for an ad


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4o as a substitute form

4o am I , so do I , 5either do I

Substitution for nouns

&ne , some , ones

We mostly use one and some5ones to su stitute for counta le nouns%

She tried to get a ticket but she couldn’t get one . '-he couldn’t get a ticket.(

!

Is there a bookshop around here"

"!

There are two second@hand ones at the end of the street on the right .

Where there is nothing efore or after ones , some or an are used as a pluralsu stitute%

!

&ave either of ou got an one pound coins for this machine"

"!

!et me see# I’ve de1nitel got some .

C!

I’m afraid I don’t have any .

6ot% )et me see, I’ve de=nitely got ones.

6ot% I’m afraid I don’t have ones.

-ee also%

"ny

&ne

4ome

4ome and any

5nde:nite )uantifying pronouns # little, all, both, neither %

We can use inde=nite 7uantifying pronouns such as =a> little# all# both# man #much# neither# few to su stitute for noun phrases%

http://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/sohttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/sohttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/sohttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/sohttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/sohttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/sohttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/sohttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/anyhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/onehttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/somehttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/some-and-anyhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/some-and-anyhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/some-and-anyhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/sohttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/sohttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/anyhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/onehttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/somehttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/some-and-any


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&undreds of people went to the village festival and all seemed to enjothemselves ver much.

-ee also%

Pronouns

+eterminers used as pronouns

That , those

We can use that and those as su stitutes meaning 4the one's(’ in more formalcontexts%

The water for the factor was that from the local reservoir.

The books he read were those which he found in the old librar .

In formal contexts, especially in academic style, we use that of5those of %

The head has a similar shape and siHe to that o a mammal.

-ee also%

This , that , these , those

'/-u stitution0 from "nglish *rammar !oday 1 $am ridge 2niversity 3ress.(

Giscourse markers ' so# right# oka (


Giscourse markers are words or phrases like an wa # right# oka # as I sa # tobegin with . We use them to connect, organise and manage what we say or writeor to express attitude%

:friends are talking

!

4o , I’ve decided I’m going to go to the bank and ask for a car loan .

"!

That sounds like a good idea .

C!

$ell , ou need a car .

"!

6ight .

!

http://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/pronounshttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/determiners-used-as-pronounshttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/this-that-these-thosehttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/this-that-these-thosehttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/this-that-these-thosehttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/this-that-these-thosehttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/this-that-these-thosehttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/this-that-these-thosehttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/this-that-these-thosehttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/pronounshttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/determiners-used-as-pronounshttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/this-that-these-those


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"nyway , I was wondering if either of ou would teach me how to drive .

!he discourse markers in this extract have a num er of uses% so marks theeginning of a new part of the conversation.

well marks a change in the focus 'from getting a car loan to needing a car(.

right marks a response '> is agreeing with $(.

an wa marks a shift in topic 'from uying a new car to having driving lessons(.

We use di erent discourse markers in speaking and writing. In speaking, thefollowing discourse markers are very common%

an wa like right ou know

1ne now so I mean

good oh well as I sa

great oka mind ou for a start

In writing, the following discourse markers are common%

1rstl in addition moreover on the other hand

secondl in conclusion on the one hand to begin with

thirdl in sum

Giscourse markers do not always have meanings that you will =nd in yourdictionary. However, they do have certain functions, and some discourse markers,such as well , can have a num er of functions.

-ee also%

"ctual and actually

Like

Look

Mind

&kay , &'

$ell

+iscourse mar ers that organise what we say

-ome discourse markers are used to start and to end conversations. -ome areused to start new topics or to change topics.

Starting a conversation or tal

!

http://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/actual-and-actuallyhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/actual-and-actuallyhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/actual-and-actuallyhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/actual-and-actuallyhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/likehttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/lookhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/mindhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/okay-okhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/okay-okhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/okay-okhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/wellhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/actual-and-actuallyhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/likehttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/lookhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/mindhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/okay-okhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/well


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4o

&kay , &'

Changing or managing a topic

!

We went to town to bu wallpaper to match the carpet .

"!

-id ou tr ?eanes" The have a sale .

!

We looked there# but %im said he thought it was too e/pensive and he didn’t likean of their designs .

"!

What does he like"

!

&e likes geometric shapes. &e hates owers . "nyway , we eventuall found somethat we both liked and when we went to pa for it# we realised that neither of ushad brought an mone . ' An wa marks a return to the main topic of uyingwallpaper.(

Ordering what we say

We also use discourse markers to order or se7uence what we say. -ome of thecommon words and phrases which we use for this are%

and in general second to sum up

and then in the end Rsecondl what’s more

1rst =of all ( last of all so well

R1rstl ne/t lastl a ; bfor a start on top of that third=l (

1rstl and secondl are more formal than 1rst and second .

!

I think Sheila might be having some 1nancial problems at the moment .

"!

I don’t think so# 2aroline . /or a start , she has all the mone that her aunt gaveher. What’s more# she has a good job and she seems to have a good lifest le .

http://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/sohttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/okay-okhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/okay-okhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/okay-okhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/sohttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/okay-ok


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/irstly # we are going to look at how to write an essa . 4econdly we are going tolook at what makes a good essa and what makes a bad one. Lastly # we’re goingto do some writing activities.

We can use the letters of the alpha et ' a# b and c (, to list reasons or arguments

for something%There are two reasons wh I think it’s a bad idea# a because it’ll cost too muchmone # and b because it’ll take such a long time.

-ee also%

-umbers! 7rst , second , third

+iscourse mar ers that monitor what we say

+s we talk, we monitor 'or listen to( what we are saying and how our listener isresponding to what they hear. We often rephrase or change what we saydepending on how our listener is responding. We use words and phrases suchas well# I mean# in other words# the thing is# ou know# ou know what I mean#

ou see# what I mean is .

Saying something in another way

-ometimes, as we talk, we add phrases to show our listener that we are going torephrase, repeat or change what we are saying. !hese discourse markers help tomake what we say clearer for the listener%

I just had to leave earl . $hat I mean is I hated the show. It just wasn’t funn .

)ou e/ercise regularl # ou have a good diet and ou don’t have too muchstress. In other words # I think ou have nothing to worr about. )our healthseems ver good.

I think I’ve found a house I’d like to bu . Well it’s an apartment actually . It’sideal for me.

-ee also%

"ctual and actually I mean

$ell

Shared nowledge

When we talk, we think a out how much knowledge we share with our listener.We often mark what we think is old, shared or expected knowledge with ouknow and we mark new knowledge that we see as not shared with the listenerwith phrases like see# ou see# the thing is %

http://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/numberhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/numberhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/numberhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/numberhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/numberhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/numberhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/actual-and-actuallyhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/actual-and-actuallyhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/actual-and-actuallyhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/actual-and-actuallyhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/meanhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/wellhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/numberhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/actual-and-actuallyhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/meanhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/well


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.ou know # hiring a car was a great idea. '!he speaker and the listener knowa out hiring the car.(

!

Wh don’t ou come and sta with me when ou’re in !isbon"

"!

It’d be diEcult. I have to be back in -ublin b 0rida . .ou see , m sister isgetting married on Saturda so I won’t have time to visit . '> assumes that +doesn’t know a out her sister’s wedding. !his is new information(

-ee also%

4ee

.ou know

.ou see

+iscourse mar ers as responses

+s we listen to someone speaking, we usually show our response to what we heareither y gesture 'head nod( or y a short response ' $m# eah# reall # that’s ashame (. !his shows that we are listening to and interested in what is eing said.We call these short responses 4response tokens’.

$ommon response tokens include%

absolutel 1ne oka wow

=all> right good uite 'more formal( eah

certainl great reall es

de1nitel I see sure

e/actl no wonderful

that’s great5interesting5amaHing5awful , etc.

We use response tokens for a num er of functions%

To show interest and to show that we want the spea er to continue

!

So he opened the door .

"!

.eah .

!

http://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/seehttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/you-knowhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/you-seehttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/seehttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/you-knowhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/you-see


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And he went in ver uietl without waking her .

"!

6ight .

!

&e opened her bag and;

To show surprise

!

We’ve decided to go to Africa for a month ne/t ear .

"!

&h really-

To show sympathy

!

&e can’t pla soccer for at least si/ months. &e’s broken his leg .

"!

That’s terrible .

-ee also%

dverbs as discourse mar ers # anyway , 7nally %

& course

+iscourse mar ers showing attitude

-ome expressions are used to mark attitude or point of view in speaking orwriting.

$ommon expressions of attitude are%

actuall frankl I think =I’m> sorr

admittedl hopefull literall surprisingl

amaHingl honestl naturall thankfull

basicall ideall no doubt to be honest

certainl if ou ask me obviousl to tell ou the truth

clearl I’m afraid of course understandabl

con1dentiall I must admit predictabl undoubtedl

http://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/adverbs-as-discourse-markers-anyway-finallyhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/adverbs-as-discourse-markers-anyway-finallyhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/adverbs-as-discourse-markers-anyway-finallyhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/adverbs-as-discourse-markers-anyway-finallyhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/adverbs-as-discourse-markers-anyway-finallyhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/of-coursehttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/adverbs-as-discourse-markers-anyway-finallyhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/of-course


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de1nitel I must sa reall unfortunatel

essentiall in fact sadl

fortunatel indeed seriousl

I you ask me # (eil is making a big mistake leaving his job to go travelling withhis friends.

We will ob#iously have to pa for the damage done to the window.

The whole problem has been caused# I think # b having too man cars on theroad at bus times.

4adly # &ilda has decided not to come with us.

-ee also%

"ctual and actually

Think

+iscourse mar ers! sounding less direct

We are careful when we speak not to sound too direct or forceful. We use wordsand phrases such as like# ma be# sort of to soften what we say 'hedges(.

We often use these words and expressions as hedges%

apparentl kind of perhaps roughl

arguabl like presumabl sort of5 kind of

I think ma be probabl surel

just

sort of is more common in >ritish "nglish; kind of is more common in +merican"nglish.

2an I !ust ask ou a uestion"

We can probably add some more water to the sauce.

Is this perhaps one of our 1rst times driving a car"

Compare

There’s a new restaurant intown. We should probably trit ne/t weekend.

!he statement is hedged orsoftened so as not to soundtoo strong or forceful.

There’s a new restaurant intown. We should tr it ne/tweekend.

!he statement is not hedgedand it sounds more directand forceful.

http://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/actual-and-actuallyhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/actual-and-actuallyhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/actual-and-actuallyhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/actual-and-actuallyhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/thinkhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/actual-and-actuallyhttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/think


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-ee also%

/edges # !ust %

Think

Like

Mind

$ell

+iscourse mar ers! um and erm

We can use um to introduce a new topic carefully%

8m # could I ask ou a personal uestion"

8m # there’s something else we need to talk about.

We can use erm when we pause efore saying something, especially when we arenot sure a out what to say%

&e’s; erm he’s not ver pleased with our work# I’m afraid.

&er last book was called; erm what was it" I can’t remember the name.

+iscourse mar ers! inter'ections # &h- 9osh- %

+n inter


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It clauses are the most common type of cleft clause. !he information that comesafter it is emphasised for the listener. !he clause which follows the it@clause isconnected using that and it contains information that is already understood. Weoften omit that in informal situations when it is the o


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!

I don’t know what to cook for them" I don’t know what the like .

"!

$hat the like is smoked salmon .

2nderstood already 'old information(% we are talking a out what they like to eat

Focus 'new information(% they like smoked salmon

!

This remote control isn’t working .

"!

$hat we need to do is get new batteries or it .

2nderstood already 'old information(% there is something that we need to do to=x the remote control.

Focus 'new information(% we need to uy new atteries

'/$left sentences ' It was in Cune we got married .(0 from "nglish *rammar !oday1 $am ridge 2niversity 3ress.(

Fronting


!he most common word order in a declarative clause is su


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"ll o a sudden # it started tosnow.

'fronted so as to focus on all of asudden (

It started to snow all o asudden .

'most common word order(

When the fronting involves a prepositional phrase ' on the corner# in front of me (we often change the order of the su


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Sentences

'/$lauses and sentences0 from "nglish *rammar !oday 1 $am ridge 2niversity3ress.(
http://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/sentenceshttp://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/sentences

Documents

Formal and Informal Language-Cambridge Dictionary