Food Safety on Farm for Producers

Written and compiled by:Anusuya Rangarajan, Elizabeth A. Bihn, Robert B. Gravani,Donna L. Scott, and Marvin P. Pritts

FoodSafetyBegins onthe Farm

Good Agricultural Practices forFresh Fruits and Vegetables

A Grower’s Guide

Written and compiled by:Anusuya Rangarajan, Elizabeth A. Bihn, Robert B. Gravani,Donna L. Scott, and Marvin P. Pritts

FoodSafetyBegins onthe Farm

Good Agricultural Practices forFresh Fruits and Vegetables

A Grower’s Guide

This publication is supported by the Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service,the United States Department of Agriculture, and the United States Food and Drug Administration

under Agreement No: 99-41560-0821.

Introduction .............................................. 3

Fruit and VegetableConsumption ........................................ 3

Foodborne Illnesses.............................. 4

Consumer Concerns ............................. 5

Increase in Illnesses ............................. 6

You Can Reduce the Risk .................... 7

Record Keeping .................................... 8

Potential Sources of On-FarmContamination ...................................... 8

Manure .................................................. 8

Water ..................................................... 9

Handwashing, Health, andHygiene................................................. 9

Handwashing, Health, andHygiene Considerations forU-Pick Farms ...................................... 10

Minimizing Risks StartsBefore Planting ....................................... 11

Site Selection ...................................... 11

Manure Handling andField Application ................................ 11

Minimize Risks DuringProduction ............................................... 14

Irrigation Water Quality andMethods .............................................. 14

Sidedressing Crops with Manure ..... 16

Field Sanitation and AnimalExclusion ............................................. 16

Worker Facilities and Hygiene .......... 17

Minimize Risks at Harvest ..................... 18

Bin and Harvest Aid Sanitation......... 18

Worker Hygiene and Training........... 18

U-Pick Customer Hygiene ................. 18

Storage Facility Sanitation................. 19

Cider and Juice Production ............... 19

Minimize Risks During PostharvestHandling ................................................. 20

Worker Hygiene ................................. 20

Keep the Packinghouse Cleanand Sanitary ........................................ 20

Washing Operations andPacking Lines ..................................... 21

Produce Cooling andCold Storage ....................................... 22

Transportation of Producefrom Farm to Market .......................... 23

Implement Traceback System ........... 23

Food Safety Is Everyone’sResponsibility.......................................... 24

Selected References for FurtherInformation ............................................. 25

Glossary................................................... 26

Acknowledgements ............................... 27

National GAPs Collaborators ................ 28

Table of Contents

FOOD SAFETY BEGINS ON THE FARM: A GROWER’S GUIDE 3

Introduction

Fruit and Vegetable ConsumptionFruits and vegetables are an important componentof the U.S. diet. Nutritionists and health profes-sionals have clearly shown that diets low in fat,high in fiber, with at least five servings a day offruits and vegetables are protective against manytypes of cancer and lessen the risk of heart dis-ease.

Federal initiatives, including the U.S. DietaryGuidelines, the Food Guide Pyramid, HealthyPeople 2002, and the National Cancer Institute’sFive a Day Program, have highlighted thenutritional importanceof eating fruits andvegetables. “Strivefor Five” programsinitiated by agricul-tural companies andfood trade associationsalso have stressed theneed to increase fruit and vegetable consumption.Consumers listening to these messages have al-tered their food choices. Between 1970 and 1997,the U.S. total per capita annual consumption offruits and vegetables increased 24%, from 577 to718 pounds.

Growers have responded positively by grow-ing and harvesting a wide variety of traditionaland “new” fruits and vegetables. Global produc-tion and distribution, coupled with innovativepackaging, and improved marketing and mer-chandising strategies, have provided consumerswith an abundance of fruits and vegetables. Theincrease in global trade makes food from over 130countries around the world available to U.S. con-sumers and provides year-round availability offresh produce.

4 FOOD SAFETY BEGINS ON THE FARM: A GROWER’S GUIDE

Foodborne IllnessesAs produce consumption has increased, scientistsat the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention(CDC) in Atlanta, Georgia, noticed another im-portant trend. From 1973 through 1998, there wasa significant increase in the number of foodbornedisease outbreaks associated with fresh produce.

A summary of the foodborne outbreaks from1987 to the present shows:

n The number of outbreaks associated withfresh produce steadily increased.

n The number of people affected more thandoubled.

n A variety of fruits and vegetables were in-volved (see A).

n Three-quarters (75.3%) of the outbreakswere related to domestically grown produce(see B).

n Most of the outbreaks were caused by bac-teria, especially Salmonella species and E.coli O157:H7 (see C).

Produce-associated outbreaks can be causedby bacteria, viruses, or parasites. Bacteria like Sal-monella, E. coli O157:H7, Shigella, and Bacilluscereus are of significant concern. Parasites likeCryptosporidium and Cyclospora, and viruses suchas hepatitis A and Norwalk, also have been thecausative agents in several produce-associatedoutbreaks. Lettuce, salad mix, green onions, to-matoes, sprouts, cantaloupe, carrots, raspberries,frozen strawberries, basil and basil-containingproducts, unpasteurized apple cider, and unpas-teurized orange juice have been associated withthese disease-causing microorganisms and havecaused illnesses and deaths in children and adultsthroughout the U.S.

There are only a few documented cases offoodborne illnesses traced back to poor agricul-tural practices, but one particular foodborneoutbreak worth noting was related to E. coliO157:H7 contamination of mesclun lettuce mix.The lettuce was grown on a farm located near acattle operation and free range chicken farm. Thelettuce became contaminated and caused 49

*Source: CDC foodborne outbreaksurveillance system.

Domestic 75.3%

Imported 7.5%Unknown 17.2%

Fruit and VegetableOutbreaks by Origin ofProduce: 1990-1998*

Cabbage 5.2%

Lettuce16.7%

Sprouts 9.4%

Carrots 3.1%

Unknown7.3%

Tomatoes 2.1%

Salad/Bar35.4%

Fruit20.8%

U.S. Fresh ProduceOutbreaks: 1990-1998*

Shigella (3)

B. cereus (1)

Campylobacter (2)

E. Coli O157:H7 (22)Salmonella (26)

ET E. coli (2)

E. coli O11:H43 (1)

Fruit and Vegetable BacterialOutbreaks: 1988-1998*

A

B

C


people in Illinois and Connecticut to become ill.The ages of the victims ranged from 2 to 87 years.This outbreak was traced back to poor agricul-tural practices and improper handling of thelettuce after harvest. It could have been preventedwith the use of good agricultural and managementpractices.

Consumer ConcernsMedia attention related to fresh fruits and veg-etables has heightened consumer awareness ofproduce-associated illnesses. The concern aboutthe rise in the number of foodborne illnesses alsois reflected in numerous surveys. In the 1998 FreshTrends Survey, conducted by The Packer maga-zine, bacterial contamination of produce was aconcern of consumers for the first time since thesurvey originated in 1983. About 9% of the 1,000U.S. consumers surveyed by telephone expressedconcern about bacteria in their food, while another10% were concerned that bacteria in producemight make them sick or cause a disease. Surveyresults indicated that about 60% of consumers aremore concerned today than they were a year agoabout Salmonella and other bacteria on fresh pro-duce. Produce-associated foodborne illnessesreduce consumer confidence in the safety of allproduce items, undermine fruit and vegetable pro-motion campaigns, and can cause financial lossesfrom which a business may never recover.

In response to consumer concerns, many re-tailers have recently announced programsrequiring growers to have independent third-partyinspections of farms to certify that fruits and veg-etables are being grown, harvested, and packagedusing good agricultural and management prac-tices. These programs are developing rapidly andmany growing and packing operations are alreadybeing inspected by companies, organizations, andagencies approved by retailers.

Effective farm strategies focus on preventionof contamination. Research clearly demonstratesthat it is very difficult to completely sanitize pro-duce once contamination has occurred. The keyto reducing risks is preventing contamination be-fore it happens.


Increase in IllnessesOne may wonder why there is an increase infoodborne illnesses associated with fresh produce.Many factors are involved, including:

Changing social demographicsThere are increasing segments of the U.S. popu-lation that are elderly, immuno-compromised, andsuffering from chronic diseases. People who arereceiving chemotherapy treatments, have had or-gan transplants, or suffer from late-stage HIVinfections or AIDS are more vulnerable tofoodborne illness than are healthy people. All ofthese individuals, as well as pregnant women andyoung children, are at the highest risk for seriousfoodborne illnesses.

Changing food systemsFresh fruits and vegetables are grown and mar-keted on a national and international scale. Thiscomplex food system permits distribution of agreater diversity of crops to large numbers ofpeople. However, this system also potentially in-creases the exposure of more consumers todifferent types of microorganisms on produce.When outbreaks occur, it is increasingly difficultto trace the source of the problem.

Changing consumer preferencesThe growing popularity of salad bars and the in-crease in the number of meals eaten outside thehome can increase the risk of contamination offresh produce through poor food handling andpreparation practices. Minimally processed pro-duce, such as fresh squeezed juices and fresh-cutfruits and vegetables, while convenient, have notbeen heat treated to kill pathogens. If this pro-cessing is followed by long storage periods,especially at warm temperatures, harmful mi-crobes that may be present can survive and grow,increasing the risk of foodborne illness.


Changing microorganismsOver the last 20 to 30 years, scientists have ob-served many genetic changes in microorganisms.These changes include adaptation to stresses inthe environment, allowing microorganisms togrow where they once could not survive. Bacteriasuch as Yersinia enterocolitica, Listeriamonocytogenes, and E. coli O157:H7 are capableof growing slowly at refrigerator temperatures andsome bacteria, such as E. coli O157:H7 and Sal-monella enteritidis, can cause serious humanillness when only a small number of cells are in-gested. Scientists are studying these adaptivestress responses in microbes to learn more abouthow these mechanisms work in order to devisebetter control methods.

You Can Reduce the RiskMicrobial contamination of produce can occur atany point from farm to fork. One of the keys toreducing microbial risks on the farm is the com-mitment of the farm owner and all farm workers.This booklet provides an overview of practical andreasonable good agricultural and manufacturingpractices that can be implemented on farms andin packinghouses to reduce the risk of foodbornepathogens on produce. It was developed to assistgrowers in continuing to provide nutritious,healthy, and safe fruits and vegetables tocustomers.

Reviewing, evaluating, and strengthening cur-rent good agricultural practices (GAPs) used onthe farm and good manufacturing practices(GMPs) used in packing facilities can reduce mi-crobial risks. Growers need to be aware of themicrobiological problems that can occur and needto take steps to help protect public health, as wellas their families, businesses, and livelihoods. Fi-nancial losses resulting from a foodborne outbreakcan be devastating to a business. There is no wayto guarantee that everything grown on the farm isfree from harmful microorganisms but, by takingsome preventive measures during all phases ofproduction, these risks can be reduced.

Salmonella as seen with an electronmicroscope.


Record KeepingKeeping records of all farm operations is very im-portant, especially when it comes to food safety.With today’s complex food system, fresh producerarely moves directly from the grower to the con-sumer, but often is handled many times before itreaches the market or is consumed. Whenfoodborne illness outbreaks occur, attempts aremade to trace the contamination back to the pointof origin. Documenting any manure use, water testresults, and worker training programs may pro-vide important data that indicates thecontamination did not occur on the farm. Goodrecords facilitate ease of auditing by buyers andregulatory agencies, and help prevent the needfor formal regulations. Documentation also high-lights a grower’s commitment to reducingmicrobial risks to fruits and vegetables.

Potential Sources of On-FarmContaminationThere are many pos-sible ways for produceto become contami-nated by harmfulmicroorganisms duringproduction, harvest,and handling (see liston left). While contamination can occur anywherein the flow of food from farm to fork, our focusbegins on the farm. Of particular concern are ma-nure management, water use, and farm workerhealth and hygiene.

ManureThe use of improperly aged or treated manure canincrease microbial risks and contribute tofoodborne illness. The possibility that fecal mat-ter may come into contact with produce and thatwater might splash pathogens in the manure ontofield produce are both important concerns. Patho-gens such as E. coli O157:H7, Salmonella, andCampylobacter can be present in manure slurryand soil for up to 3 months or more, depending ontemperature and soil conditions. Troubling for

n Soil

n Irrigation water

n Animal manure

n Inadequately compostedmanure

n Wild and domesticanimals

n Inadequate field workerhygiene

n Harvesting equipment

n Transport containers(field to packing facility)

n Wash and rinse water

n Unsanitary handlingduring sorting and pack-aging, in packingfacilities, in wholesale orretail operations, and athome

n Equipment used to soak,pack, or cut produce

n Ice

n Cooling units(hydrocoolers)

n Transport vehicles

n Improper storage condi-tions (temperature)

n Improper packaging

n Cross contamination instorage, display, andpreparation

Sources of PotentialOn-Farm Contamination


growers is the fact that Listeria monocytogenescan survive in the soil for much longer than 3months. Yersinia enterocolitica may survive, butnot grow, in soil for almost a year.

WaterAnother possible source of harmful microorgan-isms is water used for irrigation, produce cooling,washing, dipping, and processing operations. Wa-ter can carry pathogens and contaminated watercan cause illness. In September, 1999, a water-borne outbreak of E. coli O157:H7 occurred inWashington County, New York. After heavy rains,water-containing E. coli O157:H7 contaminated anearby well. More than 1,000 people became illfrom drinking the contaminated well water andtwo people died. Not only is potable water impor-tant for safety reasons, but it also increases thepostharvest quality of produce by decreasingdecay.

Handwashing, Health, and HygieneMany pathogens can be transferred to fresh fruitsand vegetables by workers who pick, package, orhandle the produce. The failure of people work-ing with food to wash their hands after using thetoilet has been the cause of many foodborne ill-ness outbreaks.

Frequent, proper handwashing is an effectivestrategy for helping to prevent foodborne illness;however, few people do it properly. Here’s how:

n Wet hands with clean, warm water, applysoap, and work up a lather.

n Rub hands together for at least 20 seconds(sing the ABC song to yourself – that takesabout 20 seconds).

n Clean under the nails and between the fin-gers. Rub fingertips of each hand in sudson palm of opposite hand.

n Rinse under clean, running water.

n Dry hands with a single-use towel.

To facilitate proper handwashing, cleanrestroom facilities should be provided for field andpackinghouse workers. Soap, potable water, and


single-use towels should be supplied so workerscan wash their hands and reduce the risk of con-taminating fresh produce. Restrooms should beeasily accessible and cleaned and sanitized on aregular basis to encourage their use.

Worker health also influences produce safety.People who are ill with hepatitis A or who havesymptoms of nausea, vomiting, or diarrhea cantransmit harmful microorganisms to fruits and veg-etables and should not handle these foods. Openor infected wounds, blisters, or cuts also can trans-mit harmful pathogens to produce. Workers whohave cuts or who have slight illnesses, but arehealthy enough to work, should be assigned tononproduce contact jobs or provided with ad-equate bandages and gloves to reduce the risksof contamination.

Worker hygiene and health are very importantfor the production of safe, fresh fruits and veg-etables. Educating workers about the risks,enforcing the use of toilets and handwashing fa-cilities, paying close attention to the health ofworkers, and encouraging them to report illnessesare a few simple steps growers can take to reducethe risk of pathogens being spread from workersto fresh produce.

Handwashing, Health, and HygieneConsiderations for U-Pick FarmsGrowers who follow good agricultural and man-agement practices on their farms shouldencourage U-Pick customers to wash their handsbefore entering the field. Much effort and hardwork has taken place to ensure the quality andsafety of the U-pick crop long before customersenter the field. Many growers fear they will insultcustomers by asking them to first wash their hands,but many customers may find it reassuring thatthe farm owner is concerned with the safety of boththe crop and the customer. Small signs can beposted stating the purpose of handwashing anddirecting customers to the handwashing facilitieson the farm.

Welcome

U-Pick CustomersWe work hard to ensure the safety of the

produce on this farm by following

Good Agricultural Practices.

Please do your part to ensure producesafety by WASHING YOUR HANDS

before you pick any produce.

Thank You.

Remember to exclude all pets from theproduce fields.


Minimizing Risks StartsBefore Planting

Site SelectionSelect land for fruit and vegetable crops based onthe land history, previous manure applications, andcrop rotation. Keep produce fields away from ani-mal housing, pastures, or barnyards. Study watermovements on land to make sure that livestockwaste from nearby barnyards cannot enter pro-duce fields via runoff or drift.

n Review land history – Was it used for in-dustrial dumping? Have animal waste orsludge/biosolids been applied? If yes,when?

n Ensure fields are upstream and upwindfrom animal containments.

n Identify upstream uses of surface water andtest microbiological quality as needed.

n Ensure that contaminated water or live-stock waste cannot enter a field via runoffor drift.

n Contact a local Cooperative Extension Ser-vice or Natural Resource ConservationService representative to develop a detailedfarm environmental management plan.

Manure Handling andField ApplicationLivestock manure can be a valuable source ofnutrients, but it also can be a source of humanpathogens if not managed correctly. Organic cer-tification programs currently include strictrequirements on the handling of raw manure. Eventhough these requirements are designed to mini-mize environmental risks, it is important that allfarms using manure follow good agricultural prac-tices to reduce any microbial risk that may exist.Proper and thorough composting of manure, in-corporating it into soil prior to planting, andavoiding top-dressing of plants are importantsteps toward reducing the risk of microbial con-tamination.

Plan Before Plantingn Select site for pro-

duce based on landhistory and location

n Use careful manurehandling

n Keep good records


Consider the source, storage, and type ofmanure being used on the farm

n Store manure as far away as practical fromareas where fresh produce is grown andhandled. If manure is not composted, agethe manure to be applied to produce fieldsfor at least six months prior to application.

n Where possible, erect physical barriers orwind barriers to prevent runoff and winddrift of manure.

n Store manure slurry for at least 60 days inthe summer and 90 days in the winter be-fore applying to fields.

n Actively compost manure. High tempera-tures achieved by a well-managed, aerobiccompost can kill most harmful pathogens.Remember to optimize temperature, turn-ing, and time to produce high quality, stablecompost. See references at the end of thisbooklet for additional details.

Plan manure application timing carefullyn Apply manure in the fall or at the end of

the season to all planned vegetable groundor fruit acreage, preferably when soils arewarm, nonsaturated, and cover-cropped.

n If applying manure in the spring (or the startof a season), spread the manure two weeksbefore planting, preferably to grain or for-age crops.

n DO NOT harvest vegetables or fruits until120 days after manure application.

n Remember to document rates, dates, andlocations of manure applications.

Incorporate manure into the soiln Incorporate manure immediately after ap-

plication. Although it is known that manyharmful pathogens do not survive long inthe soil, research is still needed on soil mi-

For effective composting, monitortemperature of pile and turn to aerate.


crobes and pathogen interactions. Somepathogens, such as Listeria monocytogenes,may survive and grow in the soil.

n If it is necessary to apply manure or slurryto vegetable or fruit ground, incorporate itat least two weeks prior to planting and ob-serve the suggested 120-day preharvestinterval.

n If the 120-day waiting period is not feasible,such as for short season crops like lettuceor leafy greens, apply only properlycomposted manure.

Choose appropriate cropsn Avoid growing root and leafy crops in the

year that manure is applied to a field.

n Apply manure to grain or forage crops.

n Apply manure to perennial crops in theplanting year only. The long periodbetween application and harvest will re-duce the risks.

Section References1. Hilborn, E.D., J.H. Mermin, P.A. Mshar, J.L. Hadler, A. Voetsch, C. Wojtkunski, M.

Swartz, R. Mshar, M. Lambert-Fair, J.A. Farrar, K. Glynn, L. Slutsker. 1999. Amultistate outbreak of Escherichia coli O157:H7 infections associated with consump-tion of mesclun lettuce. Arch. Intern. Med. 159:1758-1764.

2. Rudolfs, W., L.L. Falk, R.A. Ragotzkie. 1950. Literature review on the occurrenceand survival of enteric, pathogenic, and relative organisms in soil, water, sewage,and sludges, and on vegetation. I. Bacterial and virus diseases. Sewage and Indus-trial Wastes. 22: 1261-1281. II. Animal parasites. Sewage and Industrial Wastes. 22:1417-1427.

3. Stehman, S., C. Rossiter, P. McDonough, S. Wade. 1996. Potential pathogens in ma-nure. Animal agriculture and the environment: nutrients, pathogens, and commu-nity relations. Proceedings from the Animal Agriculture and the Environment NorthAmerican Conference in Rochester, NY, Dec. 11-13, 1996. NRAES-96. p. 47-55.


Minimize Risks DuringProduction

Irrigation Water Quality and MethodsIf water that is used to irrigate or spray protectivechemicals onto crops becomes contaminated withharmful microorganisms, it can spread the patho-gens to the crops. Municipal water and potablewell water provide the lowest risk for irrigationpurposes. However, using these water sources isoften not feasible due to field location and size.Surface water is the most common source for irri-gation on fruit and vegetable farms. Ideally,upstream neighbors keep ani-mals out of waterways andprevent feedlot runoff fromentering streams. Workingwith local watershed commit-tees to better understandwatershed areas and promot-ing stewardship of thesewaterways can improve irrigation water qualityfor all farms and further reduce microbial risks onthe farm.

Irrigation water testingDepending on the source of irrigation water, dif-ferent testing frequencies are recommended.Properly sample water and send the samples to areputable laboratory for analysis of fecal coliforms(consult local extension service for listings). Thepresence of fecal coliforms indicates that watermay have been contaminated with manure andharmful pathogens. Although standards for irri-gation water have not been examined in recentyears, there are currently two recommendationsfor evaluating microbial water quality.

n The Environmental Protection Agency(EPA) established a standard for reclaimedwater (treated effluent) used on non-processed fresh produce of less than 2.2fecal coliforms per 100 milliliters (mls) ofwater. This is considered free of pathogensfor nonpotable agricultural purposes. Ifhigher densities of fecal coliforms are de-

Field ManagementConsiderations

n Optimize irrigationwater quality andmethods

n Avoid manuresidedressing

n Practice good fieldsanitation

n Exclude animals andwildlife

n Emphasize workertraining and hygiene

n Keep records of theabove activities


tected, it is suggested that growers do notuse overhead irrigation.

n Researchers from the University of Califor-nia concluded in earlier research onirrigation water quality that 1,000 fecalcoliforms in 100 mls of water was accept-able based on survival studies of severalpathogens on produce.

This broad range of recommendations high-lights the need for more research. Untilrecommendations specific to surface water are de-veloped and tested, use these guidelines tointerpret farm water test results. Water quality maybe more important for water that comes in directcontact with the edible part of the plant, especiallyclose to harvest. Awareness of irrigation waterquality will assist in the selection of irrigation prac-tices that minimize the risks of spreadingpathogens to fresh produce.

Below are recommendations for testing watersources. For additional information or localrecommendations, consult a county or state Co-operative Extension Service educator.

n Municipal water: Acquire test results fromthe local water authority annually.

n Well water: Test biannually and treat thewell if fecal coliforms are present. If the wellcasing is secure and well-maintained, andif livestock and manure storages are ex-cluded from the well recharge and pumpingarea, then the risk of contamination isgreatly reduced.

n Surface water: Test quarterly in warm cli-mates such as California, Florida, Texas andother southern states. Test three times dur-ing the growing season in northern climatessuch as New York, Pennsylvania, andMichigan – first at planting, second at peakuse, third at or near harvest.

n Keep records for all water tests. If water testresults indicate the presence of fecalcoliforms, filtering the water or using set-tling ponds can reduce these counts in

Petri dish containing bacterial coloniesof E. coli O157:H7


surface water systems. If a well is contami-nated, it can be chemically treated toreduce fecal coliform counts.

Irrigation methodn Use drip irrigation whenever possible. This

method minimizes the risk of crop contami-nation because the edible parts of mostcrops are not wetted directly. Plant diseaselevels also may be reduced and water useefficiency is maximized with this method.

n Microbial risks in overhead irrigation areminimized by using potable water. Main-taining wells and treating them if fecalcoliforms are present ensures clean waterfor irrigation. If surface water is used foroverhead irrigation, examine the source ofthe water and be aware of upstream usesof that waterway. By applying overhead ir-rigation in the morning, water useefficiency is maximized and leaf dryingtime reduced. Rapid drying and ultravioletlight will reduce survival of both plant andhuman pathogens on crops.

n Consider not applying overhead irrigationwithin one week of harvest, if drawing fromsurface water source.

n Keep records of application methods, rates,and dates.

Sidedressing Crops with Manuren DO NOT sidedress fruit and vegetable

crops with fresh or slurry manure.

n If sidedressing is required, well-compostedor well-aged (greater than one year) ma-nure should be used for the application.

Field Sanitation and Animal Exclusionn Stay out of wet fields to reduce the spread

of plant or human pathogens.

n Clean tractors that were used in manurehandling prior to entering produce fields.


n DO NOT allow animals, including poultryor pets, to roam in crop areas, especiallyclose to harvest time.

n Minimize wild animal and bird trafficin ponds and through fields wherepossible.

Worker Facilities and Hygienen Provide convenient, clean, well-main-

tained, and serviced toilet facilities in thefield.

n Supply liquid soap in dispensers, potablewater, and single-use paper towels forhandwashing. Make sure they are re-stocked regularly.

n Emphasize the importance of restroom useand proper handwashing.

n Monitor and enforce use of thesefacilities.

n Reassign sick employees to duties that donot require direct contact with produce.

n Provide training to help workers under-stand the relationship between food safetyand personal hygiene.

n Supervisors should exhibit good personalhygiene. Be a good role model and encour-age crew supervisors to set a good example.

Section References4. Dunlop, S.G. and W.L. Wang. 1961. Studies on the use of sewage effluent for irriga-

tion of truck crops. J. Milk Food Technol. 24: 44-47.

5. Gambrill, M.P., Mara, D.D., Silva, S.A. 1992. Physiochemical treatment of tropicalwastewater: production of microbiologically safe effluents for unrestricted crop irri-gation. Water Science Technology. 26 (7/8):1449-1458.

6. Geldreich, E.E. and R.H. Bordner. 1971. Fecal contamination of fruits and vegetablesduring cultivation and processing for market: a review. J. Milk Food Technol. 34:184-195.

7. National Academy of Sciences. 1996. Regulations governing agricultural use of mu-nicipal wastewater and sludge. In Use of Reclaimed Water and Sludge in FoodCrop Production. Chapter 7. p.120-152. National Academy Press. Washington DC.www.epa.gov/owmitnet/pdfs/mstr-ch7.pdf.

8. Water Treatment Notes: Chlorination of Drinking Water. Section 5, (Wagenet andLemley) 329FS5.1989. Cornell University Resource Center.


Minimize Risks at Harvest

Bin and Harvest Aid Sanitationn High pressure wash, rinse, and sanitize all

crop containers before harvest, includingwooden bins.

n Cover clean bins when not used immedi-ately to avoid contamination by birds andanimals.

n DO NOT allow people to stand in bins dur-ing harvest. Boots and shoes can carrypathogens and contaminate the harvestbins and harvested produce.

n Remove field soil from the outside of binsprior to moving them into packing areas.

Worker Hygiene and TrainingGood personal hygiene is particularly importantduring the harvest of crops. Sick employees orthose with contaminated hands can spread patho-gens to produce. Employee awareness,meaningful training, and accessible restroom fa-cilities with handwash stations encourage goodhygiene. For handwashing instructions, review“Handwashing, Health, and Hygiene” on page 9.For information concerning proper facilities, re-view “Worker Facilities and Hygiene” on page 17.

U-Pick Customer HygieneIn U-Pick operations the personal hygiene of cus-tomers is just as important as that of field workers.

n Provide convenient, well-maintained, andserviced toilet facilities for customers nearthe field.

n Supply liquid soap in dispensers, potablewater, and single-use paper towels forhandwashing near the restrooms.

n Invite customers to wash their hands be-fore entering the picking field. Use largeposters and other devices to emphasizethe importance of washing hands before

Harvest Considerationsn Clean and sanitize

storage facilities andproduce contactsurfaces prior toharvest

n Clean harvestingaids each day

n Emphasize workerhygiene and training

n Emphasize hygieneto U-Pick customers

n Be sure to keepanimals out of thefields and orchards

n Do not use drops inproduction of unpas-teurized cider orjuice


picking crops. Handwashing posters areoften available from local health depart-ments.

Storage Facility SanitationSanitized storage facilities help to keep crops freefrom pathogen contamination and increasepostharvest shelf life of produce.

n Wash, rinse, and sanitize storage facilities,equipment, and food contact surfaces be-fore harvesting and storing crops.

n Thoroughly clean facilities, equipment, andfood contact surfaces before they are sani-tized. Dirt and organic matter on surfacesprevent sanitizers from killing bacteria andviruses.

n Use approved products to sanitize food con-tact surfaces. Commercial products oftencontain chlorine or quaternary ammoniumcompounds.

n Ensure that refrigeration equipment isworking properly. Measure and record tem-perature of refrigeration units at least oncea week.

Cider and Juice Productionn DO NOT use drops for production of cider

or fruit juices, especially if the juices arenot pasteurized. Drops may have come incontact with animal feces on the ground.

n DO NOT use decayed or wormy fruit.Harmful pathogens may be present in de-cayed fruit.

n Wash fruit with clean water or approvedsanitizers. Use effective brushes to scrubfruit prior to pressing.

n DO NOT allow pets in an orchard, grove,or field. Attempt to exclude wild animalswhen possible.

n Strongly consider pasteurizing juice and ci-der. To identify economical ways to do this,contact a local Cooperative Extension Ser-vice educator.

Provide clean, well-maintained, andserviced toilet facilities in the field. Besure to supply soap, clean water, andsingle-use towels for handwashing,and enforce their use.


Minimize Risks DuringPostharvest HandlingProper handling of fresh produce after it leavesthe field can help to prevent contamination withpathogens.

Worker HygieneHands can contaminate fresh fruits and vegetableswith harmful microbes. The cleanliness of aworker’s hands throughout all phases of produc-tion and packing cannot be over-emphasized.

n Provide convenient, well-maintained, andserviced toilet facilities in the packing-house.

n Supply liquid soap in dispensers, potablewater, and single-use paper towels forhandwashing.

n Educate workers about the importance ofrestroom use and proper handwashing.Wash hands:

l After using the restroom

l Before starting or returning to work

l Before and after eating or smoking

n Monitor and enforce the proper use of thesefacilities.

n Prevent sick workers from working directlywith produce.

n Encourage proper use of disposable gloveson packing lines.

n Provide bandages, clean gloves, hairnets,and aprons as needed.

Keep the Packinghouse Clean andSanitary

n Ensure that contaminated water and live-stock waste cannot enter packinghouse viarunoff or drift.

n Wash, rinse, and sanitize packing areas andfloors at the end of each day.

PostharvestConsiderations

n Enforce good workerhygiene

n Clean and sanitizepacking area andlines daily

n Maintain cleanwash water

n Cool producequickly andmaintain cold chain

n Sanitize trucksbefore loading

n Be sure to keepanimals out of pack-inghouse andstorage facilities


n Exclude all birds and animals, especiallyrodents. Use screening where necessary.

n DO NOT allow packinghouse workers toeat or smoke in the packing area. Workersmight contaminate their hands with bacte-ria or viruses from their mouths. Provide aseparate break area where workers can eat,smoke, and store personal items. Requireworkers to wash their hands before return-ing to work, after taking a break, or usingthe restroom.

n DO NOT wear field clothes, especiallyshoes and boots, into the packinghouse.

Washing Operations andPacking LinesTo prevent contamination with pathogens, keepwashing and packing operations clean andsanitary.

n Use chlorinated water and other labeleddisinfectants to wash produce. Various for-mulations of sodium hypochlorite areavailable and registered with the EPA.Check with state regulatory agencies foradditional restrictions or for a more com-plete list of registered sanitizers. Forcommodity-specific recommendationsof chlorinated wash water, see the chartbelow.

n Accurately measure chlorine bleach (so-dium hypochlorite) when it is added to themeasured amount of wash water (see charton page 22). Many fruits and vegetables are

Crop **Chlorine Strength References

General 50-500 ppm 11, 16

Apples 100-150 ppm 13, 17

Asparagus 125-250 ppm 15

Cantaloupe, honeydew 100-150 ppm 15

Lettuce, cabbage, leafy greens 100-150 ppm 10, 12, 14, 18

Tomatoes, potatoes, peppers 200-350 ppm 9

* ppm = parts per million ** Total titratable chlorine


sensitive to high levels of chlorine. In someinstances, 200 ppm of chlorine is sufficientto damage sensitive produce. For furtherinformation, contact a local Cooperative Ex-tension Service or commodity organization.

n Change the water when it gets dirty or af-ter several hours of operation.

n Use a sanitizer test kit or swimming poolkit to monitor the level of chlorine in thesanitizer solution. Maintain pH at 6.0-7.0so that chlorine will remain active.

n Keep wash water not more than 10°F coolerthan produce. (See “Produce Cooling andCold Storage” below.)

n Wash, rinse, and sanitize the packing linebelts, conveyors, and food contact surfacesat the end of each day to avoid buildup ofharmful microorganisms.

n Store packaging materials in a clean area.

n Keep Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)for cleaning and sanitizing products in aplace accessible to all employees.

Produce Cooling and Cold Storagen Cool fruits and vegetables quickly to mini-

mize the growth of pathogens and maintaingood quality.

n If ice is used to cool produce, make surethat it is made from potable water.

n Avoid cooling water bath temperatures thatare greater than 10°F cooler than the pro-duce pulp temperature. Some producedraws water into its stem areas when cool-ing water temperature is much lower thanthe temperature of the produce. If there isa pathogen on the produce or in the water,it could get drawn into the produce inte-rior along with the water. This concern ishighest for tomatoes, peppers, apples, andpotatoes.

n Do not load refrigeration rooms beyondtheir cooling capacity.

Target tsp/ cup/ppm ml/L 5 gal 50 gal

Sodium Hypochlorite 5.25%

50 0.95 3 2/3 3/4

75 1.43 5 1/2 1 1/10

100 1.90 7 1/4 1 1/2

125 2.40 9 1/10 1 7/8

150 2.90 10 7/8 2 1/4

Sodium Hypochlorite 12.75%

50 0.39 1 1/2 1/3

75 0.59 2 1/4 1/2

100 0.78 3 3/5

125 0.98 3 3/4 4/5

150 1.18 4 1/2 9/10tsp = teaspoon


Section References9. Bartz, J.A. 1999. Washing fresh fruits and vegetables: lessons from treatment of

tomatoes and potatoes with water. Dairy, Food, and Environmental Sanitation. 19(12):853-864.

10. Beuchat, L.R. 1999.␣ Survival of enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7 in bo-vine feces applied to lettuce and the effectiveness of chlorinated water as a disin-fectant.␣ Journal of Food Protection. 62(8): 845-849.

11. Beuchat, L.R. and J.H. Ryu. 1997. Produce handling and processing practices. Emerg-ing infectious diseases. 3(4): 459-465.

12. Beuchat, L.R., B.V. Nail, B.B. Adler, M.R.S. Clavero. 1998. Efficacy of spray applica-tion of chlorinated water in killing pathogenic bacteria on raw apples, tomatoes,and lettuce. Journal of Food Protection. 61(10): 1305-1311.

13. Buchanan, R.L., S.G. Edelson, R.L. Miller, G.M. Sapers. 1999. Contamination ofintact apples after immersion in an aqueous environment containing Escherichiacoli O157:H7. J. Food Prot. 62(5): 444-450.

14. Escudero, M.E., L. Velazquez, M.S. DiGenaro, A.M.S. DeGuzman. 1999. Effective-ness of various disinfectants in the elimination of Yersinia enterocolitica on freshlettuce. J. Food. Prot. 62(6): 665-669.

15. Park, C.M. and L.R. Beuchat. 1999. Evaluation of sanitizers for killing Escherichiacoli O157:H7, Salmonella, and naturally occurring microorganisms on cantaloupes,honeydew, and asparagus. Dairy, Food, and Environmental Sanitation. 19(12):842-847.

16. Suslow, T. 1997. Microbial food safety: an emerging challenge for small-scale grow-ers. Small Farm News. p. 7-10.

17. Wright, J.R., S.S. Sumner, C.R. Hackney, M.D. Pierson, and B.W. Zoecklein. 1999.Reduction of Escherichia coli O157:H7 on apples using wash and chemical sanitizertreatments. Dairy, Food, and Environmental Sanitation. 20(2): 120-126.

18. Zhang, S., and J.M. Farber. 1996. The effects of various disinfectants against List-eria monocytogenes on fresh-cut vegetables. Food Microbiol. 13: 311-321.

Transportation of Produce from Farmto Market

n Ensure that transportation vehicles areclean and sanitary. Dirty vehicles can con-taminate produce with harmful microbes.

n Be sure that fresh fruits and vegetables arenot shipped in trucks which have carriedlive animals or harmful substances. If thesetrucks must be used, thoroughly wash,rinse, and sanitize them before transport-ing fresh produce.

n Use refrigerated trucks when possible.

Implement Traceback Systemn Be sure that each package leaving the farm

can be traced to field of origin and date ofpacking.

n Records of lot numbers should be main-tained for all loads and packaged produceleaving the farm.


Food Safety Is Everyone’sResponsibilityFinally, it should be emphasized that food safety,from farm to fork, is the responsibility of everyonethroughout the food system. In addition to grow-ers and packers, food handlers such as foodprocessors, retailers, food service workers, andeven consumers in their homes have a responsi-bility for food safety. The guidelines in this bookletmay be a departure from practices traditionallyfollowed by growers and packers. However, thesafety of fruits and vegetables can be enhanced ifsome of these guidelines are put into practice,where appropriate and feasible. Remember, foodsafety begins on the farm.

For further assistance, or if specific questionsconcerning good agricultural practices exist, con-tact county or state Cooperative Extension Serviceeducators or agricultural food safety representa-tives. They can assist in understanding andimplementing these guidelines on the farm.


Code of Federal Regulation Web site:www.access.gpo.gov/nara/cfr/.

Drinking water regulations: http://ww1.access.gpo.gov/GPOAccess/s i tesearch/nara/cfr/wais idx_99/40cfrv15_99.html.

EPA. 1999. Combined Sewer Overflow Technology FactSheet: Alternative disinfection methods. Office of Wa-ter. Washington, DC. EPA-832-F-99-033.

EPA. 1999. Wastewater Technology Fact Sheet: Chlo-rine disinfection. Office of Water. Washington, DC. EPA-832-F-99-062.

EPA. 1999. Wastewater Technology Fact Sheet: Ozonedisinfection. Office of Water. Washington, DC. EPA-832-F-999-063.

EPA. 1999. Wastewater Technology Fact Sheet: Ultra-violet disinfection. Office of Water. Washington, DC.EPA-832-F-99-064.

EPA Ambient Water Quality Criteria for Bacteria. Of-fice of Water Regulations and Standards. EPA 832-B-92-005, January, 1986. Web site: www.epa.gov.

EPA Domestic Septage Regulatory Guidance. EPA 503Rule. 832-B-92-005, September, 1993.

EPA. R.E.D. Facts: Peroxy compounds. Prevention, Pes-ticides and Toxic Substances. EPA-738-F-93-026.

EPA. Total Coliform Rule and Surface Water TreatmentRule.

Field Guide to Compost Use. Composting Council, 114S. Pitt St., Alexandria, VA 22314. Tel: (703) 739-2401.

Guide to Minimize Microbial Food Safety Hazards forFresh Fruits and Vegetables. U.S. Department of Healthand Human Services, Food and Drug Administration,Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition (CFSAN),October, 1998. 40 pages. Web site: http://www.fda.gov.Tel: (202) 260-8920. Also available in six-page outlineform entitled “Guide At A Glance.”

NOFA-NY. Organic Certification Standards. NortheastOrganic Farming Association of New York, Inc.

The Packer, “Microbes Grab the Spotlight,” Vol. CIV,No. 54, 1998.

For information about obtaining portable toilet facili-ties, contact Portable Sanitation Association Interna-tional at (800) 822-3020 or local sanitation facilities dis-tributors.

Selected References for Further Information

Resources available from Natural Resource, Agriculture,and Engineering Service (NRAES), Cooperative Exten-sion, 52 Riley-Robb Hall, Ithaca, NY 14853-5701. Tel:(607) 255-7654. Fax: (607) 254-8770. E-mail:<[email protected]> <http://www.nraes.org/>.Examples:

On-Farm Composting Handbook, NRAES-54. 1992.

Sprinkler Irrigation Systems, MWPS-30. 1999.

Trickle Irrigation in the Eastern United States.NRAES-4. 1985.

Workforce Management for Farms and HorticulturalBusinesses: Finding, Training, and Keeping Good Em-ployees. NRAES-117. 1999.

Also see NRAES’ extensive listing of farm waste man-agement publications.

Resources available from Cornell University’s Media Ser-vices Resource Center, 7 Business and Technology Park,Ithaca, NY 14850. Tel: (607) 255-2080. Fax: (607) 255-9946. E-mail questions, comments, and orders to:<[email protected]> http://www.cce.cornell.edu/publi-cations/agriculture.html. Examples:

Human Resource Management on the Farm121AE88-22. 1988.

Produce Handling for Direct Marketing 123NRAES51.1992.

Refrigeration and Controlled Atmosphere Storage forHorticultural Crops 123NRAES22. 1992.

On-Site Sewage Treatment Systems: Keeping OurWater Clean 329VOSSTS (video). 1995.

Cooperative Watershed Protection: What Makes ItWork? 174CWP. 1996.

Groundwater Contamination. 174GW2, 174GC. 1990.

Private Drinking Water Supplies: Quality, Testing, andOptions for Problem Waters. 123NRAES47. 1994.

Watershed Hydrology. 125VWH (video). 1995.

Water Treatment Notes: Chlorination of Drinking Wa-ter. 329FS5. 1989.

Field Sanitation Resource Manuals for CA, CO, FL, GA,IL, MI, NJ, Puerto Rico, TX, WA. Produced as part of theMigrant Environmental Services Assistance Project. Ru-ral Community Assistance program, 602 South KingStreet, Suite 402, Leesburg, VA 22075. Tel: (703) 771-8636. Fax:( 703) 771-8753.

Additional references and information available.Tel: (607) 254-5383. E-mail: [email protected].


Glossary

CaseThe illness of one person associated withthe food.

Clean or CleaningRemoving soils and residues from surfacesby washing and scrubbing with soap ordetergent and rinsing with clean water.

Cold ChainThe maintenance of proper cooling tem-peratures throughout the food system (farmto fork) for fruits and vegetables to assureproduct safety and quality.

ContaminateTo transfer impurities or harmful microor-ganisms to food surfaces or water.

Foodborne IllnessAn illness or disease transmitted to peoplethrough food products that results from in-gesting foods which contain pathogens,their toxins, or poisonous chemicals.

Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs)The basic environmental and operationalconditions that are necessary for the pro-duction of safe, wholesome fruits and veg-etables.

Hepatitis A VirusA virus that causes a disease of the livercalled infectious hepatitis. Hepatitis A canbe found in water that has been contami-nated with raw sewage and in shellfish thathave been harvested from fecally contami-nated waters.␣ Infected workers also cantransmit hepatitis A.

MicroorganismBacteria, molds, viruses, and other organ-isms so small that they cannot be seenwithout the aid of a microscope.␣ Anotherword for microorganism is microbe. Somemicroorganisms are beneficial and helpcreate desirable food products, some causefoods to spoil, and some harmful microor-ganisms can cause sickness and evendeath.

Nonpotable waterWater that is not safe to drink. Nonpotablesources of water may include lakes, ponds,rivers, and stream water that has been pol-luted by human sewage or animal wasterunoff, or contaminated with pest-controlchemical runoff from agricultural fields orresidential lawns.

OutbreakA foodborne disease outbreak is definedby the Centers for Disease Control andPrevention (CDC) as an incident in whichtwo or more persons experience a similarillness after ingestion of a common food,and epidemiological analysis implicatesthe food as the source of the illness.

PathogenAny microorganism that causes disease inhumans.

pH (Acidity/Alkalinity)pH is the measure of the acidity or alkalin-ity in a food product. It is expressed on ascale from 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral.Below pH 7 is considered acid (e.g., citrusfruits) while above pH 7 is defined as al-kaline (e.g., peas and corn).


Potable WaterClean water that is safe to drink.

Produce Contact SurfacesSurfaces of equipment with which fruitsand vegetables come into contact.

RinsingRemoval of residues, soil, grease, soap, anddetergents from surfaces by flushing withpotable water.

SanitizerA chemical compound designed to killmicroorganisms. Two of the most com-monly used sanitizers are chlorine bleachand quaternary ammonium compounds(“quats”). A sanitizer solution is made bymixing a small, measured amount of thesanitizer with potable water according tothe directions given by the manufactureror by agencies that deal with farms andfood.

SanitizingTreatment to kill microorganisms. Includesrinsing, soaking, spraying, or wiping thesurface with a sanitizing solution. Surfacesshould be properly washed and rinsed be-fore they are sanitized. An unclean surfacecannot be effectively sanitized becausesoap and soil inactivate sanitizing solutions.

Total Titratable ChlorineThe amount of chlorine determined by anacidified starch iodide and thiosulfate ti-tration.

TracebackThe ability to trace a fruit or vegetable backto its field of origin. A common practiceused by health officials to investigatefoodborne illness outbreaks.

WashingRemoving all soil or food residues fromsurfaces by scrubbing with soap or deter-gent.

AcknowledgmentsThe authors would like to acknowledge the assistance of the many colleagues and col-laborators who reviewed this booklet and provided helpful suggestions. We would like tothank Dr. Michelle Smith for her thorough reviews, Victoria C. Zepplin for her in-depthliterature review, Dr. Barbara C. Bellows for contributing many photographs, and MichaelStriem for allowing us to use his drip irrigation photo on page 16. We also acknowledgethe use of USDA images: FoodPyr4cM.eps, 97c3121, 93c3829, 85c0114, and 97cs3119.

The “Food Safety Begins on the Farm” logo was designed by Jennifer Kloiber Infanteof Cornell University’s Media and Technology Services.

This booklet was designed by Mark L. Kogut and edited by Bruce R. Anderson of theCornell University Food Industry Management Distance Education Program.


National GAPs Collaborators

Clemson UniversityJames W. Rushing, Ph.D.

Colorado State UniversityPatricia A. Kendall, Ph.D.

Cornell UniversityElizabeth A. Bihn, M.S.Daryle E. Foster, Ph.D.Robert B. Gravani, Ph.D.Marvin P. Pritts, Ph.D.Anusuya Rangarajan, Ph.D.Donna L. Scott, M.S.

Kansas State UniversityFadi M. Aramouni, Ph.D.

Michigan State UniversityLeslie D. Bourquin, Ph.D.

Purdue UniversityRichard H. Linton, Ph.D.

Rutgers UniversityWesley L. Kline, Ph.D.Donald W. Schaffner, PhD

Texas A&M UniversityAl B. Wagner, Jr., Ph.D.

University of ArizonaRalph L. Price, Ph.D.

University of California–DavisLinda J. Harris, Ph.D.Trevor V. Suslow, Ph.D.

University of ConnecticutDiane Wright Hirsch, M.S.

University of FloridaDouglas L. Archer, Ph.D.Ronald Schmidt, Ph.D.

University of GeorgiaWilliam C. Hurst, Ph.D.

University of HawaiiAurora S. Hodgson, Ph.D.

University of MaineMahmoud El-Begearmi, PhDDavid Handley, Ph.D.

University of MassachusettsRita Brennen Olson, M.S.Karen HauschildLynne McLandsborough, Ph.D.

University of MissouriDouglas L. Holt, Ph.D.

University of New HampshireCatherine Violette, Ph.D.William Lord, M.S.

University of Rhode IslandKaren M. MenezesMartha Patnoad, M.S.Lori F. Pivarnik, Ph.D.

University of VermontM. Dale Steen, Ph.D.

Virginia Polytechnic InstituteMerle D. Pierson, Ph.D.

Washington State UniversityB. Susie Craig, M.S.

For additional copies contact Cornell Good Agricultural Practices Program at(607) 254-5383 or E-mail: [email protected]

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Food Safety on Farm for Producers