U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, A Guide for Planning Food Service in Child Care Cen­ters, FNS #64, Government Printing Of­fice, Washington, D.C., 1971.

U.S. Dept. of Health, Education, and Wel­fare, Office of Child Development, Child Development-Day Care; 2. Serving In-

fants; 5. Staff Training; 6. Health Ser­vices, Government Printing Office, Wash­ington, D.C., 1971.

Wright, C. M., Lally, J. R. and Dibble, M. V., Prenatal-postnatal Intervention: A Description and Discussion of Prelimi­nary Findings of a Home Visit Program

Supplying Cognitive, Nutritional and Health Information to Disadvantaged Homes. Paper presented to the American Psychological Association Meeting, Mi­ami Beach, 1970 (mimeo, Syracuse Uni­versity Family Research Center, 100 Wal­nut Place, Syracuse, NY 13210).

FOOD HABIT RESEARCH: A REVIEW OF APPROACHES AND METHODS

Louis E. Grivetti and Rose Marie Pangborn

Seven major approaches have been used in food habit reseach. The advantages and limitations of each are outlined and evaluated.

As emphasized by Pyke (1), people are primarily concerned with eating food, not with ingesting nutrients. De­spite the influence of culture on dietary habits, conventional training in the nu­tritional ~ciences has usually centered on biochemistry and physiology. Therefore, most nutrition educators are dependent on literature sources on cultural studies in order to apply their clinical and labo-' ratory studies in the field. Nutritionists who desire current and comprehensive information on food habits find that field investigators have used many different approaches, methods, and interpreta­tions. Although recent publications have attempted to systematize the vast litera­ture on food habits (2-4), the different approaches used to collect these data rarely have been considered. According­ly, the following review outlines and evaluates the basic approaches used by food habit researchers in the biological, behavorial, medical, and social sciences.

Environmentalism. The environ­mentalist approach seeks causal relation­ships between culture, health, and the environment. Those supporting this view claim that dietary patterns are deter­mined by environmental factors. The roots of this approach may be traced to Hippocrates of Cos (5th century B.C.) who argued that climate imposed limits on health and dietary patterns (5). En­vironmentalism 'continues to flourish in the 20th century as exemplified by Hunt­ington (6, 7) and Semple (8, 9) who described contemporary food habits and dietary patterns in antiquity.

Cnltural Ecology. Cultural ecologists recognize that man and the environment

THE AUTHORS are, respectively, Doctoral Candidate, Department of Geography, and Professor, Department of Food Science and Technology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616.

204 I Journal of NUTRITION EDUCATION

exert pressures on each other and seek to identify the balanced relationships be­tween man and his environment. For ex­ample, Thompson (10) effectively dem­onstrated that the dietary patterns of Fiji Islanders, based on complex intraisland trade networks, developed from a cultur­al response to a limited food supply. On the other hand, Steward (11) argued that food availability and technology predicate the evolution of social structure as re\'ealed in his studies on Shoshone an Indians. More recently, Lee (12, 13) studied the food resources of !Kung Bushmen of the Kalahari Desert and con­cluded that these preliterate hunters do not live under conditions of feast-or­famine as believed previously. Working in the highlands of New Guinea, Vayda et al. (14) and Rappaport (15, 16) de­veloped the thesis that physiological stress, caused by cultural and environ­mental factors, lead some societies to de­velop elaborate rituals to obtain high­protein foods.

Regionalism. In contrast to the en­vironmental and ecological themes that focus on societies in limited areas, some researchers have taken a regional ap­proach to culture and food. Many have outlined world·wide trends in crop and food production and dietary sele,ction (17-22). Others take a more limited re­gional view of diet as seen in May's studies on malnutrition in selected na­tions of Asia and the Middle East (23), Europe (24, 25), Africa (26, 27, 28), and Mexico and Central America (29).

Culture-History. When more com­plete information on food habits is de­sired, the culture-history approach has been used, intercomparing data from archaeology, linguistics, history, and oral tradition (30). Many social scientists have considered the influence of religion on dietary practices (31-34), while

others-especially Simoons (35)-use historical and archaeological data in their analyses of dietary prohibitions.

The culture-history approach has been particularly effective in tracing the origin and distribution of dietary traits. Recent work by Jeffreys (36, 37) and Sauer (38) suggests that maize (Zea mays L.) was introduced into Africa and Europe long before the Spanish conquest of the Americas. Their hypothesis contrasts sharply with the traditional view that maize was introduced to the Old World early in the 16th century-an event that triggered its rapid acceptance in Spain, Italy, Turkey, and Egypt with the sub­sequent emergence of pellagra along the Mediterranean.

Sometimes culture-history and cultural ecology approaches are combined. Work­ing in West Africa, Vermeer (39,40) in­vestigated the links between culture, en­vironment, and health in his studies on geophagia (earth-eating). Miracle (41) considered the development of indige­nous agriculture, imported foods, and di­etary patterns in the Congo Basin. Other examples include those by Bennett (42) and Nietschmann (43) on food habits of isolated Indian societies in Central Amer­ica.

Functionalism. Functionalism attempts to explain food habits as satis­fying social needs. In the functional view, food is symbolic of human relationships, and the daily production, processing, and exchange of consumables reinforces and stabilizes society. Richards (44, 45), an early functionalist, observed that the food quest was bound intimately to sev­eral non-nutritive cultural and economic food uses-a finding that frequently has been ignored.

In recent years, many programs of di­etary improvement have failed to achieve expected results because the nonnutritivc,

VOL. 5, NO.3, JULY-SEPT., 1973

functional roles served by food have not been considered (46-53). Concern with food accepta!bility has led to an increase in studies using the functional approach. Jerome (54) and Wilson (55), nutri­tionists with training in anthropology, studied the food habits and nutritional status of U.S. black and Malay fishing societies, respectively. Sanjur and co­workers (56, 57) have combined their nutritional expertise with sociological techniques in studies on infant nutrition in Mexico and New York City.

The functional approach may reveal the logic behind dietary traditions which outsiders may view as wasteful. For ex­ample, Lea (58) observed the intriguing anomaly of severe undernutrition in a region of surplus harvests in New Guinea. Nearly half of the food pro­duced was stored in anticipation of hos­tile exchanges, where enemies presented ever-increasing gifts of food to each other until one was incapable of exceeding the last gift and the argument was settled. Paradoxically, the winner and his family are left with no food reserves and suffer the nutritional consequences.

Functionalism and culture~history

sometimes are combined, as in the identi­fication of famine foods and analysis of cultural behavior during dietary stress (59-63). These and related efforts offer a complementary perspective to the re­searoh by Keys et al. (64) on the physio­logical components of hunger and starva­tion.

Quantitative Approaches. Critical of descriptive methodologies used by some field researchers, others have stressed the importance of quantitative methods. For example, Gould (65) used the analytical framework of Game Theory to study tra­ditional methods of crop production and marketing practices in West Africa. In their article on nutritional problems in Mexico, Chasey et al. (66) urged the more effective use of cross-cultural scal­ing techniques.

The current trend towards quantifica­tion may be viewed as a logical extension of research on cultural behavior and food haJbits conducted by Maslow (67) and Lewin (68). A further impetus was pro­vided by the Committee on Food Habits, created in the United States during World War II (69), particularly in the area of psychomedical food acceptance behavior (70-75).

More recently, Sohutz et al. (76) and Ortega (77) have used the technique of multidimensional scaling to evaluate food selection under varying social situations. Further studies compared consumer at-

VOL. 5, NO.3, JULY-SEPT., 1973

titudes towards food in four regions of the United States (78). It is anticipated that multidimensional scaling may pro­vide a better understanding of food se­lection in industrialized societies; when minor problems of matrix design and in­terview structure have been resolved, this technique may also be useful in cross-cultural food habit studies.

Sophisticated methods of computer simulation and systems analysis also are used by food habit investigators. Devan­ney (79) outlined an approach that pre­dicts maximum dietary aoceptance with highest nutritional value. As an out­growth of his research, Devanney argues that unconventional methods of protein production, e.g., fish protein concentrate, are not likely to be important in dietary improvement because the initial expenses associated with implementation cannot be absorbed by the lesser developed na­tions.

Clinical Approaches. Some medical and nutritional scientists have recognized the importance ofcuIture and the close relationsh1ps between food availability, familiarity with indigenous products, and nutritional quality. In a classic study of the Otomi Indians of Mexico, Anderson et al. (80) demonstrated that the diet of poor people is not necessarly poor in nu­tritional quality. In conclusion, Anderson argued against nutrition programs de­signed to "help" the Otomi because of the delicate cultural, ecological, and nutri­tional -balances that had developed over time. For example, calcium was obtained using lime-soaked maize ground on stone metates, and the essential amino acids were provided by maize and legumes. Other nutrients were satisfied through pulque, a fermented beverage made from cactus, and the selected use of chilies, mallows, squash, and wild fruits.

Echoing the cautious approaoh to di­etary change, some clinicians and nutri­tionists have sought a better understand­ing of the total culture and dietary needs of individuals before outlining specific programs (81-88). Sometimes, such ef­forts include multidisciplinary collabo­ration with anthropologists, cultural geographers, or sociologists (89-92) . Examples of successful multidisciplinary efforts include those by Darby et al. (93) among the Navajo Indians, com­bined research by Patwardhan and Dal'by (94) in the Arab states of the Middle East, programs by Jelliffe (95-97) in the developing nations of Africa and Asia, and the exciting work by Scrimshaw (98, 99) at INCAP in Guatemala. The inter­national character of applied nutrition research is reflected further by the Swed-

ish program on infant feeding in Ethiopia ( 1 00), where their general concern for increased nutritional quality led to a bet­ter understanding of the cultural, eco­nomic, and religious factors affecting diet and food habits in northeastern Africa (101).

Evaluation and Summary Each of the approaches used in food

habit research has served particular needs. No single approach, however, pro­vides all the information necessary to the nutritionist because advantages and limi­tations are attached to each. For example, a regional overview may be useful dur­ing the initial stages of a study where general patterns emerge that permit broad hypotheses to be formulated. But when specific data are needed at the vil­lage, household, or individual level, the regional approach is incomplete.

Although environmentalism has at­tracted many physicians and nutritionists in recent years, it ignores the importance of man; almost all anthropologists and geographers have rejected the environ­mental approach since the early 1900s. The presence of a potential food in a favorable environment does not imply that it will be eaten, and the development of a quality diet has little to do with en­vironmental determinants. Instead, diets develop in accord with cultural percep­tion. Individuals and societies exploit those food resources perceived as offer­ing satisfaction of social needs. Until re­cently, nutritional needs were not consid­ered. For these and related reasons, most mbanites would starve in the Arctic or mountain highlands and not recognize the abundant food resources available to them. Likewise, citizens of other cultures can starve in the midst of plenty, even when foods widely consumed by visiting nutritionists are available.

Cultural ecologists, on the other hand, recognize the interactions between man and nature. Accordingly, cultural ecol­ogy is less deterministic than environ­mentalism and presents a more realistic, balanced approaoh. However, most cul­tural ecologists have focused on food hll1bits in limited areas and tend to ignore the historical factors that contribute to dietary traditions. Furthermore, cultural ecologists rarely consider the range of available consumables in a region or ask why specific products-some with high nutritional potential- have not been utilized.

The approach of culture-history offers a different spectrum of data and is used to best advantage when documents or artifacts associated w1th food produc­tion, are availaible for study. Such data

Journal of NUTRITION EDUCATION I 205

permit the reconstruction of dietary pat­terns at different periods of history and provide clues to the origins of contem­porary food habits. In many instances, however, culture historians must rely on oral tradition, mythology, and linguistic evidence. As a result , some research hy culture historians is speculative, and sweeping conclusions have been drawn when more limited hypotheses were war­ranted.

With the functional approach, it is pos­sible to understand the nuances of food uses within the cultural setting. Yet, functionalism tends to ignore valuable data from cultural ecology and culture­history and focuses on contemporary pat­terns. A major drawback to the functional approach stems from the field method. The resident participant or observer us­ually spends six months to two years in the society and only 'with the greatest effort is able to divorce his own ethno­centric biases and correctly interpret the functions attached to food and describe the associated cultural behavior.

Interest in predictive models, one part of the recent trend toward quantification, reflects an advance in food habits studies.

Despite these developments, large dif­ferencesexist between the models thus far proposed and a,ctual situations involving diet and food habits. The rejection of high quality cereals by farmers in Mex­ico or India seems illogical; however, despite their elevated nutritional quality, high-yield cereals often succumb to local pests. When these disease problems have been conquered, ,the new crops still may be rejected because they do not taste right or do not have the proper texture, color, or keeping quality of more famil­iar, low-yield strains. Scientists interest­ed in mathematical or economic models have yet to consider the vast array of so­cial, environmental, and technological interactions tha,t influence food accept­ance; predicting acceptable dietary com­binations still is a future goal.

In conclusion, no single approach is satisfactory. However, several in combi­nation offer exciting new dimensions for food habit researoh. When investigating the food habits of a particular ethnic group, the nutrition educator is encour­aged to consider literature representative of several approaches and then select one appropriate to the needs of the commu­nity or ethnic group that provides the best sources of data for the particular problem in question. Multidisciplinary efforts linking the clinical and social sci­ences should be encoura'ged and expand­ed. The insights and perspectives gen­erated through complementary efforts

206 I Journal of NUTRITION EDUCATION

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100. Hofvander, Y. and Eksmyr, R., An ap­plied nutrition program in an Ethiopian

Program Ideas PTA and Nutritio,n Council Cooperate in Study Course

A Parent-Teacher Association Nutri­tion Study Course, sponsored jointly by the Tennessee PTA and the Tennessee Nutrition Council is an example of a new approach to nutrition education at the grass-roots level-a joint endeavor for a common goal.

The Tennessee PTA had the vision to see the importance of nutrition informa­tion for their members and were deter­mined to do something about it. The Tennessee PTA stresses that an effective local PTA unit is one that has one or more study courses during the year; this coming year they are urging every local . PTA to study nutrition (a study course to the PTA means at least one 2-hour session of study) .

The Tennessee Nutrition Council has been seeking ways and means by which they can help to improve the nutriture of all Tennesseans, implement 'current pro­grams, and initiate some new endeavors. A committee of three was appointed by the Nutrition Council to plan a study program in nutrition for the PTA and prepare a suitable guide or outline for this. The committee met with members of the Tennessee PTA executive board and discussed possible plans, topics, pro­cedures, etc. The committee then went to work; many meetings, preliminary drafts, discussions, and rewrites resulted in a handbook for a PTA nutrition study course.!

Objectives The main objectives of the handbook

are:

1. To place the responsibility for plan­ning and development of nutrition study groups in the hands of the local PTA units;

2. To ensure that instructors for the study groups are those qualified to pre­sent the facts of nutrition;

3. To emphasize to the instructors: a)

1. Nutrition Study Course for PTA members, A Handbook and Guide for Instructors and Leaders of Nutrition Study Groups, from The Tennessee Congress of Parents and Teachers, Inc., 1905 Acklen Ave., Nashville, TN 37212, 16 p., 50 cents per copy.

208 I Journal of NUTRITION EDUCATION

that the study group should not be given a lecture but that it should be a discus­sion with total involvement of all study group members; b) that the emphasis be on food and pmctical problems encoun­tered by each group; and c) that discus­sion of foods and food choices be based on nutritive value; and

4. To remind local instructors of some of the current books that may be used as nutrition background, of current trends, and of reliable sources of information and resource materials.

Implementation The committee of the Tennessee Nu­

trition Council does not feel that its jO!b is done now that the handbook is com­pleted. The members are now pIanning how they can continue cooperative ef­forts with the PTA at all levels. Letters are being sent to all Council members, county and local nutrition committees, university and college faculty, extension agents, school service personnel, home economists, and nutritionists throughout the state enclosing a copy of the hand­book and inviting them to get in touch with their local PT As and offer their services as instructors. Time will tell how successful an these efforts are.

A description of the Tennessee pro­gram and the handbook have been sent to the N ational PTA Board. It is hoped that the National PTA will encourage other states to conduct similar programs and use the handbook or prepare one suitable for their own needs.

E. Neige Todhunter, Ph.D., Visiting Professor of Nutrition, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232.

'Food and Culture' Workshops for Virgin Islands Teachers

A series of workshops on "Relating Local Foods to the Culture" was given in 1971 and 1972 for elementary teach­ers in the Virgin Islands. Teachers were informed about the workshop through the Coordinator of Project Introspec­tion, V. I. Department of Health. Proj­ect Introspection periodically conducts workshops for educators.

rural community, Amer. I. Clin. Nutl'., 24:578, 1971.

101. Knutsson, K. E. and Selinus, R., Fast­ing in Ethiopia. An anthropological and nutritional study, ArneI'. I. Clill. Nutr., 23:956, 1970.

The goals of the workshops were: 1) to exchange information that would help Virgin Islands children develop appreci­ation and awareness of their cultural food heritage; 2) to promote nutrition education through meaningful activities; and 3) to enhance the teacher-nutrition­ist-home economist relationship.

Materials and methods used in the workshop series included: exhibits of fresh local foods (e.g., cassava bread, sweet go, tania, papaya, and soursop); printed literature on fishing, agriculture, extension services, health and voluntary agencies; a West Indian doll depicted as the "Market Woman" (a traditional fig­ure who carries a basket of produce on her head at the open market square); tasting 10lcal dishes; singing a local folk­song; and eXiploring descriptive terms in a glossary of native foods.

Teachers' knowledge of an adequate diet and awareness of nutritional prob­lems among school children were also checked, and suitable classroom and lunchroom activities were suggested. One feature of the workshops was a question­naire to assess the extent of use of local foods and culture in teaching activities, use of resource people, and teachers' awareness of poor nutritional habits among their own students and what they do about them.

The workshops served as a beneficial beginning for exchange of ideas on the role of food in the local culture. A great deal O!f interest was generated. In fact, only one session had originally been schedu'led, and four others were added due to the enthusiasm of participants.

Some follow-up from the workshops was evident when several requests were made by participants for additional ma­terials for use with their students.

Marva S. Browne, (formerly) Chief Project Nutritionist, Children and Youth Projects, Virgin Islands; P. O. Box 2953, St. Thomas, Virgin Islands 00801.

Food Science Course Turns o,n Non-science College Students

Faculty of the Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Massil'chusetts, Amherst, designed an in-

VOL. 5, NO.3, JULY-SEPT., 1973