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FIQH AS A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION DEVELOPING DEVELOPING THE DISCIPLINE OF FIQH THE DISCIPLINE OF FIQH Session Three

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Page 1: FIQH AS A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION - Universiteit Leidenmedia.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/ppt0000007.pdf · What is Social construction? 2. Historiography of Islamic law 3. ... • Kitab al-Zina

FIQH

AS A SOCIAL

CONSTRUCTION

DEVELOPING DEVELOPING THE DISCIPLINE OF FIQHTHE DISCIPLINE OF FIQH

SessionT

hree

Page 2: FIQH AS A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION - Universiteit Leidenmedia.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/ppt0000007.pdf · What is Social construction? 2. Historiography of Islamic law 3. ... • Kitab al-Zina

SESSIONS

1.What is Social construction?

2.Historiography of Islamic law

3.Developing the Discipline of Fiqh

4.Developing the Authority of Fiqh

Page 3: FIQH AS A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION - Universiteit Leidenmedia.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/ppt0000007.pdf · What is Social construction? 2. Historiography of Islamic law 3. ... • Kitab al-Zina
Page 4: FIQH AS A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION - Universiteit Leidenmedia.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/ppt0000007.pdf · What is Social construction? 2. Historiography of Islamic law 3. ... • Kitab al-Zina

• The study of history

• The study of the way history has been written

• The study of the changing interpretations of the events

• Narrative/ Metanarrative

• Historiographical Tradition

• Historiographical Framework4

Session T

wo

Page 5: FIQH AS A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION - Universiteit Leidenmedia.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/ppt0000007.pdf · What is Social construction? 2. Historiography of Islamic law 3. ... • Kitab al-Zina

FIQH

AS A SOCIAL

CONSTRUCTION

DEVELOPINGDEVELOPINGTHE DISCIPLINE OF FIQHTHE DISCIPLINE OF FIQH

SessionT

hree

Page 6: FIQH AS A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION - Universiteit Leidenmedia.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/ppt0000007.pdf · What is Social construction? 2. Historiography of Islamic law 3. ... • Kitab al-Zina

OUTLINE

• Constructive Indices• Defining the EPISTEMOLOGY of Fiqh• Developing the Discipline

• SCOPE

• Classification of subjects

• Curricula: Continuity and Authenticity• Literature: classification and continuity

• Transmitting the Knowledge: Madrasa, Ijaza• Training the Faqih : Profession of Law• Building the Community: Madhhab, guild, Taqlid,

Tabaqat

Page 7: FIQH AS A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION - Universiteit Leidenmedia.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/ppt0000007.pdf · What is Social construction? 2. Historiography of Islamic law 3. ... • Kitab al-Zina

Fo

rma

tiv

e

/Cla

ssic

al

Pe

rio

d

662-961

Fatwa CentresFatwa Centres

Hadith CentresHadith Centres

Fiqh Schools

minimal advisoryminimal advisory

Page 8: FIQH AS A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION - Universiteit Leidenmedia.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/ppt0000007.pdf · What is Social construction? 2. Historiography of Islamic law 3. ... • Kitab al-Zina

Fiqh and Hadith[three centuries of Islam]Fiqh Centres and Schools

Medina

• Abu ‘Abdullah Ja’far al-Sadiq (702-765): Ja‘fari School

• Zayd b. Ali (695-740): Zaydi School

• Malik b. Anas (711-795): Maliki School

Mecca

• Abu ‘Abdullah Muhammad b. Idris al- Shafi‘i (767-820): Shafi‘i School

Kufa

• Abu Hanifa (699-767): Hanafi School

Baghdad

• Ahmad b. Hanbal (780-855): Hanbali School

Ibn Jarir al-Tabari (838- 923): Jariri School

Damascus

• ‘Abd al-Rahman Awza‘i (707-774): Awza‘i School

Basra

• ‘Abdullah b. Ibad (?): Ibadi School

– Abu Da’ud Sulayman al-Sijistani (817-889): Zahiri School

Cairo

– Qadi Nu’man (d. 974), Isma‘ili school

Hadith Collections

1. Malik b. Anas (711-795): al-Muwatta

2. Isma‘il al-Bukhari ( 810-870): Sahih

3. Muslim b. Hajjaj al-Nishapuri (817-875): Sahih

4. Abu Da’ud al-Sijistani (817-889): Sunan

5. Abu ‘Isa al-Tirmidhi (824-892): Jami‘

6. Ibn Majah al-Qazwini(824-887): Sunan

7. Abu ‘Abd al-Rahman al-Nasa’i (829-915): Sunan

Page 9: FIQH AS A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION - Universiteit Leidenmedia.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/ppt0000007.pdf · What is Social construction? 2. Historiography of Islamic law 3. ... • Kitab al-Zina

From Muftis to Madhhabs

• Muftis (661-740): Madina, Makkah, Kufah, Basrah, Syria, Egypt,

Yemen

1. Ibadiya:

‘Abdullah b. Ibad (d. 706), Najd, Basrah

2. Zaydiya: Zayd b. ‘Ali (695-740), Madinah, Kufah

3. Isma‘iliyya: Isma‘il b. Ja’far al-Sadiq(721-755),

Madinah

4. Imamiyya (Ja’fariyya, Ithna ‘ashariyya):

Ja‘far al-Sadiq (702- 765), Madinah

5. Hanafiyya:Nu‘man b. Thabit Abu Hanifa (699-

767), Kufah-Baghdad

6. Awza‘i: Abd al-Rahman Awza‘i (707-774),

Damascus

7. Malikiyya:Malik b. Anas ( 711- 795), Madinah

8. Shafi‘iyya:Muhammad b. Idris al-Shafi‘i (767-

820), Gaza, Egypt

9. Hanabila: Ahmad b. Hanbal (780- 855), Basrah,

Baghdad

10. Zahiriyya:Da’ud b. Khalaf (817- 883), Sistan, Basrah

11. Tabariyya:Abu Ja‘far Muhammad b. Jarir al-

Tabari (838-923), Amul

Page 10: FIQH AS A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION - Universiteit Leidenmedia.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/ppt0000007.pdf · What is Social construction? 2. Historiography of Islamic law 3. ... • Kitab al-Zina

Madhhab Communities

Page 11: FIQH AS A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION - Universiteit Leidenmedia.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/ppt0000007.pdf · What is Social construction? 2. Historiography of Islamic law 3. ... • Kitab al-Zina

FORMATIVE CONTEXT

• Quraysh // Non-Quraysh : Arabic Culture• Arab // Non-Arab: Arabic language

• Revelation // Reason : Infallibility• Divine // Human: Shari’a -> Fiqh al-Shari’a

• Qurra, Mufassir, Muhaddith, Katib, Adib, Mutakallim , Faqih, Sufi

• Hadith // Ra’y: Fiqh = Hadith + Ra’y• Text // Practice : Fiqh = Text �� ‘Urf/ ‘Ada• Authenticity // Acceptability: Ijtihad �� Ijma‘

Experts // Commons: Fuqaha/ Mujtahid // muqallid

Page 12: FIQH AS A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION - Universiteit Leidenmedia.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/ppt0000007.pdf · What is Social construction? 2. Historiography of Islamic law 3. ... • Kitab al-Zina

EPISTEMOLOGY OF FIQH:

AL-FARABI (d. 950)

Science or Art ? Both. Human/revealed ? Human

•Fiqh = Sana‘a, Art, Skill of deduction•Fiqh: Science of society

•Epistemology: Unity and Hierarchy of Sciences•Sciences:

1. Languages2. Logic3. Applied sciences (Ta‘alim): ‘ilm al-‘Adad, Handasa, Music etc.4. Physics/metaphysics5. Social Sciences: Fiqh, Kalam

Page 13: FIQH AS A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION - Universiteit Leidenmedia.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/ppt0000007.pdf · What is Social construction? 2. Historiography of Islamic law 3. ... • Kitab al-Zina

EPISTEMOLOGY OF FIQH:

AL-BAZDAWI (d. 1100)

Fiqh: Science or Art (Skill)? Science/ Human•Al- ‘Ilm fi’l-Din•Special knowledge of Religion: Kitab, Sunna and Ijma’ of the community•Knowledge of the Legal (Shar‘iyya) Rules •Hikma, knowledge of facts, truth

• Ma‘na, ra’y, ‘illa, sabab, ma‘qul, nukta, dalil, nazar, hujja, burhan

Faqih = (metaphorically) One who memorizes the doctrines and insights, even though not the meaning

Page 14: FIQH AS A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION - Universiteit Leidenmedia.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/ppt0000007.pdf · What is Social construction? 2. Historiography of Islamic law 3. ... • Kitab al-Zina

EPISTEMOLOGY OF FIQH: AL-GHAZALI

Art/ HumanA‘mal/ Sana‘a, worldly System

• Siyasa• Anbiya• Caliphs, Kings• Ulama• Preachers

•‘Ilm al-Fiqh: sana‘a• ‘ilm dunyawi, mahmud, Shar‘iyya, kifaya

Faqih•Expert in Siyasa and mediation•King’s guide to governance•Governance is not a religious science •Shar‘iyya through Anbiya,

• Ghayr Shar‘iyya: Human reason, experience, social interaction

•Fard ‘ayn contestedTheologians /Jurists /Mufassirun, Muhaddithun /Sufiya

Page 15: FIQH AS A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION - Universiteit Leidenmedia.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/ppt0000007.pdf · What is Social construction? 2. Historiography of Islamic law 3. ... • Kitab al-Zina

DEVELOPING THE DISCIPLINE:

SCOPE

Malik: al-Muwatta’ 8th century: Comprehensive

• Salat, zakat …. [religious rituals]• Nikah, talaq… [family]• Buyu‘, Qirad, musaqat .. [transactions]• Al-Aqdiya, ‘itaq … [judicial]• Al-Hudud, al-ashriba.. [crimes]• Al-Jami‘(Miscellaneous): Ethics, Manaqib

Page 16: FIQH AS A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION - Universiteit Leidenmedia.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/ppt0000007.pdf · What is Social construction? 2. Historiography of Islamic law 3. ... • Kitab al-Zina

DEVELOPING THE DISCIPLINE: SCOPE

• Bukhari, Sahih [9th century]

• Wahy, iman, ‘ilm• Salat, zakat…• Buyu‘, shurb ..• Mazalim, Qisas• Bad’ a-khalq, history,..• Tafsir..• Dhaba’ih, ashriba, Tibb,

istidhan

• Ayman• Fara’id• Hudud• Hiyal, • Fitan..• Ahkam• Akhbar al-Ahad• I‘tisam bi’l-kitab wa al-

Sunna• Comprehensive

Page 17: FIQH AS A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION - Universiteit Leidenmedia.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/ppt0000007.pdf · What is Social construction? 2. Historiography of Islamic law 3. ... • Kitab al-Zina

CLASSIFICATION OF SUBJECTS

• HUDUD IN FIQH Eighth century Malik b. Anas (d. 7950 ), al-Muwatta

• Kitab (book) on Hudud:•• Zina (adultery, rape, fornication), • Qadhf (accusation of Zina, • Sariqa (theft)• Kitab of Ashriba (Drinks):• Hadd for drinking• Kitab of Diyat (Blood-money):• Murder• Injuries

Page 18: FIQH AS A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION - Universiteit Leidenmedia.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/ppt0000007.pdf · What is Social construction? 2. Historiography of Islamic law 3. ... • Kitab al-Zina

CLASSIFICATION OF SUBJECTS

• Ibn Rushd (d. 1198), Bidayat al-Mujtahid• Kitab al-Qisas

1. qatl (murder)2. Jarh (injuries)

• Kitab al-Zina1. Sexual offences

• Kitab al-Qadhf1. Accusation of Zina2. Drinking

• Kitab al-Sariqa1. Theft

• Kitab al-Haraba1. Rebellion2. Apostasy

Page 19: FIQH AS A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION - Universiteit Leidenmedia.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/ppt0000007.pdf · What is Social construction? 2. Historiography of Islamic law 3. ... • Kitab al-Zina

CLASSIFICATION OF SUBJECTS

• Burhanuddin Marghinani (d. 1196), Al-Hidaya

Kitab al-Hudud1. Zina 2. Shurb3. Qadhf

Kitab al-Sariqa (Theft)1. Sariqa,2. Qat‘ al-Tariq (Highway robbery)

Kitab al-Siyar (war, International law)1. Apostasy2. Rebellion

Page 20: FIQH AS A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION - Universiteit Leidenmedia.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/ppt0000007.pdf · What is Social construction? 2. Historiography of Islamic law 3. ... • Kitab al-Zina

CLASSIFICATION OF SUBJECTS

• Wahba al-Zuhayli, Al-Fiqh al-Islami wa adillatuhu, Vol.6

• Chapter 1: Hudud1. Zina2. Qadhf3. Sariqa4. Haraba (robbery and murder)5. Qat‘al-tariq (highway robbery)6. Bughat (rebellion)7. Muskirat (drinking)8. Ridda (apostasy)

• Chapter 2: Ta‘zir• Chapter 3: Janayat (Crimes and offences)

1. Qatl (Murder)2. Jarah (Injuries)3. Ijhad (abortion)4. Crimes against animals

Page 21: FIQH AS A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION - Universiteit Leidenmedia.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/ppt0000007.pdf · What is Social construction? 2. Historiography of Islamic law 3. ... • Kitab al-Zina

SYSTEMATIZATION OF SUBJECT

MATTER

FiqhFiqh

‘IBADAT/Rights of

God

‘IBADAT/Rights of

God

Mu‘amalat

Rights of

Men

Mu‘amalat

Rights of

Men

• Purification• Salat• Sawm• Zakat • Hajj

• Purification• Salat• Sawm• Zakat • Hajj

Munakahat [ personal laws]Munakahat [ personal laws]

Mu‘amalat, Contracts, PropertyMu‘amalat, Contracts, Property

Janayat/ Penalties [Hudud/

/Qisas/Ta‘zirat]

Janayat/ Penalties [Hudud/

/Qisas/Ta‘zirat]

Page 22: FIQH AS A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION - Universiteit Leidenmedia.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/ppt0000007.pdf · What is Social construction? 2. Historiography of Islamic law 3. ... • Kitab al-Zina

CLASSIFICATION OF LEGAL

VALUES/ LEGALITY

Al-Ahkam al-Taklifiya

1. Wajib/Fard2. Mustahab/ Mandub3. Mubah4. Makruh5. Haram

Al-Ahkam al-Wad‘iya

• 1)Cause (Sabab)• 2) Condition (Shart)• 3) Hindrance (Mani‘)• 4) Strict law (‘Azimah)

and concessionary lay (Rukhsah)

• 5) Valid, irregular and void (Sahih, Fasid and Batil)

Page 23: FIQH AS A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION - Universiteit Leidenmedia.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/ppt0000007.pdf · What is Social construction? 2. Historiography of Islamic law 3. ... • Kitab al-Zina

CATEGORIZING LEGALITY:

AL-HUKM AL-TAKLIFI

Halal

0Mubah

Page 24: FIQH AS A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION - Universiteit Leidenmedia.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/ppt0000007.pdf · What is Social construction? 2. Historiography of Islamic law 3. ... • Kitab al-Zina

CATEGORIZING LEGALITY: AHKAM

0Halal Haram

Mubah

Wajib Mandub Makruh Haram

Shafi‘i School

Page 25: FIQH AS A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION - Universiteit Leidenmedia.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/ppt0000007.pdf · What is Social construction? 2. Historiography of Islamic law 3. ... • Kitab al-Zina

HANAFI SCHOOL[QUR’AN/SUNNA]

0Halal

Haram

Mubah

WajibFard

Tanzihi Tahrimi

Sunna ghayr mu’akkada

Mubah

Wajib Mandub Makruh Haram

Sunna Mu’akkada

Page 26: FIQH AS A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION - Universiteit Leidenmedia.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/ppt0000007.pdf · What is Social construction? 2. Historiography of Islamic law 3. ... • Kitab al-Zina

DEVELOPING THE DISCIPLINE:

HANAFI LITERATURE

• Kutub Zahir al-Riwaya, Usul, Masa’il al-Usul• Six books of Imam Muhammad b. al-Hasan al-Shaybani

(d. 805)• Al-Jami‘ al-Kabir• Al-Jami‘ al-Saghir• Al-Siyar al-Kabir• Al-Siyar al-Saghir• Al-Ziyadat• Al-Mabsut (also called the al-Asl)

• Al-Nawadir• Al-Waqi‘at

Page 27: FIQH AS A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION - Universiteit Leidenmedia.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/ppt0000007.pdf · What is Social construction? 2. Historiography of Islamic law 3. ... • Kitab al-Zina

DEVELOPING THE DISCIPLINE:

HANAFI LITERATURE

• 10th -11th century

• Al-Hakim (d. 945), Al-Kafi (recension of Zahir al-Riwaya)• Al-Quduri (d. 1036), Mukhtasar• Al-Sarakhsi (d.1090), Al-Mabsut (Sharh al-Kafi)• Al-Kasani (d. 1191), Bada’i’ al-Sana’i’‘(al-Kafi)• Al-Marghnani (d. 1196), Hidaya

Page 28: FIQH AS A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION - Universiteit Leidenmedia.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/ppt0000007.pdf · What is Social construction? 2. Historiography of Islamic law 3. ... • Kitab al-Zina

HANAFI LITERATURE

13TH -16TH CENTURY

• Sadr al-Din al-Mahbubi : Al-Wiqaya (Summary of al-Hidaya)

• Abu’l-Barakat al-Nasafi (d. 1310), Kanz al-Daqa’iq• Zayla‘i (d.1342), Tabyin al-Haqa’iq• Quhistani (d. 1543), Jami‘ al-Ramuz• Ibn Nujaym (d. 1563), Bahr al-Ra’iq, Al-Ashbah wa’l

Naza’ir

• Fatawa: Ibn Mazza (d. 1174); Dhakhirat al-Fatawa• Qadi Khan (d.1196), Fatawa Qadikhan

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OTTOMAN

• Mulla Khusraw (d.1480), Ghurar al-Hukkam, Durar al-Hukkam

• Ibrahim al-Haalabi (d. 1549), Multaqa al-Abhur [Quduri, Daqa’iq]

• Shaykhzadeh (d. 1667), Majma‘ al-Anhur• Al-Haskafi (d. 1677), Al-Durar al-Muntaqa, Al-Durr al-

Mukhtar• Ibn ‘Abidin (d. 1836), Radd al-Muhtar

•• Fatawa

• Al-Fatawa al-Hindiyya

Page 30: FIQH AS A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION - Universiteit Leidenmedia.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/ppt0000007.pdf · What is Social construction? 2. Historiography of Islamic law 3. ... • Kitab al-Zina

TRANSMISSION OF KNOWLEDGE

• MADRASA• Theories: Preaching/defending, Theological schools, Law

schools. George Makdisi• Unity, Continuity, comprehensiveness, specialization as

apprentice• Early: Mosque, teacher and book based [Isnad back to

author] hadith pattern • Madrasa/ Jami‘a; 9th-10th centuries. Qarawiyyin (859) Fez, al-

Azhar (959) Cairo, Hawza Qom (10th century), Najaf (10th), Nizamiyya (11th century)

• Later: Fiqh major subject, employment• Finances: State, Waqf, Personal

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TRANSMISSION OF KNOWLEDGE

• TRAINING: Disputation, Dissertation, Mudhakara, Munazara, Jadal, Ikhtilaf

•• RECOGNITION /QUALIFICATION: Ijaza, [individual

teacher, book, subject, tadris, Ifta, qada, tasnif, ta’lif

Page 32: FIQH AS A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION - Universiteit Leidenmedia.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/ppt0000007.pdf · What is Social construction? 2. Historiography of Islamic law 3. ... • Kitab al-Zina

TRANSMISSION OF KNOWLEDGE

• Teaching• Curricula• Maktab, Nizamiyya, Dars Nizami, Hawza,

• ‘Ulum Naqliyya: Arabic language, grammar, Rhetoric, Literature, Qur’an, Tafsir, Hadith, Ulum al-hadith, ‘Aqa’id (kalam), Fiqh, Usul al-Fiqh

• ‘Ulum ‘Aqliyya: Mantiq, mathematics, Agebra, Trignometry, calculus, Astronomy, …Philosophy, Hikma, Tibb

• Muqaddimat, Sutuh, Dars Kharij, Ijtihad

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PROFESSION OF LAW

• GUILDS: residential, apprenticeship, Sahib• PROFESSORS, Kursi: Shaykh

• GRADES: sahib, Ustadh, Mulaqqin, Mu’addib, Mu’id, ‘Alim,

• COMMUNITY OF EXPERTS: Imam, Mujtahid (grades), Riyasa, Marja’ al-aqlid, Mufti, Mudarris, Qadi, Nazir

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LITERATURE

• Classification of Books• Mukhtasar• Mukhtsar/ Mutawwal/ Wasit/ • Sharh /Hashiya/ Ta‘liq, Matn• Jami‘• Ta‘liqa• Kitab• Risala• Amali• Fahrasa/ barnamaj/ mashikha• Bab, fasl, mas’ala, Muqaddima, ifada• Fatwa

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SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION

• Tradition, Community of Experts• EXPERTS AND STATE• EXPERTS AND SOCIETY• AUTHENTICITY AND ACCEPTABILITY• DISCOURSE• IJMA’• Fiqh –Madhhab – taqlid • Usul al-Fiqh = Ideology

Page 36: FIQH AS A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION - Universiteit Leidenmedia.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/ppt0000007.pdf · What is Social construction? 2. Historiography of Islamic law 3. ... • Kitab al-Zina

Simile of Tree

• Furu ‘: Branches:

• Doctrines, Madhhab

• Usul: Principles

• Usul: roots, sources

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Usul al-Fiqh: Structural

Conflict/Resolution

Ijtihad/Taqlid

Objectives of Law

Analysis

Abrogation

Sources of Law

Qur’an

Sunna

Consensus

Legal Reasoning

InferenceLaws

Hukm

Laws

Hukm

Secondary sources

Taklifi

Wad’i

Authority

Rights/Duties

Capacity

Linguistics

Grammar

Semantics

Hermeneutics

Logic

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Simile of System:

Maslaha between Ghazali and Shatibi

Page 39: FIQH AS A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION - Universiteit Leidenmedia.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/ppt0000007.pdf · What is Social construction? 2. Historiography of Islamic law 3. ... • Kitab al-Zina

Simile of System: Shatibi

• Five Intents of

the Lawgiver

Common Good

LangugeObligation

AuthenticityObedience

Page 40: FIQH AS A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION - Universiteit Leidenmedia.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/ppt0000007.pdf · What is Social construction? 2. Historiography of Islamic law 3. ... • Kitab al-Zina

FIQH A

S A S

OCIA

L

CONSTR

UCTION

4

DEVELOPING THE AUTHORITY OF FIQH

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AUTHORITY OF FIQH

Ideology

Fiqh = Shari ‘a

Text = Nass qat‘i, revealed, connected with revelation

Taqlid = madhhab, narrative of madhahib

Fuqaha = successors of the Prophet

Tabaqat al- Fuqaha, Grades of Ijtihad, Biographies

Ijma‘ = legitimacy of tradition, continuity, authenticity

Fatwa = continuity of non-state legal system

Salafiyya: rejection of taqlid , Fiqh al-Sunna

Islamic State, state enforcement of Shari’a