Final Thesis Submission - Kari-Anne Kooy

Running head: NURTURING RESILIENCE FOR AT-RISK ADOLESCENTS 1

Art Therapy and Arts-Based Programs: Nurturing Resilience for At-Risk Adolescents

Kari-Anne Kooy

Redeemer University College

NURTURING RESILIENCE FOR AT-RISK ADOLESCENTS 2

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………………3

Acknowledgments…………………………………………………………………………………4

Chapter I: Introduction…………………………………………………………………………….5

Art Therapy………………………………………………………………………………..6

a) Arts-Based Programs………………………………………………………….8

b) Art therapy, Art Programing and Youth…..…………………………………..9

Adolescents At-Risk……………………………………………………………………..10

Resilience………………………………………………………………………………...11

Chapter II: Summary of Studies…………………………………………………………………13

Art and Education………………………………………………………………………..13

Arts-Based Programs and At-Risk Youth…………………………………...…………...18

Art Therapy and At-Risk Youth…………………………………………………………24

Chapter III: Critical Analysis of Studies…………………………………………………………27

Sample Size………………………………………………………………………………27

Self-Report……………………………………………………………………………….29

Study Design……………………………………………………………………………..31

Other Limitations………………………………………………………………………...34

Chapter IV: Conclusion………………………………………………………………………….36

Future Research………………………………………………………………………….36

Concluding Remarks……………………………………………………………………..38

References………………………………………………………………………………………..42


Abstract

The number of adolescents considered to be marginalized and at risk of harmful life events has

increased over the past twenty years (Kidd, 2008). Studies have revealed that resilient

characteristics can protect at-risk youth from negative life outcomes such as poverty,

homelessness and education failure (Abdallah, 2009; Camilleri, 2007). Resilient characteristics

include: self-esteem, pro-social behaviour, problem-solving skills, as well as other traits

(Abdallah, 2009; Benard 1993; Camilleri, 2007; Kidd, 2008). Recent studies have demonstrated

that art-based programs, as well as art therapy, can foster resiliency for youth (Abdallah, 2009;

Wright et al., 2006). The research on this topic will be examined. Because of the preliminary

nature of these studies, no concrete conclusions can be drawn. However, arts-based programs, as

well as art therapy, can show promising results for developing resiliency among youth who are

at-risk.


Acknowledgments

I am extremely grateful to my friends, family, and professors who have supported me during this

semester. In particular, I would like to thank Dr. W. Norman, as well as Dr. B. Stephenson, for

their feedback and encouragement. I would also like to thank my partner, Bryden Eby, for his

unwavering support and constant reassurance. My immediate family has also been a valuable

support during this time through editing my work, as well as encouraging me during the process.

Furthermore, I would like to thank Betty Brouwer, Meghan Hers, as well as Marlene Power, for

assisting me with finding resources. Without the support of this community, I would not have

been able to complete this project. Thank you.


Art Therapy and Arts-Based Programs: Nurturing Resilience for At-Risk Adolescents

Chapter I

Adolescence is a time of transition from childhood to adulthood filled with upheaval,

emotional strife, as well as cognitive challenges (Aballah, 2009, p.18; Stepney, 2010, p. 83).

Adolescence can be described as an age of rapid change which lasts from approximately 10 years

of age to early the 20s (Moon, 2012, p.18). Erik Erikson’s model of identity versus identity

confusion explains that during this time youth are faced with many new roles as well as the task

of self-discovery (Santrock, 2012, p.140). Without the proper resources or social connections,

those who are enduring this tempestuous time face many risk factors that can result in negative

life outcomes (Camilleri, 2007, p. 51). The adolescents that are included in this broad group are

called at-risk youth. Camilleri (2007) explains that these negative events “or their outcomes can

include depression [or mental illness], education failure, addiction, unemployment, incarceration,

poverty, or death” (p. 17). There have been growing rates of marginalization amongst youth over

the past twenty years and it had been recently estimated that there is one million homeless youth

in North America (Coles, 2007; Kidd, 2008).

Although the number of adolescents facing marginalization and risk is on the rise, there

are protective factors that can be developed. These protective factors are resilient characteristics

which include: problem-solving, social competence, self-esteem, and many others (Kidd, 2008,

p.1; Stepeny, 2010, p.81). Emerging evidence has shown that art therapy, as well as arts-based

programs, can be methods of promoting resilience among at-risk youth (Abdallah, 2009;

Clawson et al., 2001; Wright et al., 2006). Levine (2011) explains that art is a powerful tool

which allows not only self-expression, but an opportunity to create an alternative reality which in

turn can “show us possibilities that are absent or dormant within our everyday awareness” (p.28).


Art therapy, as well as arts-based programs, have proven the power of art through the strides of

youth who are involved in these programs (Abdallah, 2009; Catteral, 1997; Clawson et al., 2001;

Heath et al., 1998; Wright et al., 2006). At-risk adolescents involved in art programming have

been reported to have increased academic performance, developed valuable connections with the

larger community, as well as improved self-esteem (Catteral, 1997; Coles, 2007; Fliegel, 2005;

Heath et al., 1998). If art therapy and arts-based programs can aid in increased resilient

characteristics for the youth who are struggling in North America, it is vital to explore the

practice of art therapy as well as research on the impact it has on youth at-risk. Therefore, this

paper will look at current research which demonstrates that art therapy and arts-based programs

help to promote resiliency for adolescents at-risk.

Art Therapy

Art therapy is a fairly new method of psychotherapy that has emerged and developed as a

formal approach over the last 50 years (Brooke,2006; Junge, 2010; Steward,2007). The

American Art Therapy Association (AATA) Newsletter of 2004 defines art therapy as:

The therapeutic use of art making, within a professional relationship, people who

experience illness, trauma, or challenges in living, and by people who seek personal

development. Through creating art and reflecting on the art products and processes,

people can increase awareness of self and others, cope with symptoms, stress, and

traumatic experiences; enhance cognitive abilities; and enjoy the life affirming pleasures

of making art. (Brooke, 2006, p.3)

Art therapy is a dynamic approach to psychotherapy that is constantly growing and changing

(Brooke, 2006, p.3). The purpose of this section is to explore the history and benefits of art

therapy, as well as gain an understanding that the process of art-making is essentially therapeutic.


The practise of art therapy is rooted in psychoanalytic theory and was first used by

clinicians as a method of uncovering unconscious material (Steward, 2007, p.18). Sigmund

Freud and Carl Jung are often recognized as initiating the connection between art and

psychotherapy (Booke, 2006; Junge, 2010). Freud placed emphasis on art as being “the result of

unresolved unconscious material” (Brooke, 2006, p.3) or a “clue to be unraveled in

psychoanalysis” (Junge, 2010 p.11). Jung differed from this view; he saw art-making as a

method of therapy which he personally used to explore his unconscious troubles (Brooke, 2006,

p.3). These two differences in the approach to art and psychotherapy mirror the later differences

in opinions held by the two women who became the main founders of art therapy in America.

Margaret Naumburg was one of the first people to use the term “art therapy” in the 1940’s

(Junge, 2010, p.6). Similar to Freud, Naumburg placed a great deal of emphasis on the role of

psychotherapy within the art therapy setting. She believed that art therapists needed to be

primarily trained in psychodynamic theory rather than as artists. Brooke (2006) explains that

“her approach, art-in-psychotherapy, signified that the art-making process was less important

than free association and client initiated interpretation of the art work” (p.7). In contrast to the

ideas held by Naumburg, an art therapist by the name of Edith Kramer argued that the art making

process itself was therapeutic (Brooke, 2006, p.7). Kramer’s views on art therapy demonstrate

the art-as-therapy approach; from this perspective the creative process is the main focus and

cause of psychological healing (Steward, 2007, p.18). Beyond these two women, there are many

other contributors to the field of art therapy in America and throughout the world. The two

perspectives illustrate the spectrum of art therapy as it exists today in North America.

Art therapy within the 21st century is multifaceted; the art making process is the one thing

that remains constant through these different approaches (Abdallah, 2009; Brooke, 2006; Junge,


2010; Moon, 2012; Steward, 2007). Brooke (2006) explains that the new models developed in

this field lead to clinicians taking a more integrated approach to art therapy, using different

modes that suit the client (p. 10). She goes on to explain that “an eclectic approach was the

model preferred by most AATA members, suggesting that today’s art therapists do not select one

approach, but choose and select based on client needs” (Brooke, 2006, p.13). Some of these

approaches might include psychoanalytic theory or a humanistic approach, as well as many

others. The psychodynamic theory, as described by Junge (2010), notes that art-making “can

sidetrack defenses” and “tap into the unconscious”, giving the therapist a chance to see the inner

world of the client (p.10). A humanist approach involves a “philosophy concerned with the

nature of human experience” (Junge, 2010, p. 198). It is a positive outlook on humans and their

ability to make constructive changes for themselves and their world. From a humanist or person-

centered approach to art therapy, a therapist would trust in the clients to be able to find their own

path to healing through art (Abdallah, 2009, p.35). Humanistic and psychoanalytic perspectives

are only two of the many approaches used in this therapy. It is important to recognize that art

therapy is a dynamic and flexible form of treatment that can range on a spectrum from art as a

therapeutic process, to art playing a more minor role in psychotherapy (Moon, 2012, p.26).

a) Arts Based Programs

It is important to recognize the distinction between art therapy and arts-based programs

(Junge, 2010; Rapp-Paglicci et al., 2006). However, it is also imperative to recognize the

psychological benefits that arts-based programs can provide for those who attend (Catteral, 1997;

Clawson & Coolbaugh, 2001; Ersing, 2009; Fiske, 1999; Heath et al., 1998; Wright et al., 2005;

Wright et al., 2006). Junge (2010) explains that art therapists are different from those who

implement art activities as interventions in schools or other programs: “an art therapist is


someone who has learned both disciplines of art and psychology” (p.286). Alternatively, arts-

based programs are led by artists, social workers, and teachers meaning that these programs lack

the “psychodynamic theoretical foundation” of art therapy (Rapp-Paglicci et al., 2006, p.2).

Arts-based programs are often geared toward youth, providing them with the space to

create art either in or outside of school (Fiske, 1999; Heath, 1998). These programs can prevent

delinquency or other negative outcomes and promote pro-social functioning, as well as higher

academic achievement among participants (Clawson & Coolbaugh, 2001; Fiske, 1999; Heath et

al., 1998; Wright et al., 2005). Ersing (2009) explains that art programs “offer a unique outlet for

self-expression, self-discovery, and the building of self-esteem” (p.2). This falls in line with

Moon’s (2012) experience with adolescents in a group art therapy session, where he observed

that the art making process was a healthy and meaningful way for the youth to express

themselves (p.11). Moon (2012) goes on to argue that “the creative and expressive quality of art

making is in and of itself therapeutic… art therapists should regard themselves primarily as

artists in the therapeutic context” (p.26). From this perspective, arts-based programing can

provide a therapeutic milieu, which can “nurture the social and emotional capacity of

adolescents, leading to increased engagement with the broader community” (Ersing, 2009, p.2).

Through art-programming, at-risk youth are provided with many valuable opportunities.

b) Art Therapy, Art Programing and Youth

With the basic understanding of art therapy, as well as arts-based programs, it is

important to examine how they can benefit youth. Abdallah (2009) explains that art therapy can

offer youth a safe space for expression, ability to use metaphor to express oneself, and a flexible

yet structured environment (p.18). In her experience as an art therapist, McGann (1999) observes

how “externalizing emotions and experiences in the art allows these [youth] to place their life


events at a distance to be examined” (p.8). Furthermore, art therapy offers youth a chance to

express things that are beyond words, as well as to explore and develop their identity (Camillieri,

2007; Brooke, 2006; McGann, 1999; Moon, 2012; Stepney, 2010; Steward, 2007). Art is an

effective method of engaging youth who are resistant to therapy, it cuts through walls and gets at

important underlying psychological themes (Brooke, 2006, p. 40).

Arts-based programs, while not specifically defined as art therapy, benefit youth in

parallel ways. Coles (2007) reports that involvement in art programs “improves individual self-

esteem, confidence, and conflict resolution skills, decreases anxiety and depression, and provides

opportunities for developing new friendships and positive social networks” (p.3). In her

examination of arts-based programs and the effects on academic achievement, Heath (1999)

found that the youth involved in these programs had a chance to develop their communication

skills, as well as autonomy and identity. Furthermore, Heath (1999) noted that these programs

offered a safe, structured environment in which participants experienced “challenge, practice,

trial and error, and extraordinary expectations and achievements” (p.36). Brooke (2006)

summarizes the importance of arts for youth by explaining that “art provides a safe mode of

expression due to the opportunity it provides to open a conversation” (p.40).

Adolescents At-Risk

As previously discussed, at-risk youth is a broad term used to describe adolescents who

are vulnerable to adverse life outcomes (Cmaillieri, 2007; Steward, 2007). These negative events

are the result of several stress factors that adolescents may face earlier on in life which can be

biological or based on environment (Camilleri, 2007; Stepney, 2010). Anderson et al. (2006)

state that “at-risk youth are usually seen as a compendium of the conditions and behaviours that

threaten their life chances” (p.14). Risk factors are complex and closely linked; often an


adolescent exposed to one risk factor will experience many more, therefore increasing the

number of harmful effects (Camillieri, 2007, p.18). Steward (2007) defines at-risk youth as

having these same basic characteristics: lack of interest or success in academics, low

socioeconomic status, lack of involvement in the community or extracurricular activities,

disruptive or delinquent behaviours, and inferior language skills (p.22). Additionally, youth who

are considered to be at risk often face mental illness and require their psychological needs to be

met (Varallo, 2012, p.15).

There is an extensive list of stressors that can result in a youth becoming “at-risk”

(Camilleri, 2007; Jenson, 2000; Stepney, 2010). Jenson (2000) notes three main factors that

contribute to marginalization in Canada. These issues include: lack of work, poverty, and

isolation from community (p.5-12). These are mainly demographic factors that are considered to

be chronic stressors (Camilleri, 2007). Other stressors include chaotic school or family

environments, negative psychosocial or environmental events (such as death, divorce or suicide),

and psychological make-up (p.18-19). The more of these negative factors a child or adolescent is

faced with, the more likely they will be at-risk of other negative life outcomes (p.18). Stepney

(2010) describes the ecological hazards in the lives of youth at-risk: betrayed trust, feelings of

inadequacy, powerlessness, and loss of purpose (p.75-76). This suggests a bleak outlook on the

prospects of adolescents who are considered to be “at-risk”; however, there is hope for these

struggling youth through the development of protective characteristics (Abdallah, 2009, p.14).

Resilience

Resiliency can be defined as protective characteristics that combat the negative stressors

in an adolescent’s life which could cause them to be at-risk (Abdallah, 2009). Those who are

resilient have developed characteristics such as social competence, problem-solving skills,


independence, and a hopeful attitude, despite their adverse circumstances (Benard, 2002, p. 44).

Another important part of resilience is self-esteem. Kidd (2008) conducted a study that explored

the relationship between risk and resilient factors among at-risk youth. Kidd identified several

risk and protective factors to measure by surveying a number of street youth in New York City.

The results demonstrated that self-esteem was the most effective protective factor. Those who

reported the highest amount of self-esteem also experienced lower adverse feelings or risk

factors (feelings of being trapped, suicidal ideation, or substance use). Therefore, self-esteem is a

key part of resilience that needs to be developed in youth at-risk (p.8).

Camilleri (2007) outlines a detailed list of resilient characteristics of youth supported by

research which counteract the negative stressors that cause adolescents to become at-risk. The

first protective factor is access to social support, as well as the ability to seek it out which results

in high levels of positive outcomes. Those who are able to maintain positive relationships with

others, build social networks that are necessary for youth to rely on during adverse

circumstances. An ability to resolve conflicts is the second resilient characteristic described.

Adolescents who are able to compromise and cooperate with others are more likely to avoid

negative life outcomes. The third risk preventer is the ability to problem solve. Abstract thought

and planning skills contribute to decreased behaviour issues and increased academic

achievement. Emotional management is the next characteristic. It is defined as youth who have

“an ability to communicate their needs effectively and to seek out help from trustworthy adults

who will help them to get any counselling or support that they need” (p.56). Self-concept is the

fifth resilient characteristic. This is reflected in the youth’s self-esteem, self-confidence, as well

as their ability to cope in stressful situations. Finally, positive future expectations result in


heightened resilient characteristics within a youth. Art therapy and arts-based programs have the

capacity to build each of these characteristics within at-risk youth.

The current studies discussed in this paper establish the effectiveness of art therapy and

arts-based programs in nurturing resiliency among at-risk youth. The studies examined are

preliminary and at times inconclusive. While no causal claims can be made, these studies

demonstrate that arts programs, as well as art therapy, can result in the development of resilient

characteristics among participants. The research examined indicates that art therapy and arts-

based programs facilitate the development of resilient characteristics among youth at-risk.

Chapter II

Art and Education

At-risk youth are often defined as those who face academic failure and are in danger of

not being able to complete their high school education (Steward, 2007). This can result in many

negative life outcomes, such as inability to obtain a stable job and a disconnection from

community (Jenson, 2000). Academic success demonstrates the resilient characteristic of having

educational aspirations which can protect against these negative life outcomes (Benard, 1993).

Research completed by Catteral (1997), Heath et al. (1998), as well as Sutherland et al. (2010),

demonstrates that art therapy and arts-based programing within schools helps to improve

academic success and therefore resilience.

Catteral (1997) completed a correlational study to determine the relationship between

student involvement in the arts and academic achievement. His analysis is based on the data

collected from a longitudinal survey funded by the United Stated Department of Education. This

nation-wide survey is known as the National Educational Longitudinal Study (NELS) and it

began in 1988 following 25,000 students throughout their high school career. Data was gained


through tests administered throughout the years, as well as surveys of the students, parents, and

teachers. The NELS has “supported leading research on student achievement in recent years,

including studies addressing school organization, curriculum and the problems of students at

risk” (p.1). Catteral looked at the data collected by the NELS during two years across the middle

and early high school years (p.8).

In his analysis of the data from the NELS, Catteral (1997) found that there was a positive

correlation between high art involvement and high academic achievement among high school

students. He first determined the rates of involvement of students in the arts within high school,

and found that a drop in involvement occurred in the 10th

grade where over 50% of the youth

were no longer involved in any art activities (p.2). Catteral then compared youth who

demonstrated high participation in the arts to those who reported low involvement. Students in

the 8th

to 10th

grade who reported high arts involvement, also demonstrated increased academic

performance. In addition, the drop-out rate for those who were less involved in the arts was four

times higher than students who regularly participated in the arts (p. 3-4). Along with academic

success and engagement in school, there were many other positive attitudes that the youth who

had high arts involvement demonstrated. However, Catteral recognized that this general

overview did not account for those who were of lower socioeconomic standing and might not

have as much access to art-programs. The data collected demonstrated that of those who were of

lower socioeconomic standing (SES), only 17% had high arts involvement, while 39% reported

low arts involvement (p.6).

In his final phase of data analysis, Catteral (1997) explored the effects of high versus low

arts involvement in only youth who were of low SES. He found that the performance levels of

this group were a lot lower; however, the “positive relationships between arts engagement and


academic performance remain robust and systematic” (p.7). The differences were more

pronounced among students in the 10th

grade who were examined. Catteral (1997) found that 5%

of those in the high arts group scored in the top half of the class on standardized tests for math,

reading, and writing. He explained that “this is a 20.4 % difference favouring high-arts

youngsters” (p.7). Results also suggested that youth who were more involved in arts were also

more engaged in school. Of the students from high arts groups, 41% reported boredom in school

in contrast to the 46% in low arts groups. Drop-out rates among youth with low art involvement

were reported by Catteral (1997) to be 45% higher than the drop-out rates of those who showed

high arts participation (p.7). Student self-concept also proved to be higher for those heavily

involved in the arts. Based on the surveys they completed, these youth produced ratings that

were on average 9.2 % higher than youth who did not participate in the arts. Catteral’s

examination of the data collected by the NELS demonstrates a pattern of increased academic

achievement among youth who are highly involved in the arts. This pattern is consistent

throughout the whole sample as well as within the low SES quarter. Despite the lack of causal

conclusions gained, this study makes a strong case for the importance of arts in academic

achievement among youth. Catteral states that the arts “show links to student motivation and

engagement in school, as well as attitudes that contribute to academic persistence and

achievement” (p.9). Catteral’s study reports a significant change in academic performance and

participation in arts from those who are in eighth grade to those who are in grade ten.

Furthermore, it demonstrates a positive correlation between high arts involvement and academic

success.

Heath, Soep and Roach (1998) also explored the effects of involvement in arts-programs

on academic performance and communication among youth. Heath et al. (1998) stressed that arts


enable youth “to improve their academic standing, increase their abilities in self-assessment and

motivation, and raise their sense of the importance of planning and working for a positive future

for themselves and their communities” (p.1). The research project ran from 1987 to 1998 and the

participants included youth, ages 8 to 20, that were considered to be at-risk. These youth

participated in after school arts-programs through the duration of the study. Over 100

participants answered survey questions and these results were compared with data collected by

the NELS. Results demonstrated that the youth who were involved in these after-school arts-

programs were four times more likely to receive school wide attention for academic success. In

addition, they were three times more likely to be elected into student office and four times more

likely to participate in math or science events (p.3). These findings suggest that arts-programs aid

in academic achievement among youth at-risk.

In this study, Heath et al. (1998) give extensive anecdotal evidence for the power, of art

as seen in the studio spaces for the at-risk youth. The students involved in these arts-programs

reported “being aware in many activities beyond their art, that they need to think through

possible outcomes, check ideas with others, and take time to assess options” (p.8). This is an

important demonstration of the development of communication skills, as well as cooperation

with other youth and mentors. Compared with peers in the NELS, those who attended arts-

programs were twice as likely to read for fun and four times more likely to become involved in

community service or youth groups (p.9). The at-risk adolescents involved in this study also

reported that they had the ambition to continue their education beyond high school. Heath et al.

(1998) also found that based on the survey completed by these students, there was a close match

between their high aspirations and actual expectations that they had for themselves. In

conclusion, Heath et al. (1998) argue that the arts-programs for youth at-risk, provide a safe


space for the youth to take healthy risks: “the combination of work and play with risk that carries

young people forward in their learning” (p.13).

Judy Sutherland, Gwenn Waldman, and Carolyn Collins, (2010) examined an art therapy

program they are a part of, called Art Therapy Connection (ATC). ATC is connected with

several schools in Chicago and is intended to help students who are in danger of dropping out.

ATC has proven over the years to be a helpful intervention program to help youth who have

lower socioeconomic status, poor academic standing, and are more at-risk of experiencing

negative life events. In their examination of ATC, Sutherland et al. (2010) make a case for the

importance of art therapy in promoting academic success among at-risk youth, reducing the

danger of these adolescents dropping out of school.

ATC is a one year in-school art therapy program, that reaches out to students who have

no access to mental healthcare and are at risk of failing school. The goal of this program is to

help the participants gain self-awareness, self-management skills, as well as improve

academically. This program began in one school serving 100 youth in 2002. Since then it has

grown and served over 1,000 students in the Chicago public school district (p.69). Sutherland et

al. (2010) explain that through the program, “troubled youth are encouraged to stay in school and

make progress toward social, emotional, and academic success” (p.70). Students are referred to

ATC based on their grades and social behaviour (inattentiveness, defiance, depression, etc.). The

histories of the students referred are examined to gain a better insight on where the adolescent is

coming from. From there the adolescent enters group therapy as a method to help them with the

struggles they are facing in school or at home.

The group meets for one hour every week to work on art and join in creative projects

instigated by the art therapist. The group setting allows the youth to feel a sense of belonging as


they share in their struggles. Through the many sessions observed, Sutherland et al. (2010) have

seen the positive effects of these group therapy sessions. They report that “group therapy can

help a student move away from self-focused, uncooperative, or inconsolable behaviours” (p.71).

They also witnessed many students who had difficulty with language, gaining the ability to

become expressive through art. Through the creative process, many of the students learned that

they had within them the power to change an adverse set of circumstances (p.72). Based on the

observation of outcomes of the ATC program, Sutherland et al. (2010) have found that students

involved “are showing success in social, emotional, and academic areas of their lives” (p.73).

Sutherland et al. (2010) also tracked 150 students through the course of a year (2007-8)

and found that 80% of the students who were involved, attended school regularly (p.73). They

also found that the percentages of graduates increased 36% between the years 2007 and 2008.

Furthermore, results showed that 78% of the students that were a part of the ATC program

completed high school, as opposed to the 56% of students that graduated within the rest of the

school. Sutherland et al. (2010) explain that “when there is an improvement in school attendance,

adjustment, and academic achievement, the students feel proud and are motivated to continue

their lives with a greater capacity for meeting the challenges that face them” (p.73).

Arts-Based Programs and At-Risk Youth

The following studies explore the relationship between at-risk youth and arts-based

programs. They demonstrate that resilient characteristics can be developed within youth through

these programs (Clawson & Coolbaugh, 2001; Wright et al., 2006; Wright et al., 2005).

Specifically, these studies focus on whether or not after school arts-programs are an effective

intervention method for youth who are at-risk or who have been in trouble with the law.


Wright, John & Sheel (2005) conducted a feasibility study to determine the achievability

of setting up an arts program that would be regularly attended by youth. They also tested out the

possibility of collecting before and after data for a group of high-risk youth, as well as how this

demographic of adolescents would accept this type of program. This study was meant to test out

the feasibility of future research on arts-based programs. Wright et al. (2005) also stated that

“even though the objective of the study was not to explore the effects of the art program, results

of the feasibility study indicated that participating youth made appreciable gains throughout the

ten-week program”(p.5).

The participants included in this study were 23 adolescents between the ages of 12 and

18. They were all involved, or at risk of being in conflict with the law, and were required to

attend the art program for ten weeks. The researchers used both quantitative and qualitative

measures to obtain data through pre and post-tests, as well as interviews with the participants.

The pre and post-test measures were questionnaires that were designed to identify demographic,

as well as psychosocial outcomes (p. 12). Qualitative interviews were conducted and taped by

the researchers to gain insight on the participants’ perception of the program. The arts-based

program was held for a 90 minute period twice per week, for ten weeks. Activities were planned

on a weekly basis and youth who attended were allowed to use a wide variety of mediums during

the sessions.

Results showed that enough youth attended this program regularly to make it a worth-

while endeavor for future research. Response rates to the pre and post-tests were also high

among youth, demonstrating the feasibility of pre-post data collection within this demographic.

Furthermore, the questionnaires completed by the youth were reliable, in that the participants did

not simply answer the questions on the surveys randomly. To determine this, results were


compared to the survey answers from the National Arts & Youth Demonstration Project, as well

as Tampa Arts & Youth Demonstration Project which had similar studies in the process of being

conducted.

Although the sample size was too small to produce any inferential results, Wright et al.

(2005) found that the tests and interviews produced data that points towards the efficacy of arts-

based programs among high-risk youth. Results showed an increase in happiness and the amount

of depression decreased. The qualitative interviews also demonstrated positive developments

among youth who attended the program. The improvements observed included lowered drug use,

enhanced social skills, and problem solving skills (p.27). These results are inconclusive due to

the small sample size; however, it still illustrates the effectiveness of arts-based programs in

producing resilient characteristics amongst at-risk youth.

Wright, John, Alaggia and Sheel (2006) created a multi-method evaluation of a

community based arts-program for low income at-risk youth. Their objectives for this study were

to measure how successfully an arts-based program could engage youth and sustain attendance,

assess the youths’ artistic and social skill development during the program, and determine if arts-

based programs have the ability to demonstrate improvement among youth in psychosocial areas

such as behavioural or emotional problems. Wright et al. (2006) wanted to “build on the existing

research and by reporting the results of a multi-method evaluation, determine whether such arts-

programs are effective” (p.638).

The National Arts and Youth Demonstration Project (NAYDP) was the title of the art-

program evaluated in this study. Five NAYDP sites were set up across Canada and were

examined for three years. There were a total of 183 participants who were between the ages 9 to

15 and all from low income communities. The program consisted of theater, visual arts, as well


as film. Meetings were held twice a week after school for 74 sessions. Measures used within this

evaluation included: attendance forms, behaviour evaluations to be completed by the youth as

well as the parents, and interviews with both the youth and parents. The checklist of behaviour

was administered every 3 months during the program and 6 months after completing the

program. The evaluations measured conduct, emotional problems experienced by the youth, pro-

social skills development, and task completion. Interviews were held with 30 randomly selected

participants and their parents. Wright et al. (2006) used a software program to evaluate and

categorize emerging patterns from the interviews to determine the developments occurring

among the youth throughout the program.

Results obtained from the participants of the NAYDP were compared with matched

controls from Statistics Canada (1995). Wright et al. (2006) found that the drop-out rates in the

program were fairly low. On average only 37% of the youth dropped out of the program while an

average of 80% maintained regular attendance. The conduct and emotional problem outcomes

demonstrated a statistically significant improvement among youth who were involved in the art-

based program. NAYDP participants showed a significantly higher decrease in emotional

problems than the control group (p.645). Wright et al. (2006) also found that “throughout

interviews, youth and their parents reported many gains from the arts-programs that supported

the quantitative findings” (p.646). Pro-social developments such as improved teamwork skills,

increased decision making, problem-solving skills, as well as heightened self-esteem, were

consistently reported among youth and their parents. “The data collected demonstrates that

participation, art skills development, pro-social skills, and task completion were statistically

significant and indicated that in these areas, the youth improved over the 9 month period”

(Wright et al., 2006, p, 649). The at-risk youth who attended this program demonstrated the


development of resilient characteristics including improvements in pro-social behaviour as well

as decreased negative emotions.

Clawson and Coolbough (2001) developed a similar study, the YouthARTS Development

Project, that examined the effects of arts-based programs as an intervention for delinquent and

at-risk youth. The YouthARTS Development Project evaluated three different sites across the

United States examining both process and outcome elements. For the process component,

researchers gathered information about the methods used and the structure of these programs, to

help gain a better understanding of what the most effective arts-based program might look like.

The outcomes of the youth who attended these programs were also measured. Qualitative data

was gathered to determine the degree to which the programs achieved immediate effects such as

cooperation and communication, intermediate effects such as a positive out-look and improved

academics, and finally long term impacts on school and overall behaviour (p.2-3). The

researchers obtained their results by comparing the interviews and surveys from the groups on

each site with a matched comparison group.

The first site examined by the YouthARTS Development project was called the “Art-at-

Work” program. This location served delinquent youth 14-16 years of age and was created to

help these youth improve their art skills, develop positive relationships, and increase their self-

esteem. It was designed to serve one group of youth for two years during after school hours, as

well as the summer. Fifteen youth were referred to this program by probation officers; only 10

youth attended the program regularly. The outcome evaluation of this program was hindered by

the researchers’ inability to construct a proper control group. Archival data was used in place of

a control group which meant that some of the questions on the surveys of the youth attending the

Art-at-Work program filled out were not answered. The pre and post-test results showed that the


youth who attended this program experienced a 50% increase in effective communication with

peers as well as a significant increase in cooperation. Findings also suggested that youth showed

improvements in attitudes towards school, increased self-esteem, as well as decreased

engagement in delinquent activities (p.7). Over-all, Calwson & Coolbough (2001) found the

quality and quantity of this site disappointing, but despite this they note that “even cautious

interpretation of the results suggests the program was beneficial” (p.7).

The Youth Arts Public Art was another program evaluated during this study. This

program targeted the same demographic and had similar goals of improving participants’ artistic

skills, self-esteem, attitude towards the future, and enhanced social skills (p.8). There were three

different locations within this program and 37 participants in total. Because attendance was not

mandatory, there was irregular participation. This resulted in data not being uniformly available;

however, youth showed improvement in all program related skills throughout the duration of the

program. Despite the small number of participants, there were promising results that

demonstrated that youth had better attitudes towards peers, school, as well as enhanced

cooperation. One participant reported that the Youth Arts Public Art program “gave us a safe

place to spend time and it provided us with an opportunity to feel good about ourselves” (p.10).

The final location in this study was the Urban SMARTS after school program which

catered to the same demographic and had the same goals as the other two programs. Urban

SMARTS was a part of seven different schools and had a larger group of 112 regularly attending

participants. Like the previous cases, researchers faced problems in obtaining a proper

comparison group. However, findings showed that the youth had increased artistic skills and

improved social skills. This suggests that involvement in art programs can act as a buffer against

the risk factors faced by these youth. Each of the programs examined by the YouthARTS


Development Project, show that arts-based programs create safe environments where youth can

develop resilient characteristics such as a positive outlook, high self-esteem, and pro-social

behaviours.

Art Therapy and At-Risk Youth

Art therapy is another important method of building characteristics of resilience within

youth. The following case studies outline the impact of art therapy on two clients considered to

be at-risk youth (Abdallah, 2009; McGann, 1999). In these two studies the clients were able to

develop their ability to manage emotions, as well as several other resilient characteristics.

McGann (1999) is a professional art therapist who primarily treats emotionally disturbed

adolescent girls. Her art therapy model is based on psychoanalytic practise and she emphasizes

the importance of the transference that occurs in the relationship between the client and therapist,

as well as in the art created during sessions. She views art as an ideal way to treat at-risk youth

due to the fact that expression through art can overcome “deficits in verbal communication

skills” which are prevalent among this demographic (p.53). Furthermore, art making can allow

for expression in a controlled manner that is healing for the client and not destructive towards

anyone else.

In this particular case study, McGann looks at one of her clients she calls “Tina”. Tina

was a troubled youth who demonstrated signs of homicidal rage through her art work created in

therapy. The art-making sessions provided a safe place for Tina to express her rage in a healthy

way and improved her ability to successfully manage these emotions. Tina was a 15 year old girl

who came from an unsettled home; her father was in prison and her mother was constantly

working. Tina often had to take on the responsibilities of her mother, cleaning up around the

house, doing the laundry, and taking care of her younger brothers. Tina had a few episodes of


impulsive assaults on family members and peers. The art work produced by Tina often reflected

her feelings of pent up aggression towards her family and circumstances. In the first few

sessions, McGann noticed that Tina held back in her art. She created a clay house which she built

out of individual clay bricks. This meticulous process demonstrated the “inability to viscerally or

affectively enjoy or regress with the clay” (p.57). Tina had overwhelming feelings of rage that

she was unwilling to express even through art. She was attempting to control her rage; this was

demonstrated in the painstaking methods she employed for her art work.

McGann continued to support and encourage Tina to express herself through art. Tina

made a break through when she began to create her second clay sculpture. Mcgann (1999)

explained that “her approach was both strong and explorative… squeezing, rolling, pounding and

cutting afforded release and relief from aggressive drives which were replaced by a constructive

purpose” (p.60). This situation marked a change in Tina’s rage which had all the while been

directed towards herself but was now able to be expressed through the art-making process.

“Tina’s increased ability to tolerate her own visceral responses, and the decreased need for brittle

defenses indicated increased comfort with, and sense of safety in, the art process as a reflection

of her emotional and psychic functioning” (p.60). Through the process of art-making, Tina

learned how to manage her emotions in a constructive way which resulted in her avoidance of

future unacceptable aggressive acts. Tina was also able to develop a trusting relationship with

McGann through this therapy. This relationship, along with the process of art-making, gave Tina

the environment she needed to explore her anger and aggressive tendencies. Through art therapy,

Tina developed the resilient characteristic of emotional regulation. This positive trait would later

protect her from negative events that might have occurred as a result of aggressive behaviour.


Abdallah (2009) presents another case study of an at-risk youth who benefited from art

therapy by developing several resilient characteristics during the therapeutic process. Abdallah is

a professional art therapist who focused on the treatment of at-risk youth. Her orientation as a

therapist is grounded in theories of psychoanalytic, humanistic, and person-centered approaches.

She also considers herself to be eclectic in that she will use techniques and theories from other

therapy models as needed by the individual clients. Adallah trusts in the client’s ability to take

the appropriate path in therapy and she believes that the client’s own interpretations of the art

work are more important than that of the therapist (p.44-49).

Abdallah presented the case of an at-risk 15 year-old boy named Travis who attended an

alternative school. Travis was experiencing trouble in class due to his Attention Deficit Disorder

and language disability. Outside of class, Travis was bullied by his peers. He also experienced a

troubled home life. He had an absent mother, two boisterous older brothers, and a father who had

recently passed away. Abdallah’s goals for the sessions with Travis were flexible and aimed

mainly to provide a safe environment for Travis to be free to express himself. During the therapy

process, Abdalla made the additional goal of helping Travis increase resilient characteristics.

These included self-expression, development of positive identity, and improved relationships

with others.

In the first few sessions of therapy, Travis created gifts for his family. He created

drawings of things he thought his mother and brothers would like, as well as origami gifts. In

sessions later on, Travis began to make art for himself. He showed a particular interest in origami

and spent many sessions carefully folding paper to create different images. Changes in the focus

of his art from creating gifts to making things for himself, showed the therapist that Travis was

separating his own identity from his family members’ through the art-making process. As the


therapy progressed, Travis took on more challenging projects that required a great amount of

problem-solving skills. Throughout the art therapy sessions, Travis demonstrated marked

improvements and increased resilient characteristics. Near the end of his time in therapy, Travis

displayed an improvement in problem-solving skills, higher self-esteem, and a formation of

positive identity.

The therapeutic space created both by the therapist and the art making process, gave

Travis the opportunity to play, explore, create, and make important discoveries about himself

(p.85). In this case, art acted as a tool Travis used for expression and compensation for the

difficulties he faced. “The developments in identity-related resilient characteristics observed in

this case study were made possible through the creative act of making art as Travis used parallel

processes (giving concrete form to internal elements of his psyche) and symbolic and

metaphorical representation” (p.85).

Chapter III

The following chapter is a critique on the previously summarized studies. The

exploration of the impact art therapy and arts-based programming has on resiliency within at-risk

youth, is in the preliminary stages of research. Due to this, limitations include lack of

generalizability, small sample size, issues of self-report, as well as less rigorous study designs.

Furthermore, the studies examined in this report do not have standardized curriculum that can be

used in the art programs or therapeutic environments. This produces inconsistencies within the

structures of the studies. These factors, along with other limitations, will be discussed.

Sample Size

The sample size of a study has an impact on how reliable the findings are. In a few of the

studies examined, the sample sizes are small which makes it difficult to make inferences about


the efficacy of arts-programming for at-risk youth. Wright et al. (2005) conducted a feasibility

study to determine attendance rates, participation in pre and post-data collection, and

effectiveness of arts-based programs for at-risk youth to pave the way for future research. The

number of participants in this study was very low, amounting to a total of 23 adolescents.

Therefore, the data collected from the interviews and surveys were not significant enough to

provide conclusive evidence despite the fact that the youth who participated showed marked

improvements in pro-social behaviour. The results found are promising and provide support for

future research in this field despite the small sample size and short length of the program (p.25).

The YouthARTS Development Project led by researchers Clawson & Coolbaugh (2001),

also examined the value of arts-based programming as a method of intervention for at-risk youth.

Small sample size and low participation rates were prevalent problems within each of the three

programs. The Art-at-Work-program experienced high drop-out rates and at the end of the

program only 7 participants remained. While results demonstrated improvements among the

participants in areas of art skills, pro-social behaviour, communication skills, and self-esteem,

only tentative interpretations could be made. This is due to the fact that the sample observed may

not be an accurate representation of this demographic. The Youths Public Art program followed

a similar pattern of low attendance, as well as small sample size. Across the three different

studios within this organization, there were a total of 37 participants. The statistics collected

from these participants were not uniform due to participant drop-out and uncompleted surveys.

The results demonstrated a difference in self-esteem, art skills, as well as attitudes towards

school. Although the results obtained from this portion of the study were significant, they lacked

generalizability due to the sample size. The Urban SMARTS program was the final program

examined by Clawson & Coolbough (2001). This program had a much higher sample size of 112


and participants demonstrated several improvements through the duration of the program. There

were complications with uniform data collection which lowered the population size to 78

participants (p.12). The small sample sizes of the studies conducted by Clawson & Coolbaugh

(2001), as well as Wright et al. (2005), limit the generalizability of these research endeavors.

In several of the studies outlined in chapter II, the sample sizes were large and provided

an accurate representation of the population of at-risk youth. Catteral (1997) examined data

collected from 25,000 youth. For his analysis of the students whose families were in the lowest

income or socioeconomic status quartile, he looked at 6,500 participants (p.6). Due to the large

population size, the results were more generalizable. Another study that contained a substantial

sample size was the National Arts Demonstration Project completed by Wright et al. (2006). This

study set up five different art programs across Canada with a total of 183 participants. Both of

studies conducted by Wright et al. (2006) and Catteral (1997), had a large enough sample size to

produce generalizable results.

Self-Report

Self-report or S-data can provide a lot of insight on the participants within studies. This

method of data collection relies on asking participants about their feelings, attitudes, or beliefs

about a certain topic, through questionnaires and interviews. The information about a

participant’s self-esteem or other characteristics is only accessible through self-report measures

(Funder, 2010, p.27). However, there are several disadvantages to this type of data collection.

Some problems include participants withholding information, participants’ inability to report

certain facts about themselves, and social desirability bias. Furthermore, how the participants

respond to surveys and interview questions depends on how the individual is feeling at a given

point in time and as a result they may respond differently in altered settings. These factors, along


with the fact that the researcher will demonstrate a certain amount of bias when conducting the

surveys or interviews, undermine the validity and reliability of studies. Many of the studies

summarized in chapter II used S-data to obtain their results; therefore, the validity of their

outcomes should be questioned.

Wright et al. (2006) used several self-report measures to obtain data. They used

standardized behaviour checklists, interviews with the participants, as well as pre and post-test

questionnaires that measured the behavioural conduct and emotional problems of individuals

(p.639). The data obtained from these measures could be affected by the problems previously

explained. Wright et al. (2006) also recognize that there may have been a rater partiality among

the researchers who helped to conduct the interviews (p.649). This bias could result in “social

desirability bias”, which is defined as participants answering questions in a way that will be

viewed favourably by the interviewer. It is important to note that Wright et al. (2006) used a

multi-method approach. They included additional methods of gathering information such as I-

data based on reports from parents and leaders in the program. This multi-method approach

contributed to the overall strength and quality of their findings.

In the feasibility study conducted by Wright, John, and Sheel (2005), self-report

measures were used. Data obtained from this study was mainly based on self-reports from the

youth who attended the 10 week program. The YouhtARTS Development Project (Clawson &

Coolbaugh, 2001), also used measures of self-report in the form of surveys and interviews. The

study conducted by Heath, Soep and Roach (1998), used the results obtained from the NELS to

compare with the questionnaires completed by youth involved in various arts-programs. The

NELS is a stronger measure that relies, not only on self-report methods, but also explores life

outcomes such as academic performance and social background (United States Department of


Education, 2004). However, other self-report measures were used by the researchers conducting

the study. Some of the statistics were based on interviews with participants, as well as

observational out-comes reported by the researchers (Heath et al., 1998, p.3). Heath et al. (1998)

use some of this data to extrapolate evidence that youth involved in the arts programs were

making academic, social, and emotional improvements because of their participation. The

validity of these reports is undermined by the possibility of the experimenter bias. This bias

suggests that researchers may have reported only positive findings that were necessary to support

the desired outcome. Despite its problems, self-report is considered to be an effective form of

data collection (Funder, 2010, p.25). It would be beneficial for future research to explore other

methods of data collection similar to the work of Wright et al. (2006). However, it is important to

keep in mind that each of the studies examined are limited by ethical and practical factors.

According to the Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologists, researchers must implement care

when examining a vulnerable demographic and avoid manipulation of this group (Canadian

Psychological Association, 2000, p.31).

Study Design

The literature review written by Rapp-Paglicci, Ersing & Rowe (2006), critiques the work

of several studies that have been examined in the previous chapter. In their critique on Catteral

(1997) and Clawson & Coolbaugh (2001), they explain that the data was often incomplete in

each of these studies and was compensated for with more anecdotal evidence and observational

data. They report that, “More rigorous experimental designs are necessary to report causation”

(Rapp-Paglicci et al., 2006, p.55). Rigour within the study designs of several of the research

projects previously examined appears to be lacking.


The correlational study completed by Catteral (1997) cannot report causal effects. Heath,

Soep and Roach (1998) faced a similar problem. The correlation study they provided was useful

to examine the relationship between arts-based programs as interventions for at-risk youth.

However, like Catteral’s (1997) work, no causal conclusions can be drawn. Despite this, Heath et

al. (1998) made large claims about the efficacy of art programming based on observational and

anecdotal evidence they provided. This evidence paired with the correlation observed, both lack

experimental validity. The work of Sutherland et al. (2010) also demonstrates certain

methodological weaknesses. In this case, the design was based far too heavily on loosely defined

observational data while also drawing conclusions based on a correlational study. The

quantitative data from the study was obtained by comparing different years of graduates and

students at the Chicago schools. The lack of an outside comparison group undermines the

validity of this study from which no causal inferences can be made. Therefore, sound

conclusions cannot be drawn from these studies. In spite of this, these researchers have made

important strides in developing this area of research.

The research completed by Wight et al. (2005) in their feasibility study, as well as

Clawson & Coolbaugh (2001) in their work on the YouthARTS Development Project, also

demonstrated a lack of experimental rigour. The study created by Wright et al. (2005) lacked a

proper control group. They used results obtained by other studies such as the Tampa Arts &

Youth Demonstration Project to compare some of the data gathered from the feasibility study.

They neglected to use this comparison group consistently throughout the study. The

inconsistency is due in part because of the lack of funds the researchers had, as well as the goal

of the study. The results gained from this study demonstrated that exploring the impact of arts on

youth at-risk was a worth-while endeavor due to the steady participation and the positive


improvement among the youth. However, because of the lack of control group, conclusions

about the efficacy of arts-based programs as a prevention method cannot be made. The

YouthARTS Development Project also had a lack of proper control groups (Clawson &

Coolbaugh, 2001). The researchers tried to attain proper comparison groups for each of the

programs they evaluated. It proved incredibly difficult to maintain a matched comparison group

that would provide the proper data needed for the study. They attempted to recruit youth for a

matched comparison group, but the number of participants was far too small to use as a control

group. Instead archival data was used as a control group. This presented some problems

including the inability to administer the YOC survey (a measurement of emotional outlook and

attitudes) to the control group. Further problems with the control groups included the fact that the

youth in these groups were “neither randomly assigned nor matched on key characteristics”

(Clawson & Coolbaugh, 2001, p.12). The inability to obtain proper control groups for both of

these studies severely undermines the validity of the study design and therefore conclusive

results cannot be found.

While the studies outlined above lack experimental rigour, several studies that explore

the efficacy of arts-based programs and art therapy on at-risk youth do implement valid study-

design. These studies include the work completed by Abdallah (2009), McGann (1999), as well

as Wright et al. (2006). Abdallah (2009) and McGann (1999) both completed rigorous case

studies examining the effects of art therapy as a prevention method and mode of building

resiliency in an individual at-risk youth. These studies show the importance of pursuing art

therapy as a valuable endeavor to help youth at-risk. Although these studies lack generalizability,

they follow the ethical guidelines of responsible caring. Furthermore, case studies are the most

practical means of collecting data in a therapy session.


The study completed by Wright et al. (2006) used a multi-method approach which

included use of quantitative, qualitative measures, longitudinal data collection, as well as proper

control groups. Wright et al. (2006) wanted to “build on the existing research and by reporting

the results of the multi-method evaluation, determine whether such arts programs are effective

and, if so, what features of the programs are essential to their success” (p.638). In their literature

review Wright et al. (2006) outline the studies completed by Catteral (1997) Heath et al. (1998)

and Clawson & Coolbaugh (2001). This study was able to build on existing research, learning

from the mistakes these preliminary studies made. Therefore, despite the flawed designs of the

studies presented, they are still vital to the advancement of the research in the area of the

effectiveness of art therapy and arts-based programs on youth at-risk.

Other Limitations

Several other limitations of these studies include lack of cohesion among different art

programs, the absence of randomization, and limited generalizability. Throughout each of the

studies discussed in Chapter II, different types of curriculum are used for each different arts-

based program. Rapp-Paglicci et al. (2006) report that “these studies have yet to identify which

types of arts programming are more effective or intervene and prevent problems with which type

of youth” (p.55). Although many of the studies discussed in this paper have a focus on visual

arts, some cases branched out a bit more to include video, photography, and some performing

arts. Heath et al. (1998), Wright et al. (2006), and Wright et al. (2005) include some of these

different art forms and are not exclusively visual art-based programs. This is a limiting factor

because it is difficult to narrow down which programs are most effective, or to draw conclusions

about arts-based programs because each organization is unique. However, the research on this


topic needs to start somewhere and from here new studies can be designed to help us discover

what type of arts-based program is most effective.

Restricted generalizability is another problem with many of the studies examined

throughout this paper. As discussed earlier in this chapter, many of the studies lacked complete

data, experimental rigour, and proper sample size (Catteral, 1997; Calwson & Coolbaugh, 2001;

Heath et al., 1997; Sutherland et al., 2010; Wright et al., 2005). These factors contribute to the

inability to generalize the results gained from each of these studies to the broader population of

youth at-risk. The two case studies completed by Abdallah (2009) and McGann (1999) also lack

generalizability because they are studies of two individuals. Both Travis and Tina are unique

individuals whose circumstances and characteristics are not identical to any other youth. Because

of this, the results of these case studies cannot be applied to the larger population of at-risk

youth.

Randomization is another factor that is not used in any of the studies examined in

Chapter II. The groups observed in the correlational study by Catteral (1997) were not randomly

selected. Therefore, the link between the high participation in the arts group and improved

academics may be the result of the participants in the group observed. Clawson & Coolbaugh

(2001) were also unable to use randomization to gain participants for either the experimental or

control group. Improvements that occurred among the students who were part of the art program

may have occurred due to the group members’ general interest in art rather than because of the

art activities. Both the feasibility study (Wright et al., 2005) and the multi-method evaluation

(Wright et al., 2006), were unable to use randomization to obtain the participants for their

studies. Yet another study examined in this paper that was unable to use randomization, was the

study completed by Sutherland et al. (2010). While lack of randomization within an experimental


or correlational study is limiting, it is important to consider the demographic that each of these

studies were targeting. The youth who participated were each considered to be at-risk, or of low

socioeconomic standing. These participants have incredibly unstable lives and it is therefore

difficult for researchers to obtain consistent participants to put into randomized groups.

Chapter IV

Future Research

Problems with the current research outlined in the previous chapter, illustrate the need for

further exploration of the effectiveness of arts-based programs and art therapy for at-risk

adolescents. Rapp-Paglicci et al. (2006) strongly recommend that future research studies evolve

to address limitations such as small sample size, lack of methodological rigour, absence of

randomization, as well as absence of longitudinal measures (p.55). Current studies fail to provide

concrete evidence. They also neglect to include proper control groups, as well as clear

identification of outcomes (O’Brien & Donelan, 2008). Therefore, future research is necessary to

provide certainty that arts-based programs and art therapy are methods of promoting resiliency

among youth who are considered to be at-risk.

Along with the development of more sound methodology, research in this area should

include an exploration of the types of programming and art activities that are most useful. For

arts-based programs this would mean exploring the arts activities that would engage the largest

amount of youth, as well as promote the most resilient characteristics within this demographic. In

terms of most effective art therapy interventions for at-risk youth, it would be useful to explore

the effects of group versus individual therapy along with identifying the activities that appear to

be most helpful. In a study completed by Varallo (2012), several art therapy programs for at-risk

youth were examined to determine the common goals and activities of these different


organizations. This study begins to define art therapy programs as well as identify which

approaches are most effective for helping young people at-risk. Continued research in this area

might include implementing larger studies that test different art therapy approaches in a

controlled setting with a proper comparison group.

Wright et al. (2006) suggest that along with comparing the effectiveness of different art

activities, future research should include a focus on: “a more targeted population of at-risk

youth… [and] comparing different levels of duration and intensity of arts programming” (p.650).

The research studies outlined in this paper have all had a broad focus on youth at-risk without

narrowing the demographic. Forthcoming research needs to explore a more limited demographic,

examining the effects on specific cultures, ages, as well as levels of socioeconomic status. Along

with the more strictly defined groups, studies should examine how long arts-based programs or

therapeutic sessions should run in order to be most effective. Furthermore, prospective study

designs need to include longitudinal methods to follow up on the long–term effects these

programs my provide youth who are at-risk.

The debate between art-as-therapy the art-in-psychotherapy approach also needs to be

more fully examined. Providing evidence that proves art is therapeutic in and of itself would

have wide implications on the effectiveness of arts-based programs. It would also change the

way art therapy is practised, causing the therapists to place more emphasis on the actual art-

making process. Studies to further explore this debate may look at the effectiveness and

outcomes of arts-based programs compared to the outcomes of art therapy sessions. Exploration

in this area may add to the ongoing debate between these different approaches which contributes

to the liveliness of this specific field of psychotherapy (Brooke, 2006, p.8).


It is important to recognize the research on arts-based programs and art therapy that has

been done in other areas of the world. North America is in the beginning stages of research in

this area where as much greater strides have been made in other areas of the world. We can learn

from their discoveries and study designs to further the research within Canada and the United

States. One example of a larger scale study is the “risky business project” that took place in

Australia (O’Brien, Donelan, 2008). This was a cross-disciplinary study designed to examine the

effectiveness of arts programs among at-risk youth, as well as important qualities these programs

must possess in order to be helpful. In addition, these aspects were looked at over a five year

period to determine the longitudinal effects. Hickman (2006) also mentions several studies

generated from researchers in Great Britain that have given evidence to support the notion that

art therapy and arts-based programs increase self-esteem among participants (p.330). Based on

studies such as these, we can learn how to implement new and effective strategies to gather data

on this topic.

Concluding Remarks

Although future research is necessary to provide more evidence on the efficacy of arts-

based programs and art therapy as a mode of cultivating resilience, current research supports the

notion that this area of research is a worthwhile endeavor. Each of these studies has shown that

the participating youth demonstrated developments in different resilient characteristics including

academic achievement, self-esteem, as well as other pro-social behaviours (Abdallah, 2009;

Catteral, 1997; Clawson & Coolbaugh, 2001; Heath et al., 1998; Wright et al., 2006). Cause and

effect conclusions remain unknown; however, the data collected form these various studies

suggest that practicing art in either an afterschool program or a therapy setting can have a

positive impact.


The work of Catteral (1997), Heath et al. (1998), as well as Sutherland et al (2010) all

contributed to exploring the impact of involvement of arts and academic achievement. Catteral

(1997) discovered a positive correlation between high arts involvement and high academic

achievement, even within the low socioeconomic quarter of the population. Heath et al. (1998)

obtained the same results in their correlational study, finding that at-risk youth who were

involved in art programs had a higher likelihood of doing well in school. These two studies

demonstrate a relationship between involvement in arts-based programs and success in

academics. The study completed by Sutherland et al. (2010) provides evidence of improvement

in academics among at-risk youth who participated in art therapy programs. Their research

demonstrated an increased attendance rate and decreased probability of dropping out of high

school. As previously discussed, each of these studies has their own methodological flaws.

Nonetheless, they do suggest that involvement in differ arts programs has a positive impact on

achievement in school. The ability to be successful in school is an important resilient

characteristic which will help lower the risk of academic failure which is a risk many

marginalized young people face (Benard, 1993).

Clawson & Coolbaugh, (2001) Wright et al. (2006) Wright et al. (2005) designed studies

that provided more evidence to support the notion that arts-based programs increase resilient

characteristics. Wright et al. (2005) found that in their feasibility study positive improvements

were made among the participating youth even though their intension for this study was to

determine the achievability of running an arts-based program for at-risk youth. The positive

improvements included resilient characteristics such as decreased delinquent activity,

cooperation, and problem-solving skills (p.27). Wright et al. (2006) found similar results in their

multi-method longitudinal study that examined the effectiveness of arts-based programs in


promoting improved behaviour and social skills. The results of this study demonstrated resilient

characteristics including “an increase in the youth’s confidence and self-esteem, improved

interpersonal skills, positive peer interaction, increased independence, improved conflict

resolution, and problem-solving skills” (p.650). Clawson & Coolbaugh (2001) also found results

that demonstrated at-risk youth gaining resilient characteristics due to their involvement in arts

programs. In their evaluation of several arts-based programs, results showed that the

participating youth developed characteristics such as self-esteem, as well as improved

cooperation and communication with peers. Each of these studies, though preliminary, show that

involvement in art programming can help foster resilient characteristics amongst youth at-risk.

Finally, the case studies completed by Abdallah (2009) and McGann (1999) show the

importance of art therapy in promoting resilient characteristics in two individual youths

considered to be at-risk. Tina was a patient of McGann (1999) who was able to improve her

communication skills, as well as the ability to express emotions through art therapy. The capacity

to communicate and articulate emotions effectively is a key characteristic of resiliency

(Camillery, 2007, p.56). In the case study written by Abdallah (2009), her patient Travis

demonstrated developments in several characteristics of resiliency. These included: development

off positive identity and problem solving skills. Through both of these case studies, the ability of

art therapy to increase resilient characteristics among these two at-risk youth can clearly be seen.

Youth considered to be at-risk face many hardships, as well as possible negative life

outcomes. To protect against these harmful events, it is necessary for youth to be equipped with

resilient characteristics (Camillery, 2007). Preliminary research demonstrates that involvement in

arts-based programs as well as art therapy can promote these important characteristics, allowing

at-risk youth to rise above their meagre circumstances. Though the current research cannot


provide causal inferences, there is enough evidence to support the notion that this is an area

worthy of further exploration. The research explored throughout this paper supports the idea that

both arts-based programs as well as art therapy have the potential to positively impact the lives

of youth at-risk by promoting resilient characteristics.


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Manuscript submitted for publication.

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