filosof de la existencia en gorgias.pdf

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The Philosophy of Existence: Plato's "Gorgias"Author(s): Eric VoegelinSource: The Review of Politics, Vol. 11, No. 4 (Oct., 1949), pp. 477-498Published by: Cambridge University Press for the University of Notre Dame du lac on behalfof Review of PoliticsStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1405161

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The Philosophy of Existence: Plato's GorgiasBy EricVoegelin

"WTARndbattle" retheopeningwords f theGorgias,1andthedeclarationof war againstthe corruptsocietyis its content.Gorgias, he famous teacherof rhetoric,s in Athens as the guest ofCallicles,an enlightenedpolitician. It is a day of audience. Gorgiasreceives isitorsand is readyto answerall questionsaddressedo him.Socrates,accompaniedy hispupilChaerephon,allsat Callicles'housein order o see the greatman. The ultimatemotif of the battleis notstatedexplicitlybut indicated, s so frequentlywithPlato,through heformof the dialogue. Gorgias s somewhat xhaustedby the streamofvisitorsand the hoursof conversation, nd he lets his followerPolusopenthe discussion;Socrates eavesthe openinggameto Chaerephon.The battle is engagedas a struggle or the soulof the youngergenera-tion. Who will formthe future eadersof the polity: the rhetorwhoteaches the tricksof politicalsuccess,or the mystic-philosopherhocreates he substancen soulandsociety?

I. The Existentialssue.Socratessuggests o Chaerephonhe firstquestion:Ask him "Whohe is?" (447d). This openingmove dominates he whole dialogue.The substance f manis in question,not a philosophical problem"nthe modernsense. This is for all timesthe decisivequestion,cuttingthrough he networkof opinions,of socialidealsand of ideologies; tis thequestion hatappeals o thenobilityof the soul;andit is the onequestionwhich he ignoble ntellectual annot stand. Fromthis initialquestionunfoldsthe topicsof the dialogue:the functionof rhetoric,the problemof justice, he questionwhethert is better o do injustice

orto sufferinjustice, ndthe fateof theunjustsoul.By meansof these topicsPlato characterizeshe attitudesof hiscontemporaries.Gorgias is let off comparativelyightly. Socratesinvolveshim in theproblemwhetherhe teacherof rhetorichouldalso

1 This study of the Gorgiasis taken from the writer'sHistory of Political Ideas tobe published by the Macmillan Company of New York. It is a section of Part iii,Chapter 4. 477


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THE PHILOSOPHY OF EXISTENCEgenerationwillhelpthemup again n wordsandactions(461c). Afterthisslapat theproductof Gorgianeducation,he formulateshe condi-tion underwhichhe will enter into discussionwith him: Polus willhaveto restrain he prolixityof speech(makrologia) n which he in-dulgedearlier. The interminable uaveflow of cliche speechmakesdiscussionimpossible.The conditionof Socrates ouchesupona prob-lem, familiar o all of us who have had experienceswith rightistorleftist intellectuals.Discussions impossiblewitha man who is existen-tiallydishonest,who misuses he rulesof the game,who by irrelevantprofuseness eeks to avoid being nailed down on a point, and whogains the semblance f victoryby exhausting he time whichsets aninevitableimit to a discussion.The onlydefensepossiblen this situa-tion is therefusal o continue hediscussion; ndthisrefusal s sociallydifficultbecauset seems o violatethe rulesof comityandthe freedomof speech. Polus immediatelyumpsat thisargument nd indignantlyobjects hat he is not goingto be permittedo talk at suchlengthas hepleases. But the war is on. Socrates s horrifiedat the idea that inAthens,the most free-spoken ity of Hellas, Polus of all men shouldbepreventedromtalkingat hispleasure andthenreminds imthathis irrelevantprolixitywoulddeprivehis interlocutorf his freedom fit shouldbe construed s meaning hathe, Socrates,werenot permittedsimply o go awaywhenhe was sickof the oration. After this threatof a walk-out,Polus submits o theSocraticcondition.

The criticalrevelation f Polus'character omeswhenSocrateshasexacted he admissionhata manwhodoesevil doesnot whathe trulywills. For,a mancantrulywill onlywhatis good; if he commitsactswhichareunjusthe actsagainsthis true interest. If he indulges n evilactsin themistaken eliefthattheyservehis interest,he revealstherebythat he is powerless o do what he trulywills. Hence the tyrantispowerless. When this absurditiy s reached,Polus can no longerrestrainhimself. He breaksawayfromthe argument nd startssneer-ing: as if you,Socrates,wouldnot like to havepower o do in thepoliswhatseemsgood to you; as if you were not jealouswhenyou seeany-onekillingor plundering r jailingpeopleat his pleasure! 468e). Bythis sneer,Polus declareshis own level of existence.He is the typeofmanwho willpiouslypraise he ruleof lawand condemn he tyrantandwhofervently nvies he tyrantand would ovenothingbetter hanto be onehimself. In a decadent ocietyhe is the representativef thegreatreservoir f commonmenwhoparalyze veryeffort at orderand

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THE REVIEW OF POLITICSsupplymass-connivancen the rise of the tyrant. Moreover,Polus fur-nishesthe subtlereasonof politicalparalysisn the advanced tageofsocialdecomposition.His sneer at Socratesimplies hat his personalvileness s themeasure f humanity.No humanbeingcanbe anythingelse but vile. He is firm n the convictionhateveryman will conducthimself ike a swineif he has a chance o get awaywith it. His out-burstagainstSocrates is motivatedby honest indignationagainstaman who breaks he camaraderief the canailleand pretends o besuperior.And he cannotbebrushed ff;he insists. He givesa thumb-nail sketch of Archelaus,an unsavory ndividual,who recentlyhadgained the rulership of Macedonia by an impressiveseries of crimes.Accordingto Socrates the successfulgentlemanwould have to beunhappy. The absurditys glaring. Polus tauntsSocrates hat he isnot going to tell him that he wouldratherbe any otherMacedonianthan Archelaus 471a-d). And he can be persistent ecausehe knowsthatall the bestpeopleareon his side. He stillbreaksawayfrom theargumentbecausehe sincerelydisbelieveshat anybodycan in goodfaithmaintainpropositionss absurdas the Socratic. With somethinglikedespairhe chargeshatSocratesmaliciously oes not wantto agreewith him: "for surelyyou must thinkas I do" (471e). The battlelines arenowdrawnmoreclearly. SocratesassuresPolusthat he will,indeed,find the majority idingwith him, and offersa list of namesfrom the best Athenianfamilies, ncluding hat of Pericles,who willall agreewithPolus. Socrateswill standalone;but he will refusetobe deprivedby false witnessesof his patrimony,which is the truth(472a-b).

Nevertheless,we have not yet reached he point of murder. Thisis a discussion, ndPolus hasacceptedhe conditions f Socrates. Hisattempt o breakout andto beatSocratesdownby the appeal o whateverybodyhinks,has failed. The two greatclubsused by vulgarityfor silencing he spirit- that is, the "HolierThan Thou" argumentand the "That'sWhat You Think"- haveproved neffective. NowSocrates orcesPoluson to the admissionhat doinginjustices worsethansufferingnjustice, nd thatdoinginjusticewithoutsufferingpun-ishment s the worstof all, and hence that the notoriousArchelaus smoremiserablehan his victimsand still more miserablebecauseheescapesthe due punishmentor his misdeeds(479-e). Once this isadmittedhe valueof rhetoric asbecomedoubtful. What purpose anit serveto defend oneself against a justifiedaccusationand to be

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THE PHILOSOPHY OF EXISTENCEacquitted,f what heguilty houlddo is to accuse imself ndto seekhispunishment.f rhetoric ereused or thispurpose,ndonlythen,itwouldbeof value 480b-d). As a matter f fact,however,t is usedforthepurposef defendinghecriminalndto securehegainsofinjustice.Forsuchpurposest maybeuseful,butnot for themanwhodoesnotintendo commitinjustice480e-481b).

Polus s forcedntoadmission,uttheadmissions sulky. He can-notdeny hatthe conclusionsollow rom hepremises,ut the resultsare"absurd"aitopa) 480e). He is embarrassedikeGorgias, utthere s a differencen theirembarrassments.orgias asstillsomesenseof decency;e is aware f the existentialonflictunderlyingheintellectuallash, ndhisconscience orries im. Polus s too fargoneto beworriedya conscience;e is intellectuallyeaten, uthisdefeatcannotouchoffa spark f decencyn him. Still,he is boundbytherulesof thegame. The violent eaction asto come rom heactivist,fromCallicles,he enlightenedolitician.With increasingstonish-mentandwrath e hasfollowedhe course f thedebate; ndnowheasksChaerephonhether ocratess in earnest bout hese hingsorwhether e is joking.Beingassuredhathe is in earnest, e turnsonSocrates:f thatwere rue,wouldnot the wholeof human ife beturned pside own; ndwouldwenotdoineverythingheveryoppo-siteof whatweought o bedoing?481c) Callicles asrightlyensedtherevolutionnthewords f Socrates.This s nota merentellectualgame. If Socratessright,hensociety srepresentedythepoliticianCallicless wrong.Andsince hewronggoesto thespiritualoreofhumanxistence,ocietywouldbecorrupto thepointwheret cannolongerhavea claimupontheloyaltyof man. Thepoliticalxistenceof societyn historys at stake. The battlehas nowreachedherealenemy,hepublic epresentativef thecorruptrder. And Calliclesdoesnothesitateo joinbattle.

III. Pathos ndCommunication.The scenewithCallicless againopened ySocrateswitha deter-minationf the existentialssue. He knowswhathe hasto expect; ewarnsCallicleshat ruths stilltheguidingtarof thedebate nd hatno pressuref opinionwill avail n the least. The existentialiffer-encesbetweenhespeakersrenowmorepreciselyefined ythe vari-antsof Eros. Socratess in lovewithphilosophy,allicleswith the

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THE REVIEWOF POLITICSdemos f Athens.2 WhenCalliclespeaks edoesnotdare o contra-dicthislove;he is a politicianf thetype"Them remysentiments,andif youdon't ike themI canchangehem" 481d-e). In a fewsentences,ich n implications,latohaspredeterminedheinevitablecourse f thedebate.In thetwoErotes f SocratesndCallicless im-plied he laterdevelopmentf theRepublic ith ts distinctionf thegoodandtheevilEros. Here, n theGorgias,hesituations revealedinwhichhconceptionf ametamorphosisf Erosoriginates. heissueat stakes thatof communicationnd ntelligibilityn a decadentoci-ety. Are the existentialifferencesetween ocrates ndCallicles oprofoundhatthe bridgeof a commonhumanityetween hemhasbroken own?In theTheaetetus here latocomes lose o character-izingthe enemies s beasts,he neverthelessestorescommunityyobservinghatin privateonversationt is possible t leastto scratchthe thickcrustof the vulgarianndto touch n hima sparkof hisrenouncedumanity.Thebridge,hus, s notbroken; utwhere reitspoints f supportnboth ides?Theycannot efoundon the evelof principlesf conduct,orthis spreciselyhe levelonwhich hepro-tagonistsmeet n "war ndbattle."On the evelof politics ocompro-mise is possible; he political ormof the cittacorrottas the civil war.The caseof Polushasshownhat ntellectualgreements notfollowedof necessityyexistentialnderstanding.helevelof communication,if theres oneto befoundatall,must iedeeper.To thisdeeperevelPlatomustnowappeal,or otherwisehedebatewithCallicleswouldonlybe a repetitionf theexistentiallynconclusiveoutwithPolus.ThisdeeperevelPlatodesignatesythetermpathos481c).Pathoss whatmenhave n common,oweverariablet maybe initsaspects nd ntensities.Pathosdesignatespassive xperience;t isnot a consciousction; t is whathappenso man,whathe suffers,whatbefallshimfatefully ndwhat ouches im n hisexistentialore-- as for instanceheexperiencesf Eros(481c-d). In thisexposureto pathos llmenareequal,houghheymaydifferwidelyn the man-ner in whichheycome o gripswithpathosandbuild heexperienceintotheirives. Theres theAeschyleanoucheven n thisearlyworkof Plato,with tshint hat hepathema hich sexperiencedyallmayresultn mathemaifferentoreachman. Thecommunityf pathos

2 A more detailed account of this scene would have to go into the homo-erotic m-plications. The reader should be aware that Socrates refers to philosophia as tai emapaidika (482e).

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THE PHILOSOPHYOF EXISTENCEis the basisof communication.ehind he hardened,ntellectually-supportedttitudeswhich eparatemen, ie thepathematahichbindthemtogether.Howeveralseandgrotesquehe intellectualositionmaybe,thepathos tthe corehas hetruth f animmediatexperience.If one canpenetrateo thiscoreandreawakenn a mantheaware-nessof his condition umana,ommunicationn the existentialensebecomesossible.

Thepossibilityf communicationn the levelof pathoss thecon-ditionunderwhichhedebatentheGorgiasmakesense. If theappealcannotgo to thepathos,he intellectualrgumentn itselfwill be ofno avail. Thereminders necessaryt thisjuncture,s wehavesaid,becauseotherwisehe followingargumentwith Callicleswouldbesenseless.Thepossibility,t least,of breakinghrougho thepathosmustbe open. Thisdoesnotmean,however,hattheoperation illactually esuccessful.Callicles omore hanPoluswill be wonover.On thelevelof politicshetragedywillrun tscourseo themurderfSocrates.Since heappealo thepathos emainsneffectivehesitua-tionwouldseem o endin an impasse;or whatmeaningouldthepotentialommunityf thepathos ave f it cannot eactualized?Wehave o realizeheseriousnessf theimpasse,f wewant o understandthe conclusion f the Gorgias.The impassemeans hathistoricallyandpoliticallyhebondof humanitysbroken;hePolusandCalliclesareoutsidehepaleof humanomity.Does it mean, s the inevitableconsequenceeemso be, that heyshould e killedon sightasdanger-ous animals?The answero the Gorgiass a definiteNo. In theApology, ocrates adwarned isjudgeshatotherswould omeafterhimandwithrenewednsistenceskthequestionsorwhichhehadtodie. Thepredictions fulfilled; ow t isPlatowhoasks hequestionsandwho s in danger,s weshall ee,of sufferinghe fateof Socrates.Buttherepetition ouldbea senselessacrifice;ndis therean alter-nativeo theorganizationf a revoltwith hepurposef exterminatingtheAthenian abble?The conclusion f the Gorgiasormulatesheconditionsnderwhich hecommunityf mankindan bemaintainedevenwhenon thelevelof historicalocietyt has broken own. Theconditions thefaith n the transcendentalommunityf man. Theincrustationf the evildoerhat remainsmpenetrableo the humanappealwillfalloff indeathand eave he soulnaked eforeheeternaljudge. The order hathasbeenbrokennlife willberestoredn after-life. In thelogique ucoeur,heJudgementf theDead s the answer

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THE REVIEW OF POLITICSto the failure f communicationn life. We shallcomeback o thispoint ater. Forthemomentwehave o be awarehatPlatoremindsus of thecommunityf pathos t thebeginningf the Calliclescenein order o prepareheJudgementf theDeadas the transcendentalcontinuationf a dialoguewhichdoesnotachieve xistentialommuni-cationamongheliving.

IV. TheInverted hilosophyf Existence.TheErosof Socratess the ruler f thescene. Callicleswillhave

to refutenot Socrates uthislove,thetruthof philosophy;ndif hedoesnotrefuteEros, hena discordwillsound hrough iswhole ifeandCallicles illnever e inagreementithhimself482b). Calliclesscornsheappealo come ntoagreementith hepathos f Eros. Theopeningentencef hislengthy nswer482c-486d)ettles he existen-tialissueas faras his ownpersons concerned.Calliclesejectsheappeal f Socrates y invertingt; andhe invertst by transposingtto the vulgarianevel. Plato achieves brilliant ramaticffectbyrevealinghedoublemeaning hich nargumentaswhen hepartnersarenot in existentialommunication.ocrates asrestrainedherhe-toricalprolixity f Polusandhe hassharpenedhe issueby warningCallicleshatno oppealo massopinionwillavailagainsthe lawofharmony ith he Erosof truth. Now CalliclesnvertshesewarningsandcallsSocrates regularemegoros,popularpeaker hogainshissuccessbycateringo theprejudicesf themasses.Moreover,eridi-cules heSocraticheme f pathos;orhe accuses ocrates f rantingin a demagogic anner ecause e hasmanagedo havePolussuffer(pathein)the samemishap(pathos) whichGorgiashas suffered(pathein)beforehimwhenSocrates oadedhiminto the admissionthattherhetoricianasto teach ustice 482c). Socratesained hisadvantage y the trick of playingon the conflictbetweennature(physis)andconventionnomos). Conventionallynesays hatdoingevil is worse hansufferingvil;bynature,ufferingvilis the worse.Gorgias ndPoluswereafraidof violatinghe convention ndthatinvolvedhem n their ontradictions482c-483a).

Obviously, allicless no meanadversary.He is notgoingto betrappedikehispredecessornthecontradictionsf a half-heartedosi-tion. He matchesheSocraticxistentialppealby a philosophyfexistencef hisown. Thepathos,whichSocrates adunderstoodstheexposuref man o experienceshichouchhecoreof hisexistence,

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THE PHILOSOPHY OF EXISTENCEhasbecomen thehands f Callicles mishapn thediscussion.Thischange f meaningo a setbackn the competitiveace ndicateshedirection f Callicles'interpretationf existence.Existencemustnotbeinterpretedn terms f the Eros owardsheAgathon, ut in termsof thestrongerr weakerphysis. Nature s thefundamentaleality,andthevictoriousssertion f thephysiss themeaningf life. Theorder f thesoul,whichor Socratesriginatesn the eroticismf themystic,sbrushedsideasa convention,nventedytheweakeraturesinorder o restrainhestrongernes. Nobodyprefershesufferingfinjusticeeallyo its doing; hosewhosayso areof a slavish ature;nomanof a lordlynaturewouldagree 483a-c). Thisis not the atti-tudeof a second-rateascal ike Poluswho is consciousf beingencanaille;his s thedeliberateransvaluationf valuesromanexisten-tialcounter-position.allicles nows hat he canmaintaint onlyifhe caninvalidatehe Socraticposition.Forthispurpose e useshisdistinctionf physis ndnomos;with his instrumente strikes t theheartof Socraticroticism: Youpretendnlythatyouaresearchingfor truth! As a matterof fact,you arepropagatinghatholds avulgar ppealorthemasses!"482e).3 Poluswasstill ndespair: owcoulda man ntertainuch antasticropositionss Socrates?Calliclesknowshe motive:Socratess in thegame ikeeverybodylse;he is ademagoguehoseeks avorby a pretensef respectability. alliclesis in theknowof ideologies;egetsbehindheothermanandrevealsthedubiousmotivebehindhefacade f ideas. The theoreticalttackon theSocraticxistentialositionbecomes political ttackon thedemagogue.But whyshouldCallicles,he politician,e so excitedabout hepreacherf a moralityhatwillkeep heslavishubjectsontentwhilenothamperinghesuperiormanwho seesthroughheswindle?Thesituations complicated.The Socratic ppeals fraught,ndeed,witha realdanger or the politician.The characterizationf conven-tionas aninventionmplieshatthe inventorimselfs aware, t somelevelof hisconsciousness,f the artificialharacterf moralprinciples.Poluswasoutspokennough n thepoint hatnobodywould idewithSocrates,hateverybodynvies hetyrant.Therestraintf convention,thus, s temperedy the connivancef the victims f tyranny;whilecertainlyheydo not like to suffer hemselves,heywill not raisea

3 The problem of a new philosophy of existence through the inversion of directionfrom the summum bonum towards nature recurs in periods of political disintegration.

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THE REVIEWOF POLITICSfinger slongasotherpeople uffer. Whena society as reachedhisdegree f corruption,hich rom hepointof viewof Callicless quitedesirable,heharmoniousonnivancen criminality aybegravely is-turbed ya manwhotries o persuadehepeoplehatconventionsrenotconventions,hattheir ruth anbeconfirmedhroughecourseotheexistentialxperiencesn whichtheyhaveoriginated,ndthattheymustbetakenseriously. f anappreciableector f thepeople houldfall for the Socraticpreaching,he situationmight, ndeed,becomeunpleasantor Calliclesndhistype.Theres more,however,o the resistancef Callicleshan hefearof a Socraticpopularuccess. The situation f the dialogues notthatof an assemblyf thepeople. Membersf therulingclassareamonghemselves.n suchcompanyhepropositionsf Socrates rein badtaste. It is thesamecomplaints thatof Polus. ButwhilePoluswas indignant ecauseSocratesdid not conducthimselfencanaille,CalliclesrotestshatSocrates oesnotconduct imself s agentlemanf thesuperiorype. The subsequentemarksf Callicleshave, herefore,n spiteof their hreateningndertone,he characterof a notaltogthernfriendlydmonitiono Socrateso mendhisways.Theyareof specialnterestous becauseheyaresomewhatmprobableas the remarksf a muchyoungermanto thehistorical ocrates ndbecausetheycontain omedetailswhichdo not quite it the circum-stancesf Socrates'ife. In theadmonitionsf Callicles ehavequiteprobablyo seea pieceof Plato's utobiography.alliclesolds orthin a mannern whicha friendof thefamilymighthaveon occasiongivenPlatoa pieceof hismind.Callicles penshis admonitions itha clarificationf the termsjusticend njustice.The conventionalawmakersefineusticensucha mannerhattheywillterrifyhestrongermanwhootherwise ouldgetthe betterof them,while heydeclaret shamefulndunjustf amandesireso havemore han he others pleonektein)483c). Jus-ticeandinjusticen theconventionalensearedistinguisheds desireforequalityndpleonexia.Bynature, owever,leonexias just;andjustorder,n the animal ealm s wellasamonghumans,mong itiesas wellas amongpeoples,s theruleof thestrongervertheweaker(483c-d).4 The menwhomakehistoryollow hislawof nature;or

4 The problem of pleonexia is intimately connected with the "inverted"philosophyof existence. When the new philosophy of existence recurs, in the seventeenthcenturyA.D., the problem of pleonexia also reappears. In the political philosophy of Locke we

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THE PHILOSOPHY OF EXISTENCEon whatothergroundsouldXerxes'nvasionf Hellasbe justified?Certainlyotbytheconventionhichwe teachourbestandstrongestmen rom heiryouthnordero tame hemikeyoungions. If a manhadsufficienttrength,ewouldbreak ll these harms;heslavewouldrise n rebellionndbecome urmaster;ndthelightof justicewouldshineorth. Socrates ouldunderstandll this, f onlyhe woulddropphilosophyndturnto more mportanthings. Philosophys an ele-gantaccomplishment,f pursued ithmoderationnyoungerears, utif a manindulgesnit andcarriest on in laterife,hewillbeignorantof thethingswhich gentlemanught o know. He willbe inexperi-enced n politics; e willnot be ableto holdhisown n a debate; ewill be ignorant f human haracterndof its motivationshroughpleasuresndpassions.5Whensuchmenget involvedn business rpoliticsheywill cuta ridiculousigure, ustas a manof affairswouldmakehimself idiculousn a philosophicalebate.6One hasto com-bine hetwoaccomplishmentsndto balancehemproperly.Thus, tisnota disgraceorayoungman obeinterestednphilosophy;nthecontrary,tsstudysbecomingo a freemanndhe whoneglectst willneverbea superior anwithnobleaspirations. ut ndulgence akesthemaneffeminate;ewillbeshyof public atheringsheremendis-tinguishhemselves;e willhangaroundn comerswith hreeor fouradmiringouthsbutnever peak ut likea freeman.Callicles ssuresSocrates f hisgoodwill ndaffection;e askshimwhethere is notashamed f being n thenotoriouslyefenselessosition f a philoso-pher. Forwhatwouldhedo if someoneadhimarrestedora wrongwhichhe has notcommitted?He wouldbe confusedndwouldnotknowwhat o say;andbeforea courthe mightnot evenbe abletodefendhimself gainsthedeathpenalty.Andwhat s the valueof amanwhocannotdefendhimself gainst isenemies,f a manwhom,sotospeak,nemayhitwithmpunity?7

have the curious attempt. o propagate pleonexia as conventionaljustice. Locke institu-tionalizes the "desire to have more than the other man" by transforming he governmentinto a protectiveagency for the gains of pleonexia.5 The reader should compare this passage with Bentham's attack on the "ascetic"type.6 In this part of the admonition,we probablyhave to see the origin of the Diversionof the Theaetetus.7 This sectionof the Callicles speech is distinctly autobiographic. One has to realizethe situationof Plato in Athens at this time and the effect which talk of this kind musthave had on a proud man who was conscious of his qualities.

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THE REVIEWOF POLITICSV. The ArgumentAgainstIthe nvertedPhilosophy f Existence.The positionof Callicleshingeson the identificationf good andjust with the self-assertiveexpression f the strongernature. The de-bate betweenCalliclesand Socrateswhich follows the admonition

provesthe positionuntenable. We do not have to follow this longdebate n detail(486d-522),but we mustsingleout theprincipal rgu-ments of Socratesbecausetheyhaveremainedo this day the classicalcatalogueof arguments gainstthe "inverted"philosophyof existencewhichcharacterizeshe age of enlightenmentndpositivism f a civili-zation. We shall find the sametheoretical ituationrecurringn theeighteenth ndnineteenth enturiesA.D.

The positionof Callicleshasa fundamentalweaknesshatis charac-teristicof this typeof existentialism.Calliclesdoesnot seriouslydenydifferences f value;he is not preparedo maintain hat couragedoesnot rankhigher hancowardice,rwisdomhigher hanfolly. When heidentifies he good withthe strong,he acts on the inarticulatepremisethat thereexistsa preestablishedarmonybetween he lustinesswhichhe representsndthe socialsuccessof valueswhichhe doesnot discerntoo clearlybut to whichhe givesconventional ssent. Socrates,n hisargument,uses the techniqueof pointingto facts whichdisprove hepreestablishedarmony nd of involvingCallicles n the contradictionsbetweenhis value assumptions nd the consequences f his existen-tialism.

The firstand mostobviousattack s directedagainstthe harmonybetweenstrengthandgoodness. Callicleshad maintainedhat the ruleof the strongest s justice. Now Socratesraises the questionwhetherinferiorpeople,if theyare numerousenough,cannotbe stronger hanthe betterones. And if so, wouldthen the morenumerousweak whoimposethe despisedconventionsnot be the strongerone; and would,as a consequence,he argumentor justiceby natureagainst usticebyconventionnot breakdown? Callicles s incensedat the idea that arabbleof slavesshouldlay downthe law for himbecausetheyhappento be physically tronger. He withdrawsimmediatelyo his valueposi-tion and insists that when he said "the stronger"he had meantofcourse "the more excellent." Thus the firstdefenseof the principlethat the survival f thefittestentails he survival f thebest has brokendown.

The "excellent" refinallydefinedby Calliclesas the men who are

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THE PHILOSOPHY OF EXISTENCEmostwiseandcourageousn affairs f state. Theyoughtto be therulers,nd t wouldbefair f theyhadmore han heir ubjects491d-e). Socrates ounters ith hequestion:houldheyhavemore hanthemselves?Thisquestion rings newoutburstromCallicles.Amanshouldnot rulehimself. On thecontrary,oodness ndjusticeconsist n thesatisfactionf desires."Luxury,icenseand freedom"(tryphe, kolasid,leutheria),f providedwithmeans, re virtueandhappinessarete, udaimonia);hatevers saidto thecontrarys theornamentalalkofworthless en 492c). It isnotdifficultor Socratesto suggest esiresf suchbasenesshatevenCalliclesquirms.Buthehasbecometubbornnd nsists n theidentificationf happinessiththesatisfactionf desires; ndhe refuses o distinguishetweenoodandbadpleasures495b).The resistancef Callicles ivesSocratesheopportunityo intro-duce hequestion hether enwhoareadmittedyCallicesobegood(suchas thewiseandcourageous)eel morepleasurehanthosewhoareadmittedo be inferiorsuchas thecowards).The resultof theinquirys that a cowardanexperience,uitepossibly,morepleasurethana wiseandcourageousan. Bythereasoningf Callicles,here-fore,thecowards ouldhave o beconsideredhebettermenbecausetheyexperienceorehappinessn thehedonisticense. Thiscontradic-tion, inally, ompels allicleso admithedistinctionf goodandbadpleasures499c).Withthisadmissionhecaseof Callicless lost. Socratesanstepby step, orcehisadversary'snwillingssento thepositive hilosophyof existence fromwhich he aterposition f theRepublics derived.In the presentcontextwe have to concentraten the existentialenmity etweenCalliclesnd Socrates-Platondon the criticalanaly-sisof political orruption.Aboveall,Socrates owresumeshe issueof communicationn a moreradicalmanner.Onlyif thesoul s well-ordered anit be calledawful nomimos)504d);andonlyif it hasthe rightorder(nomos) is it capable f enteringnto communion(koinonia) 507e). Thepathoss no more hana preconditionorcommunity;n ordero actualizet, theErosmustbeorientedowardstheGood(agathon)andthedisturbingassionsmustberestrainedysophrosyne.f the lustsareunrestrained,anwillleadthelifeof arobberlestes). Sucha mancannot ethefriend prosphiles)f Godor othermen; orheis incapablef communion,ndhewho s incapa-bleof communions incapablef friendshipphilia)(507e). Friend-

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THE REVIEW OF POLITICSship, philia, is Plato's term for the state of existentialcommunity.Philia s the existential ondamongmen;andit is thebond as wellbe-tweenHeavenandEarth,manand God. Becausephiliaandorderper-vadeeverything,he universes calledkosmos order) andnot disorderorlicenseakosmia,kolasia) 508a).

VI. The MurdererFacesthe Victim.The meaningof order n existence s re-established.The existentialissuebetweenSocratesand Calliclescan now be takenup in earnest.

Socratesrestates he orderof evils: (1) it is bad to sufferinjustice;(2) it is worse o commitinjustice; 3) it is worstto remain n thedis-orderof the soulwhich s createdby doing injusticeand not to experi-ence the restoration f this orderthroughpunishment. The sneerofCallicles that thephilosophers exposed o ignominiousreatmentcannow be met on the level of the philosophy f order. Callicleshadtaken the standthat it was of supreme mportanceo protectoneselfeffectively gainstsuffering njustice. Socratesmaintains hat the priceof safetyagainst njusticemaybe too high. The sufferingof injusticecanbe avertedmosteffectivelyf a manacquires positionof power,orif he is thecompanion f thepowers hat be. The tyrant s in the idealpositionof safetyagainstinjustice. About the natureof the tyrantthereareno doubts,andthe companion f the tyrantwill be acceptableto him only if he is of a similarnature, hat is, if he connives n theinjusticeof the ruling power. The companion f tyrannymayescapethe sufferingof injusticebut his corruptionwill inevitablynvolvehimin the doing of injustice. Calliclesagreesenthusiasticallynd againreminds ocrates hat the companion f the tyrantwillplunderandkillthe manwhodoesnot imitate he tyrant. The arguments nearing tsclimax. The sneersof Callicles anbe effectiveonlyagainstmen of hisown ilk. They fall flat before a man who is readyto die. Do youthink,is the answerof Socrates, hat all caresshouldbe directed o-wardsthe prolongation f life? (511b-c). The "trueman" is not sofond of life, and theremaybe situations n whichhe no longercaresto live (512e). The arguments not yet directedpersonallyagainstCallicles,but we feel the tensionincreasingowardsthe point whereCallicles s co-responsible,hroughhis connivingconduct, or the mur-derof Socratesandperhaps f Platohimself. The socialconventions,whichCalliclesdespises,arewearing hin; and the advocateof natureis brought o realize hathe is a murderer nd thathe faceshis victim.

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THE PHILOSOPHYOF EXISTENCEThesituations fascinatingorthoseamongus whofindourselvesnthe Platonicpositionandwhorecognizen the menwithwhomweassociateoday he ntellectualimpsorpowerwhowillconnivenourmurderomorrow.

VII. TheTransfer f Authority.It wouldbe too muchof an honor,however,o burdenCalliclespersonallyith heguiltof murder.The whole ocietys corrupt,ndtheprocessf corruptionidnotstartyesterday.Callicless no morethanoneof a kind;andhemayevenhimself etcaughtn themorasswhichhedeepens.Socrates aises hequestionf thegoodstatesmanon principle.Goodnessndbadnessrenowdefinedn termsof ad-vancing rdecomposinghe order f existence.A statesmans goodif underhisrule he citizens ecome etter, e is bad f underhisrulethe citizensbecomeworse, n termsof existential rder. Socratesreviewshe menwhoaretheprideof Athenian istory:Themistocles,Pericles,Cimon,Miltiades; nd applying is criterion e findsthattheywerebadstatesmen.Theyhavebloatedhecitywithdocksandharborsndwallsandrevenues,ndtheyhave eft no room orjusticeandtemperance. he conclusiveroof or theevilcharacterf theirrule s theferociousnjusticeommittedgainsthembytheveryciti-zenswhom t wouldhavebeentheirtask to improve.The presentgenerations theheir o the evilthathasaccumulatedhroughhe suc-cessive ulesof such"great"tatesmen.And men like Callicles nd

Alcibiades hocater o the evilpassionsf the massesmightwell be-come heirvictims.So, whatdoesCallicleswantwithhisadmonitionsto conformo the habitsof politicsandto become flatterer f thedemos?DoesCallicleseriouslyuggesthatSocrateshouldointheranksof thosewhocorruptociety till further?Is it not rather istask o pronouncehetruthwhichwould estoreomeorder?ButCal-liclescannotbreak utof thecircleof his evil. He canonlyrepeatthat heconsequencesorSocrates illbeunpleasant.The Socraticnswerixes heposition f Plato:nodoubt,hecon-sequences aybeunpleasant;hodoesnotknow hat n Athensanymanmaysuffer nything;orwouldt be a surprisef he wereputtodeath; nthecontrary,e ratherxpects fateof thiskind. Andwhydoeshe anticipateisdeath?Becausee is one of the fewAthenianswhocares bouthetrueartof politics nd heonlyone n histimewhoacts ikeastatesman521d).

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THE REVIEW OF POLITICSThis last formulation, y which Plato claims for himselfthe truestatesmanshipf his time,is imporatntn severalrespects. In the con-

structionof the Gorgias, his claimdestroys he authorityof Calliclesto give adviceto anybodywith regard o publicconduct. The manwho standsconvictedas the accomplice f tyrannicalmurderersnd asthe corruptor f his country,does not represent n orderand cannotspeakwordsto whichanybody s obligedto bow with respect. Theauthority f publicorder ies with Socrates. With regard o the rela-tion of Plato to Athens the claimstigmatizeshe politicianswho areobsessedbythe"loveof thepeople" demouEros,513c) as the"adver-saries"(antistasiotes,513c) of the existentialorder representedbySocrates-Plato;he authoritative rderis transferredrom the peopleof Athens and its leadersto the one man Plato. Surprisingas thismove may seemto many,Plato'sclaimhas provedhistoricallyquitesound. The orderrepresentedy Callicleshasgonedownin ignominy;the orderrepresented y Plato has survivedAthensand is still one ofthe most importantngredientsn the orderof the soul of thosemenwhohave not renouncedhe traditionof Westerncivilization.Finally,this claim s of a certain nterestn thehistoryof politicaldeasbecausethe Platonicsituation ecursn recentWesternhistory n thepersonofNietzsche. Facedby the horrorsof powerpoliticsin the nineteenthcentury,and in particular nderthe impression f Bismarck'sounda-tion, Nietzscherenewed his claimin almostthe samewords as Platowhenhe stigmatizedhe GrossePolitikof Bismarcks theKleinePolitikand againstsuchusurpation laimedthe representativetatesmanshipof the age for himself.

VIII. The Judgment f theDead.The transfer f authorityromAthens to Plato is the climaxof theGorgias. The meaningof the transferand the source of the newauthority,however, till needsomeclarification.Let us recallwhat isat stake. The transfer f authoritymeans hat theauthority f Athens,as the publicorganization f a people in history,is invalidatedandsuperseded y a new publicauthoritywhich is manifest n the personof Plato. That is revolution. And it is even morethan an ordinaryrevolutionn whichnewpolitical orcesenterthe struggle or power ncompetitionwiththe olderones. Plato'srevolutions a radical all forspiritual egeneration.The peopleof Athens has lost its soul. Therepresentativef Atheniandemocracy,Callicles, s existentiallydisor-

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THE PHILOSOPHY OF EXISTENCEdered;hegreatmenof Athenian istory re the corruptorsf theircountry;helawcourtsf Athenscankill a manphysicallyut theirsentence as no moralauthority f punishment.The fundamentalraison 'etre f a people,hat t goes tsway hrough istorynpartner-shipwithGod,hasceased;heres no reasonwhyAthens hould xist,consideringhatshe is. The Gorgiass the sentencef deathuponAthens.

Butwhat s the nature f the authority hichrendersudgment?Platorevealst throughhemythof theJudgmentf theDead,con-cludingheGorgias.Calliclesadremindedocratesepeatedlyf thefatethatawaits imat thehands f anAthenianourt. In a finalan-swerSocratesaysthathe wouldrather iewitha justsoul,thangointothebeyondwitha soul ullof injustice.For hiswouldbe the lastandworstof all evils(522e). The reasonor this resolutione setsforthnthemyth. FromheAgeof Cronoshere tems lawconcern-ing thedestiny f man,which till is in forceamong hegods: thatmenwhohaveeda justandholy ifewillgo,afterdeath,o theIslandsof theBlessed,while hosewhohaveedanunjust nd mpiousife willgo to Tartarusorpunishment.n theAgeof Cronos ndevenquiterecentlyn theAge of Zeus, hejudgmentsererenderedn thedayonwhich hemenwereo die;themenas wellasthejudgeswerealive.As a result, requentmiscarriagesf justiceoccurred.Forthe men"had heirclotheson,"thatis, theywerestill in the body;andtheapparel f thebodycoveredhe truecharacterf thesouls;andthejudgeshemselveserehamperedbytheirclothes"n perceivingor-rectly he stateof thesoulsbefore hem. The complaintsbout hemisjudgmentsame o Zeusandhe changedheprocedure.Now thesentences repasseduponthesoulsafterdeath;andin judgmentresitting,Minos,RhadamanthysndAeacus,hedead onsof Zeus(523-524a). Strippedf theirbodies,hesoulsrevealheirbeauty rdefor-mity, hejudges an nspecthem mpartiallyecauseothingndicatestheirearthlyank,andtheycansendthemcorrectlyo the Islands fthe Blessed r to Tartarus.The purpose f punishments twofold.By temporaryufferinghesoulswill be chastisednless heyaretoobad;someof them,however,re incurablend theireternalufferingserveshepurposef filling heunregenerateoulswithfearandthusof contributingo their hastisement.heutterly adsoulswhosuffereternal unishmenteem o bealwaysif we cantrust heauthorityfHomer) hesoulsof menwho n theirbodily xistence ere ulers nd

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THE REVIEW OF POLITICSpotentates;or,thegreatestrimes realways ommittedythosewhohavepower. If, however, goodsoulappearsefore hejudges,t ismostikelyo bethesoulof a manwhohasbeena philosopherndwhohasrefrainedn his lifetime rom nterferingiththeaffairs f othermen 526c).Themythof theGorgiass theearliestf thePlatonic oemswhichconcern philosophyf politics ndhistory.It is verysimplen itsconstruction. evertheless,tcontainsn a rudimentaryorm hemean-ings hatareexpressed,ya moredifferentiatedymbolism,n thelaterpoems f theRepublic,he StatesmanndtheTimaeus.The specialvalueof thepresentmyths dueto itselementalersenessnd tsclose-nessto the original xperienceshichareexpressedn it. Socratesopensheaccountf themythwith hewarninghatCalliclesmaycon-sider t no more hana pretty ale,but that he is, indeed,elling he"truth"523a). In anabbreviatedormwe seeraisedhe issueof thetruthof themythwhichbecomesheobject f elaborateiscussionnthe Timaeus.Hence,we shallnot searchor the"truth" n thelevelof theovert"prettytory" uttranslateheovert ymbolsntotheexpe-riencesf thesoulforwhichtheystand. Thefirst ymbols hich fferthemselvesorsuch ranslationre heAgesof Cronos ndZeus. Weareacquaintediththeirmeaningrom heStatesman.Theysignifythehistoricalequencef theageof thepeople'smythandof theageof thedifferentiated,utonomousersonality.Plato introduceshemin theGorgiasorthepurposef dating hechangen procedureorthe judgmentf the dead. In the Age of Cronos, nd"untilquiterecentlyn theAge of Zeus," hesoulswerejudgedwhile heywerestill"alive";hat s,thejudgment asbiased yregardor theworldlystation f thesoul. Now thesoulsarejudgedwhen heyare"dead,"that s,intheirnakedness,ithoutegardoworldlyank.Thischangein themodeof judgments quite"recent";hatis, in historicalime,Plato s speakingf thenewapproacho theorder f thesoulthatwasinauguratedy Socrates.Underthe newdispensation,hesenakedsoulsarejudgedby the "Sonsof Zeus." With the meaning f thissymbolwe areagainacquaintedhroughheStatesman.TheSonsofZeusare hemenofthenewage, hemystic-philosophersngeneral,ndprimarilylatohimself.TheseSonsof Zeusare"dead."We have oascertain,herefore,hemeaningf thesymbols life"and"death"nthemyth.Themeaningf death n themythhasbeencarefully reparedyincidentalemarksn thedialoguetself. WhenCallicles raisedhe

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THE PHILOSOPHY OF EXISTENCElife of hedonistichappiness,Socratessuggested hat in this case lifewould be something wful(deinos). Euripidesmightevenbe rightinsayingthatlife is death,anddeathis life. Most likely,at thismomentwe wouldhave to be considered ead;for it wouldbe true what a sagehas said: that our body (soma) is our tomb (sema) (493a).8 Thetrue ifeof thesoul,thus,wouldbeits existence ree of theprisonof thebody, in a life precedingor followingits earthlyentombment. Con-cerningthe meaningof pre-existencend post-existence lato has ex-pressedhimselfat lengthin otherdialogues. The greatsymbolizationof pre-existences given in the myth of the Phaedrus. Let us recallonly one passagewhichclarifies he meaningof the "Sons of Zeus."In Phaedrus250b) Platospeaksof thehappyexistence"whenwe (thephilosophers)ollowed n the train of Zeus,"seeingthe formsof eter-nal beingwhichnow can be recalled hroughanamnesis. Concerningthe idea of post-existence,n particularwith regard o the purificationof the soul in after-life,we havean important assage n the Cratylus(403-404b). In thispassagePlatorejectsas unfounded he fearwhichmenhaveof the rulerof theunderworld.His names,PlutoandHades,indicate hat he is richandconsequently oesnot wantanythingof us,and that he has the knowledgeof all noblethings. If the soulswhodwell in his presencehad reallyreasonto fearhim, at leastnow andthen onewouldescape romhim. But,as a matterof fact,theyliketodwell with him; they areboundto himby their activedesire;for, hehastheknowledge f virtueandhe pointsto the souls thepathto theirperfection. In life,however,he soulsdo not havefullydevelopedhisdesirefor perfection. That is the reasonwhy Pluto wants themonlyafterthey arefreedfromthe passionsof the body. Only afterdeathwill they be free to follow undisturbedheir desirefor virtue (periaretenepithymia). By thisdesirePlutobindsthe soulsto himself, orin the relationwithhimtheywill at last achievea purificationf whichthey were incapableas long as they wereobsessedby "the fear andfrenzyof the body." No compulsion,hus, is necessaryo makethesoulsundergotheircathartic ufferingn the underworld;n the con-trary,hereat last the soul is free to passthrough he desiredcatharsiswhichwaspreventedn earthly xistencebythe obstacleof thebody.Thesevariouspassages ast some ighton themythicalplaywiththesymbolsof life and death in the Gorgias. Death can mean eitherthe

8 The image of life as an entombmentof the soul in the body recurs in other con-texts. In Phaedrus 250c, for instance, Plato speaks of the souls in the state when theywere still "pureand untombed"by the body.

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THE REVIEW OF POLITICSentombmentf thesoul nitsearthlyody,orthesheddingf thebody.Lifecanmean itherearthlyxistence,rfreedomf thesoulfrom hefrenzy f thebody. Theshifting etweenhese everalmeaningss thesource f therichnessf theGorgias.Letusbeginwith hemeaningf thesymbolsn the evelof history.In thehistorico-politicalrocesshelustily-livingike Callicles rethe"dead,"ntombedn thepassion ndfrenzyof theirbody;theyarejudged ythe"living,"hat s,bythemystic-philosophersho et theirsoulsbepenetratedytheexperiencef deathand, hus,haveachievedlife subspeciemortisn freedomromsomatic assion.Thetransferofauthority eans hevictory f thelife of the soulover hedeadlinessof earthly assion.Thistensionbetweenhelife of thesoulandthetombof thebody,however,asonly "recently"evelopedn history.Formerly,n theageof thepeople'smyth, hedistinctionetweenifeanddeathhadnotbeenso clear;at thattimeearthlyxistence ouldeasilybe mistakenorthe life of the soul. The soul hadfirstto beseparatedrom hebody hroughheexperiencef death. OnlywhenThanatos adenteredhesoul,could t be distinguishedlearlyromthe semaof thebody;onlythencould ts non-somaticature,heco-eternityf itsexistence ith he cosmos ndtheautonomyf itsorderbecomentelligible.The life and deathof Socrateswere hedecisiveeventsn thediscoverynd iberationf thesoul. Thesoulof Socrateswas oriented owardshe Agathon hroughts eroticism;nd theAgathonnvadedhe soulwith ts eternalubstance,herebyreatingthe autonomousrderof the soulbeyond he passions f the body.Throughhiscatharsis,he soulin its earthly xistenceeceivedhestigma f its eternal ost-existence.helifeof Socrateswasthegreatmodelof theliberationf the soulthroughhe invasion f death ntoearthly xistence; nd the imitatioSocratishadbecome he orderof lifefor hisfollowers,ndaboveall forPlato. Onlynow,when heSonsof Zeushavedied,whendeath mbraceshemnlife,is the catharsisfthe soulrevealeds the truemeaningf life;andonlythesoulswhohavedied,have he clearnessf viewwhich nableshem o judge he"living."Theauthorityf thejudges,hus, s theauthorityf deathover ife.But what s thestatusof thosewhodo nothave heexperiencefdeath n existencendthroughhisexperienceain he life of thesoul?On thisquestion ingesheproblemf history s a meaningfulrder,that s,theproblemf historys thetheogonic rocess.If weapproachtheproblemf thetheogonicrocess,we have o accepthe fact that

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THE PHILOSOPHY OF EXISTENCEthe revelationof divinityin historyis ontologicallyreal. The mythof the peopleis reallysuperseded y the mythof the soul. The peo-ple'smythis in full decadence;t is corrodedby pleonexiaand reason,as evidencedby Gorgias,Polus and Callicles. The orderof the soulas revealedthroughSocrateshas, indeed,become heneworderof rela-tionsbetweenGod and man. And the authority f this new order sinescapable. To bury oneself in the tomb of bodily existence(theescapeof Callicles)is of no avail;thewayfromthepeople'smythdoesnot leadto the darkness f nature, t leads to the life of the soul;andthe soul must die and, divestedof its body, it will stand before itsjudge. This new order s understoodsecretly venby thosewho meetit with sulkinessand recalcitrance,or this secretunderstandingindsthepartners f thedialogue ogetherat leastfor itsduration. We mustrecalla passage romthe Cratylus. The "desire or virtue" s present,even if it is obscuredby the maniaof thebody;andit will reignfreelywhenthe obstacleof the body is removed. Insofar as the dialogue san attemptat existential ommunication,t is an attempt o liberate hesoulfromits passions, o denude t of its body. Socratesspeaks o hisinterlocutorss if they were "dead"souls,or at leastas if they weresoulswho arecapableof death. On thepartof Socrates, he dialogueis an attempt o submit he others,at leasttentatively,o the catharsisof death. The judgmentof the dead thus is enacted n part in thedialogue tself,concretely,n the attemptof Socrates o pierce hroughthe "body"of his interlocutorso theirnakedsouls. He triesto makedie, and thereby o live, thosewho threatenhim with death. HenceSocrates,afterhe hasfinishedhetaleof themyth,turns o Calliclesorthatlast timeandoffershiman exhortation f his own in exchangeorthe former'sfriendlyadmonitions. He assuresCallicles hathe is per-suadedof the truthof the judgmentandthat he wishesto presenthissoulundefiledbeforethe judge;andthat, to the utmostof his powers,he exhortsall men to be equallypersuaded.He now exhortsCallicles,therefore,o takepartin thiscombat(dgon), which s theagonof lifeandgreaterhananyother. Otherwise e will sufferbeforehis eternaljudges the fate which he predicted or Socratesbefore the earthlyjudges. "Followmy persuasion" andhe will lead Callicles o eudai-moniain this life and after death (527c). The existentialappealisnowsupported y the ultimateauthority f thedemand o submit reelyto the inevitablejudgment ighthereandnow,that is: to enter hecom-munityof thosewhosesoulshavebeen liberatedby deathandwho livein thepresence f the judgment.

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THE REVIEW OF POLITICSThebarriersetweenheearthlyxistence f thesoulandits post-existence avebroken own. Catharsiss themeaningf existenceor

the soul on bothsidesof the dividingine of disembodiment. hecatharsis hichhesoulhasnotachievedn earthlyxistence illhaveto be achievedn post-existence. ence thepunishment,he timoria,whichhesoul willhaveto undergon after-life oesnot differromthepunishmenthich t hasto undergon this life for thepurposefpurification. hispurifyingimorias a social rocess;t canbeappliedby godsorbymen. Thosewhoare ouchableyit are hosewhosemis-deeds hamartemata)recurable;heyareable oundergohepurifica-tionbypainandsuffering.Andthere s nootherway or the soultobedeliveredromevil(adikia)"inthisworld rthenext" 525c). Inthis deaof thecatharsishroughufferinginthisworldorthenext,"therecanagainbe felt theAeschyleanouchof thewisdomhroughsufferings thegreatawof thepsycheorgodsandmen.Thecurableoul, hus, s permanentlyn the stateof judgment;oexperiencetselfpermanentlyn thepresencef thejudgment,emightsay, sthecriterionf thecurableoul;"onlyhegoodsoulsare nhell"- asBerdiaev,noccasion,as ormulatedheproblem.Thisconcep-tion,however, ouldhaveanunexpectedonsequencef it wereunder-stoodnotexistentiallyutdogmatically.f thesymbol f punishmentin after-lifeweremisunderstoods a dogmatic ypothesis,he not sogoodsoulsmightarrive t the conclusionhattheywill waitfor theafter-lifendsee what s goingto happenhen; f sufferings thelot

of the soulunderall circumstances,heycan wait for theirshareofsufferingwhichs nomore hana dogmaticssertion)npost-existenceandmeanwhileenjoysomepleasurableriminality.t is a problemnthepsychologyf dogmaticerailmentimilaro thatwhichhas arisenin some nstancesn Calvinism:f the fateof the soulis predestined,somemayarrive t theconclusionhat it doesnot matterwhat heydo. This psychologicalerailment,hroughhe dogmaticmisunder-standing f theexistentialruthof themyth,Platoforestalls y thethreat f eternalondemnationorthe incurableouls. In thesymbol-ismof themyth, ternalondemnations the correlateo therefusal fcommunicationnthe evelof themythof thesoul;eternalondemna-tionmeans,n existentialerms,elf-condemnation.he revelationfthedivinityn historymoves n;theauthorityestswith hemenwholivein friendshipithGod;the criminalanachieve othingbuttheperditionf hissoul.

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