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Hydrobiologia 384: 267–290, 1998. © 1998 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in Belgium. 267 Fifty years of hydrobiological research in India Brij Gopal & D. P. Zutshi School of Environmental Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, India Key words: Benthos, biodiversity, biomonitoring, community ecology, ecotoxicology, fisheries, macrophytes, microbiology, phytoplankton, population ecology, thermal springs, zooplankton Abstract The paper provides an overview of the developments in hydrobiological studies in India during the past fifty years, and links them with a historical perspective of the pre-independence studies. Hydrobiological studies which were well developed in the beginning of this century, gained momentum soon after independence as all kinds of aquatic habitats were investigated for the assessment, conservation and optimum utilization of inland fishery resources of the country. However, the environmental issues which dominated since the 1972 Stockholm Conference, and growing realization of the problem of water pollution, resulted in a rapid proliferation of hydrobiological studies which tend to focus on correlation between the distribution of various organisms and degree of water pollution or the effects of various organic and inorganic pollutants. A sampling of published literature reveals that long-term, analytical and experimental studies of the whole ecosystems (natural or experimental), and studies of population interactions, biomanipulation, food chain dynamics, and energy flows are wholly lacking. The paper calls for the strengthening of field and laboratory facilities, and establishment of regional and national institutes of aquatic ecology which will be necessary for the management of both the water quality and aquatic biological resources for sustainable development. Introduction India, the second most populous country in the world, became an independent nation on 15 August 1947 when the erstwhile British India was partitioned into India and Pakistan. 1 India is now celebrating the Golden Jubilee of her independence and it is time to reflect on our achievements and failures and also to prepare for the challenges of the next century which is already knocking at our doors. It is an happy augury that the golden jubilee of Hydrobiologia coincides with that of India’s independence, and hence, we are doubly privileged to be associated with this special issue. We take this opportunity to examine the major trends in hydrobiological research during the past fifty years, evaluate the state of our present knowledge in terms of the national needs and international devel- opments in the field, and identify the gaps and future requirements. 1 East Pakistan became independent Republic of Bangladesh in December 1971. India, with her unique geological history, highly diverse physiography, monsoon climate with extremes of temporal and spatial variability, and high biotic diversity, is endowed with equally diverse aquatic habitats. There is a network of 14 major, 44 medium and hundreds of minor river systems (Rao 1975). Majority of them are perennial rivers with large sea- sonal variation in their flows but there are also many ephemeral streams in the western arid Rajasthan. The Rivers Ganga and Brahmaputra, originating in the Hi- malaya, transport annually a heavy load of sediments (Subramanian, 1978; Millimann & Meade, 1983) to the Bay of Bengal where they join to form the world’s largest delta. Natural lakes of diverse origin occur only in the Himalayan belt where the climate varies from the cold arid in the west to humid tropical in the east (Fernando, 1984; Gopal and Krishnamurthy, 1993). All other natural freshwater bodies, often referred to as lakes, are floodplain lakes (ox-bows) which are gen- erally shallow (< 3 m deep) and exhibit large water level fluctuations depending upon the annual precip-

Fifty years of hydrobiological research in India

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Page 1: Fifty years of hydrobiological research in India

Hydrobiologia 384: 267–290, 1998.© 1998Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in Belgium. 267

Fifty years of hydrobiological research in India

Brij Gopal & D. P. ZutshiSchool of Environmental Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, India

Key words:Benthos, biodiversity, biomonitoring, community ecology, ecotoxicology, fisheries, macrophytes,microbiology, phytoplankton, population ecology, thermal springs, zooplankton

Abstract

The paper provides an overview of the developments in hydrobiological studies in India during the past fifty years,and links them with a historical perspective of the pre-independence studies. Hydrobiological studies which werewell developed in the beginning of this century, gained momentum soon after independence as all kinds of aquatichabitats were investigated for the assessment, conservation and optimum utilization of inland fishery resourcesof the country. However, the environmental issues which dominated since the 1972 Stockholm Conference, andgrowing realization of the problem of water pollution, resulted in a rapid proliferation of hydrobiological studieswhich tend to focus on correlation between the distribution of various organisms and degree of water pollution orthe effects of various organic and inorganic pollutants. A sampling of published literature reveals that long-term,analytical and experimental studies of the whole ecosystems (natural or experimental), and studies of populationinteractions, biomanipulation, food chain dynamics, and energy flows are wholly lacking. The paper calls for thestrengthening of field and laboratory facilities, and establishment of regional and national institutes of aquaticecology which will be necessary for the management of both the water quality and aquatic biological resources forsustainable development.

Introduction

India, the second most populous country in the world,became an independent nation on 15 August 1947when the erstwhile British India was partitioned intoIndia and Pakistan.1 India is now celebrating theGolden Jubilee of her independence and it is time toreflect on our achievements and failures and also toprepare for the challenges of the next century which isalready knocking at our doors. It is an happy augurythat the golden jubilee of Hydrobiologia coincideswith that of India’s independence, and hence, we aredoubly privileged to be associated with this specialissue. We take this opportunity to examine the majortrends in hydrobiological research during the past fiftyyears, evaluate the state of our present knowledge interms of the national needs and international devel-opments in the field, and identify the gaps and futurerequirements.

1 East Pakistan became independent Republic of Bangladesh inDecember 1971.

India, with her unique geological history, highlydiverse physiography, monsoon climate with extremesof temporal and spatial variability, and high bioticdiversity, is endowed with equally diverse aquatichabitats. There is a network of 14 major, 44 mediumand hundreds of minor river systems (Rao 1975).Majority of them are perennial rivers with large sea-sonal variation in their flows but there are also manyephemeral streams in the western arid Rajasthan. TheRivers Ganga and Brahmaputra, originating in the Hi-malaya, transport annually a heavy load of sediments(Subramanian, 1978; Millimann & Meade, 1983) tothe Bay of Bengal where they join to form the world’slargest delta. Natural lakes of diverse origin occur onlyin the Himalayan belt where the climate varies fromthe cold arid in the west to humid tropical in the east(Fernando, 1984; Gopal and Krishnamurthy, 1993).All other natural freshwater bodies, often referred toas lakes, are floodplain lakes (ox-bows) which are gen-erally shallow (< 3 m deep) and exhibit large waterlevel fluctuations depending upon the annual precip-

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itation. There are also numerous thermal springs inthe Himalaya, Western Ghats and other hills (Ghosh,1948), a few salt lakes in the arid region of Rajasthanand cold desert of Ladakh, and several coastal la-goons. However, the Indian landscape is dotted withover 4290 large (> 15 m maximum depth or> 1million cu.m stoage) and innumerable smaller man-made waterbodies (Sugunan, 1995; Suryanarayanan,1996). Although tanks and ponds for religious pur-poses (temple tanks) and irrigation were constructedsince ages, over the past century, numerous reservoirshave been constructed for irrigation, flood control andhydropower, and are also being used for developingfisheries. With the rapid growth in human popula-tion, increase in industrial activity and the consequentdemand of water, the waterbodies, both lentic andlotic, are becoming increasingly polluted by domesticwastes, agricultural runoff and industrial effluents.

These aquatic habitats and their biota have beenextensively investigated since the early 19th century,and interest has grown rapidly in recent years due tothe rising demand for water and fish, and the need formanaging the water quality. A comprehensive reviewof the country’s aquatic resources and the status oflimnological/ hydrobiological research (both pure andapplied, including physical and chemical limnology)in India has, however, never been attempted. Two briefoverviews were published in 1980 in Hydrobiologiain a volume dedicated to late Prof. S.V. Ganapati onthe occasion of his 80th birthday. One of these articles(Gulati & Wurtz-Schulz, 1980) analyzed 322 paperspublished in this Journal by the Indian scientists dur-ing 1948 to 1979. Another article (Michael 1980) drewa thumbnail sketch on the basis of 315 papers of whichonly 61 were published in Hydrobiologia, and 68 inother journals from outside India. Some prominentstudies on a few selected lakes and reservoirs of Indiawere summarized, together with those in other tropicalcountries, by Serruya & Pollingher (1983), and morerecently, Jana (1998) has summarized the lipmnolog-ical data for more than 60 lakes and reservoirs. Thestudies on all aspects of aquatic vegetation were pre-sented in a volume edited by Gopal (1990). Our taskhas been rendered much more difficult by an expo-nential increase in the number of publications whichoriginate from more than 150 universities, severalthousand colleges, and dozens of research institutes,and have appeared in more than two hundred nationaland international journals, numerous conference pro-ceedings, books and edited volumes, and hundredsof unpublished project reports and dissertations. The

International Association for Limnology (SIL) haslaunched a series of volumes on the status of lim-nological research and training in various developingcountries. We are completing, for this series, a fairlydetailed review of limnological investigations in allkinds of inland aquatic ecosystems with focus on theirphysical and chemical environment, biological com-munities and ecosystem processes (Gopal & Zutshi1998). Therefore, we restrict this review mainly to bio-logical studies, focusing especially on the explorationsof biological diversity, studies on developmental bi-ology (including physiology) and population ecologyof various plant and animal taxa, including their re-sponses to various organic and inorganic pollutants.The community and ecosystem level studies are onlybriefly mentioned here. Further, this review is confinedto the inland aquatic habitats; the studies on coastaland marine environments are wholly excluded. Thetwo reviews are thus complementary to each other al-though some overlap is unavoidable. In this review, wefirst look at the pre-independence scenario and analysethe major trends of hydrobiological research duringthe past fifty years. Later, we summarize the importantstudies, and present a future perspective.

Pre-independence scenario

Like Europe, the history of studies of aquatic biota inIndia also can be traced back to the early nineteenthcentury when during the British rule, extensive sur-veys of freshwater fauna were made (Hamilton, 1822;McClelland, 1939; Day, 1873, 1878). It is interestingthat E. Haeckel (who is credited with the term ecol-ogy) had examined and published on fish fauna fromKashmir valley as early as 1838 (see Das and Subla,1963). Several surveys also reported on the algal flora(Braun, 1849; Dickie, 1882; Kirtikar, 1886; Turner,1892).

Towards the end of the 19th century and in thefirst quarter of this century, the surveys were pursuedwith great vigour covering areas beyond British India(Afghanistan, Tibet, China, southeast Asia, Mongo-lia) under the leadership of Annandale who becamethe first Director of the Zoological Survey of Indiain 1916. Several prominent native Indian scientistswere associated with Annandale at the Indian Mu-seum or worked in the universities at Calcutta, Madrasand Bombay. Practically all kinds of habitats suchas lakes, swamps, ponds, thermal springs, streams,torrents, rivers, coastal lagoons and estuaries were

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surveyed (Annandale, 1915–24, 1918, 1919, 1921,1923; Annandale et al., 1921; Annandale & Chopra,1924; Annandale & Rao, 1923; G.L. Arora, 1931;Chopra, 1927; Gurney, 1907; Hora, 1922; Prashad,1919, 1922, 1923; Preston, 1909, 1914; Sewell, 1924,1934). These surveys included detailed observationson water quality and related habitat characteristics,and their relationships with the organisms were oftendiscussed (Prashad 1916). Unfortunately these studies,made long before the Sunda Expedition of 1928, donot find a mention in the history of tropical limnology.

By the late 1920s, the collection and descriptionof the fauna had generated enough data for a zoo-geographic analysis and detailed field studies on theenvironmental relationships of various organisms hadbeen initiated. Among these studies, the foremost werethose of S.L. Hora who wrote extensively on the bio-geography, evolution, ecology, physiology and generalbiology of fishes and thus, laid the foundations of In-dian fishery science (Hora, 1921, 1923, 1930, 1933,1934, 1935a,b). Hora advocated a southeast Asianorigin (probably from Yunnan) of Indian freshwaterfish fauna and propounded the hypothesis, known asSatpura hypothesis, which explained the distributionof fishes (also other fauna and flora) in peninsularIndia and Malaysian region (Hora, 1937a,b, 1944).Hora was also concerned about the impact of damson fisheries (Hora, 1940, 1942), far ahead of histime, a subject which is now much debated. Amongothers mention must be made of B. K. Das (1927),Pearse (1932) and H. Khan (1924, 1934) for their stud-ies on fish ecology, and Pruthy (1933, 1939) for hiscontributions to the ecology of aquatic insects.

The Yale North India Expedition in 1932 strength-ened the foundations for detailed limnological studiesas eleven high altitude lakes in the Ladakh-Tibet re-gion and several lakes in Kashmir were investigated(Hutchinson, 1933, 1937a). This was closely followedby a Swedish Expedition to Burma and British India in1934. The descriptions of biota collected during thesetwo expeditions continued to appear over the next twodecades (Alexander, 1946, 1954; Brehm, 1936; Brehm& Woltereck, 1939; Edmondson & Hutchinson, 1934;Drouet 1938; Hora, 1936; Hutchinson, 1937b; Muk-erji, 1936; Guignot, 1954; Kiefer, 1939; Kimmins,1957; Lieftinck, 1948; Ochs, 1940; Prashad, 1937).

Botanists did not fail much in their attention toaquatic habitats as the Botanical Survey of India hadbeen established much earlier (Hooker, 1872–97).Prominent botanical research centres were located inCalcutta, Madras, Bombay, Banaras, Allahabad and

Lahore (now in Pakistan) from where extensive sur-veys of aquatic flora were conducted. Among theearlier reports on algal flora of lakes and ponds, men-tion may be made of West & West (1907); Ghose(1919, 1923); Groves (1924); Carter (1926); Brühl& Biswas (1926); Kundu (1929); Bharadwaja (1933,1934); Iyengar (1932, 1933); Randhawa (1936a, b);Biswas (1928, 1936) and J. N. Misra (1937). De(1939) investigated nitrogen fixation by blue green al-gae in paddy fields. Aquatic bryophytes were studiedby S.R. Kashyap at Lahore. Among the earliest stud-ies of aquatic vegetation were those of B. Sahni, therenowned palaeobotanist, who reported on the floatingislands in Kashmir’s Dal lake (Sahni, 1927) and Muk-erjee (1921, 1926, 1932, 1934) who also studied thevegetation in Dal Lake in relation to light penetration,and Biswas (1927) who demonstrated the importanceof aquatic vegetation to the oxygen supply in water-bodies. Studies of aquatic habitats and their biota werealso made in the context of their role as a habitat formoquitoes and therefore in spreading malaria (e.g.,Biswas & Calder, 1937). Many ichthyologists also re-ported on the use of fishes for controlling mosquitoes(e.g., Hora, 1927).

By the early 1940s, hydrobiological studies werealready gaining momentum through their diversifi-cation into newer areas. Ganapati (1941, 1943) in-vestigated seasonal changes in the physico-chemicalcharacteristics of water, zooplankton, and aquatic veg-etation in fishponds and tanks in Madras and alsoreported on controlling aquatic vegetation (Ganap-ati, 1947). R. Misra who had demonstrated the roleof sediment characteristics in determining the natureof aquatic vegetation in the lake district of England(Misra, 1938), initiated studies on the aquatic plantcommunities and their dynamics in relation to soiland water chemistry and other habitat characteristics(Misra, 1946). Biswas (1940) reported on algal com-munities of River Hooghly whereas d’Almeida (1941)studied biology and anatomical adaptations in aquaticand marsh plants.

Post-independence developments

Soon after independence, scientific research was pro-moted with the establishment of research institutesand several universities in each of the States. An In-land Fishery Research Station was set up at Calcuttain 1947 [which was turned into the Central InlandFisheries Research Institute and located at Barrack-

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pore (West Bengal) in 1959] with the main objectiveof assessing all inland fishery resources of the coun-try, and evolving suitable methods for their conser-vation and optimum utilization. The Institute and itsseveral research stations throughout the country con-tributed not only to the fishery science but also to theunderstanding of ecology and production processesin rivers, estuaries, reservoirs, floodplain lakes, la-goons and other aquatic habitats (Sinha, 1997). Theuniversity departments of zoology started studies ondifferent aspects of aquatic and fauna with greaterfocus on exploration of all kinds of aquatic environ-ments. Ichthyology emerged as a major discipline inmany universities (see Das, 1962); closely followedby the studies on zooplankton which are major con-stituents of fish food. The avifauna was left mostly inthe hands of the naturalists and among other animalgroups, aquatic insects (S.Singh, 1958; Tonapi, 1959),oligochaetes (Naidu, 1962, 1963) and amphibia onlyreceived some attention. A very good summary ofthese studies is given by Tonapi (1980). The studieson algae and higher aquatic plants were pursued inrelatively few universities until late 1960s.

Later, the interest in inland aquatic environmentsgrew rather rapidly. Several thousands of publica-tions during the past fifty years reflect the wide-spread interest in hydrobiological research in the coun-try. However, a closer scrutiny brings out phases ofepisodic research activity which can be readily cor-related with the major international programmes thathave been initiated from time to time. The researchersswitched from one area of research to another with-out focusing intensively on one or gaining adequateinsight/understanding of any one field. The studies donot appear to have been driven by the need to under-stand the aquatic ecosystems and their biota, or byconsiderations of national interests but largely by fac-tors governing the availability of financial resourcesand the desire to swim in the mainstream of inter-national scientific research. One can readily identifycertain periods when the focus of investigations shiftedto a new area followed by a spurt in activity whosepeak declined as rapidly as it was achieved.

The first two decades after independence rep-resented a period of continuity with the pre-independence studies with rapid expansion into un-explored areas. The investigations of fishes diversi-fied into areas such as food and feeding behaviour,reproductive biology, physiology (especially of air-breathing fishes), factors affecting growth and produc-tion of capture fisheries, and cultivation of freshwa-

ter and brackishwater fishes. Zoologists and fisherybiologists also took a lead in studies of phytoplank-ton and zooplankton communities and their seasonaldynamics in all habitats. Phycological research onsystematics, physiology, cytology, and to a smallerextent, ecology was pursued at the universities andpromoted by the Indian Council of Agricultural Re-search (Kachroo, 1960). The need to utilize waterresources with maximum benefit for agriculture andfisheries promoted studies of aquatic vegetation. Sim-ilarly, studies of aquatic microbiology were drivenby the concern for health and hence, focused onpathogenic micro-organisms.

The launch of the International Biological Pro-gramme in 1964, resulted quickly, if not abruptly, ina shift of emphasis on the investigations of primaryand secondary production and production processes.The studies on macrophytes concentrated on the sea-sonal changes of biomass and considered either thepeak biomass or the sum of positive increments inbiomass as annual production. Studies on communityproduction and the factors regulating primary produc-tion were rare. Secondary production by zooplanktonor benthic fauna was rarely investigated.

Before the IBP came to close in 1974, the UN Con-ference on Environment and Development in Stock-holm, in June 1972, brought to focus the issuesof environmental degradation including water pol-lution. In the same year, UNESCO launched theinter-governmental, Man and Biosphere Programme(MAB). One of the MAB Project areas was the impactof human activities of aquatic ecosystems. The Gov-ernment of India supported many research projectsunder the MAB programme in different universities.The need to control water pollution was readily recog-nized and the Government of India enacted a Water(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act in 1974,which was gradually adopted by the State govern-ments. Soon, the Boards for Prevention and Control ofWater Pollution were established in most of the States.Whereas these Boards together with the Central WaterPollution Control Board, started assessing the magni-tude of water pollution in major rivers (Anonymous,1980), researchers throughout the country shifted theirattention to relating the observations on plant and an-imal populations with water quality parameters in allkinds of small and large waterbodies. This graduallygave way to numerous toxicological studies reportingon the physiological and biochemical changes in a va-riety of organisms (mostly fish, prawns and molluscs)in response to various kinds of pollutants.

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The reports of the Central Water Pollution ControlBoard revealed high levels of pollution in the riversof Ganga River basin, particularly from the disposalon untreated domestic sewage and industrial effluents(Anonymous, 1980, 1982). Alarmed by the gravityof the situation, the Government of India launched in1985, a Ganga Action Plan (Anonymous, 1985a), setup a Ganga River Directorate within the Ministry ofEnvironment and Forests, and supported 40 researchprojects on River Ganga in 14 universities all along theriver (see Krishnamurthy et al., 1991). This broughtinto focus the need for research on rivers but mostof the studies have been limited to the assessment ofwater quality (physico-chemical characteristics) andto some extent the effects on biota. The Ganga RiverDirectorate has been renamed as National River Con-servation Directorate reflecting the concern for all therivers.

India became a signatory to the Ramsar Conven-tion on Internationally Important Wetlands in 1981.This gradually turned the attention to waterfowl andwetlands. However, a loosely applied definition ofwetlands brought into their fold all kinds of lentic wa-ter bodies. The focus shifted to management, involve-ment of local communities and its socio-economicdimensions while the importance of baseline studieson the structural and functional characteristics of therespective ecosystems has been relegated to the back-yard. A National Lake Conservation Plan, launchedin 1997 by the Ministry of Environment and Forests,identified 11 lakes for special attention from the Gov-ernment. The Convention on Biological Diversity hasonce again started diverting attention to biodiver-sity related issues in aquatic systems (Dehadrai etal., 1994; Dehadrai & Ponniah, 1997; Gopal, 1997)though the Convention on Climate Change has not yetinfluenced the country’s hydrobiologists.

Major scientific contributions

Vast majority of the studies have focused on lentic wa-terbodies whereas most of the studies on rivers refer tothe Ganga river system. During the past few years, thestudies on some of the waterbodies and from certaingeographic areas which have been investigated in de-tail for many years have been summarised in severalpublications. Of these mention must be made of R.Ganga (Krishnamurti et al., 1991), R. Narmada (Unni,1997), several other rivers (Trivedy, 1988, 1990), LakeDal, Srinagar (Kundangar & Sarwar, 1997), Lake Lok-

tak (Tombi Singh & Singh, 1994), Lake Sambhar(Gopal & Sharma, 1994), Lake Harike (Ladhar et al.,1994), Lake Wular (Trisal et al., 1994), Lake Chilka(Bandyopadhyay & Gopal, 1991; Ram et al., 1995),Keoladeo Ghana National Park (Vijayan 1994), Kawarlake (Sharma & Dattamunshi, 1995), Upper Lake,Bhopal (Agarker et al., 1994), lakes near Udaipur(Vyas et al., 1989), Kashmir lakes (Zutshi, 1989; Kaul& Handoo, 1989, 1993), high altitude lakes (Zutshi etal., 1972; Zutshi, 1991), lakes of Himalayan region(Zutshi, 1985), and numerous reservoirs (Sugunan,1995). These publications cover all aspects of waterchemistry and biology as well as conservation andmanagement (see also Ando, 1996).

A few reviews also deal with the studies on certaingroups of organisms. The developments in phycolog-ical research, both pure and applied, and freshwaterand marine, were reviewed at a symposium orga-nized by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research(Kachroo, 1960). The studies on zooplankton arereviewed by Yousuf (1989), Battish (1992), on macro-phytes (Gopal, 1990), fisheries (Jhingran, 1992).

In the following pages, we highlight some of thestudies in different areas of hydrobiologywhich reflectthe general trends and emphasis on particular aspectsin various habitats.

Taxonomy and distribution

Extensive field surveys which were continued afterthe independence yielded substantial information onthe flora and fauna of India’s inland waters whichis scattered in the publications of the Zoological andBotanical Surveys of India (e.g., Biswas, 1949a). Hun-dreds of new species of all major groups of plantsand animals have been named. The efforts to compileinformation on the biota have however been at besthalf-hearted. The Indian Council of Agricultural Re-search started publishing a series of volumes of algalflora of India (Venkataraman, 1961; Philipose, 1967;Randhawa, 1959; Desikachary, 1959; Ramanathan,1961; Gonzalves, 1981) but the series stands aban-doned. Similarly, despite many local and regionalreports, the only account of macrophytes of India wasby Subrahmanyam (1962) who described only 117aquatic angiosperms. Although a list of aquatic andwetland plants was compiled by Lavania et al. (1990),it is only recently that an aquatic and wetland flora ofIndia has been published by Cook (1996). Brief ac-counts of aquatic pteridophytes are given by Khullar &Sharma (1989) and Pande et al. (1991). An overview

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of Indian fauna has been published by the ZoologicalSurvey of India (Anonymous, 1991). Fishes of Indiahave been well documented (Jayaram, 1981; Jhingran,1992). Detailed accounts of the molluscs (Subba Rao,1989) and Cladocera (Michael & Sharma, 1986) haverecently been published but the aquatic insects (seeHubbard & Peters, 1978) and other faunal groups re-main poorly known. Among micro-organisms, thereare many reports of aquatic fungi from many habitatsbut the available information has not been compiled(see section on aquatic microbiology)

During the past two decades, taxonomic studieshave gradually become unattractive and taxonomiststhemselves have become ‘endangered species’ if notalready extinct. Field studies on aquatic communitiesgenerally identify the taxa at the generic level only(in case of aquatic insects and oligochaetes, mostlyat the family level only). This puts the assessmentsof biodiversity to ridicule, and renders the evalu-ation of changes in diversity (or loss thereof) dueto anthropogenic stresses and habitat modificationsmeaningless.

Biology and population ecology

A large bulk of literature exists on the studies of mor-phology, anatomy, development, physiology, cytol-ogy, genetics, reproductive biology and environmentalrelationships of many organisms representing all taxo-nomic groups. We can mention here only a few of themore significant studies of wider interest.

Algae have been studied intensively for their cy-tology, genetics, physiology, and recently for theirresponses to heavy metals and organic pesticides.Studies on nitrogen fixation by blue-green algae andits role in paddy fields are particularly important (RNSingh, 1955, 1961). A field study revealed that thedistribution of charophytes is related to pH, hardness,calcium, sulphate, magnesium and phosphates. Sul-phates are limiting factor for some species whereasmoderate concentrations of calcium and chlorides withlow magnesium and sulphates favour growth of mostof the charaophytes (Vaidya, 1967).

Studies on general biology of macrophytes are veryfew. Among the physiological studies, noteworthyare those on physiology of flowering in duckweedsand other submerged macrophytes (S. C. Maheshwari,H. Y. Mohan Ram and associates; for an overviewsee Mohan Ram, 1978), on photosynthesis in sub-merged macrophytes (Sabat & Saha, 1986, 1988) andon growth and development under in vitro conditions

in several members of Podostemaceae (H. Y. MohanRam & associates). There are many reports on seedgermination, growth and reproduction in relation tovarious environmental factors and these studies havebeen reviewed at length in Gopal (1990).

Growth, development, reproduction and food andfeeding behaviour of several cladoceran taxa havebeen studied in recent years (Jana & Pal, 1983a,b,1985a,b; Murugan, 1975a,b, 1977, 1989; Muru-gan & Sivaramakrishnan, 1975, 1976; Murugan &Venkataraman, 1977; Venkataraman & Krishnaswami,1986; Vasisht & Sharma, 1986; Vass & Raina, 1988).These studies have shown that the fecundity of var-ious species is influenced by the population density,food availability, and temperature among other fac-tors. Ecology of rotifers, with particular emphasison their fooding, competition and predation whichinfluence the community organization, has been ex-tensively studied by TR Rao and his students (Sarma& Rao, 1986, 1987, 1990a b; Iyer & Rao, 1995, 1996).The effect of epizoic rotifers on the growth of severalcladoceran has been reported recently by Iyer & Rao(1993).

Majority of the waterbodies in India are temporary,shallow or exhibit such large water level changes an-nually that a large proportion of the basin is exposed todrying. The survival strategies of the zooplankton havebeen reported in a few studies and examined in somedetail recently (Chatterji & Gopal, 1998). Similarlyseed banks and seasonal cycles of macrophytes werecommented upon by Misra (1976) and later discussedby Gopal (1986).

There are several studies of aquatic insects. Math-avan & Pandian (1977) studied emergence patterns inseveral odonate insects in a south Indian pond andcalculated the loss of energy from the pond throughthe adults. They simply accounted for the differencebetween the energy content of the eggs (import) andthe adults (export) but did not consider the amount ofenergy consumed by the larvae during their develop-ment. The effects of salinity at different temperatureson the survival, development and oxygen consumptionof an isopod,Alitropus typusand some other insectswere reported by Nair & Nair (1981) and Venkate-san (1981). The distribution and abundance in relationto substrate characteristics, food and feeding behav-iour, and factors affecting growth and reproductionof many ephemeropteran insects have been investi-gated in the northeastern (A. Gupta, 1993; A. Gupta& Michael, 1992) and south Indian (Sivaramakrish-nan et al., 1990, 1991; Sivaramakrishnan & Job,

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1981; Balasubramanian et al., 1992; Sivaramakrish-nan & Venkataraman, 1987, 1990) streams and ponds.A. Gupta et al. (1994) also observed that the growthof nymphs was better on a diet composed of greenalgae than on detritus (S. Gupta et al., 1993a,b) thoughthere was seasonal shift in their diet (A. Gupta et al.,1994). Effect of food and temperature on the growthof two chironomids has been studied by Palavesamet al. (1986) and Muthukrishnan et al. (1988). Seh-gal & Jyoti (1984) observed that the diurnal migrationof Chaoborus sp. in Lake Surinsar was related tofeeding during the night at the surface and escapingfrom predation by fish to deeper water during theday. S.Singh & Maheshwari (1987) have observeddifferences in the swarming behaviour of different chi-ronomid taxa at high altitudes in N.W. Himalayas inrelation to their mating success. There are also numer-ous studies on the ecology of mosquitoes which arevectors of many important diseases (e.g., Yasuno et al.,1977; Rajagopalan, 1980; Ninje Gowda & Vijayan,1992a,b).

Similarly, the growth, development and reproduc-tion of several molluscs have been investigated inrelation to the environmental factors (Michael, 1966;Khan & Chaudhuri, 1984). Nagabhushanam & Az-matunnisa (1976) reported that higher temperaturesadversely affected the growth, survival and biochem-ical composition (fats and protein) of tissues ofLym-naea acuminata. The effects of temperature on growthand reproduction ofViviparus bengalensiswere re-ported by Raut (1980) and ofLymnaea acuminatabyAgrawal (1971). Several studies have discussed thedistribution of molluscs in relation to the nature of sub-stratum and water depth (e.g., Vaidya, 1979; D. N. Raiet al., 1981; Oomachan & Belsare, 1985, 1986; seealso under communities).

Fishes are most intensively investigated and muchof the published information has been summarized byJhingran (1992) who has included an extensive bib-liography. A few representative references will sufficehere to highlight recent studies on the food and feedinghabits (Prem Kumar & John, 1987; Balasubramanianet al., 1993; ), reproductive biology including spawn-ing behaviour (Kapur, 1981; Dobriyal & Singh, 1987,1989a,b; Bhatt et al., 1977), and physiology, surfacingactivity and energetics of air breathing fishes (Saxena,1963; Ponniah & Pandian, 1977; S. Arunachalam etal., 1976; Vivekanandan & Pandian, 1977). Dobriyal& Singh (1988) observed that the differences in fishfauna of various hill streams in Garhwal Himalayawere releated to the temperature, flow velocity, and

growth of plankton and benthos. Jhingran & Sehgal(1978) investigated in detail the coldwater fisheriesof India and their adaptations to low temperatureregimes. Recently the studies on fishes have been ex-tended to a more detailed analysis of the food andhabitat partitioning among them in a stream environ-ment (Arunachalam et al., 1997). Numerous studiesregularly appear in the Journal of Inland Fisheries So-ciety and the Indian Journal of Fisheries, besides manyother journals.

Community structure and dynamics

Numerous studies have been made on the speciescomposition, population densities and their seasonaldynamics in phytoplankton and zooplankton commu-nities of all kinds of waterbodies throughout the coun-try. These studies had begun in late 1930s in relationto the food availability for fishes but in recent years,these studies have focused on the relationship withwater quality (particularly eutrophication and organicpollution) and have been extended also the to benthiccommunities.

Phytoplankton communities

Ponds, temple tanks, lakes and reservoirs have beeninvestigated extensively (Ganapati, 1940; Biswas,1949b; R. N. Singh, 1955; C. B. Rao, 1955;Das & Srivastava, 1959a,b; Misra, 1960; Abraham,1962; George, 1962; Munawar, 1970, 1974; Zafar,1966, 1967; Ganapati & Sreenivasan, 1968; Kant &Kachroo, 1973, 1974, 1977; Vyas, 1968; Vyas & Ku-mar, 1968; Jana, 1973; Jana, Dey & Das, 1980; V.S.Rao, 1975, 1977; Jayangoudar, 1980; Sharma et al.,1982; Unni, 1982; Verma et al., 1984a; Gopal et al.,1988; Zutshi, 1989; also see Mishra & Trivedy, 1993;Sugunan, 1995). South Indian reservoirs are how-ever among the most thoroughly investigated reser-voirs (Ganapati, 1955, 1960; Ganapati & Alikunhi,1950a,b; Ganapati & Chacko, 1951, Ganapati &Pathak, 1972; Ganapati & Sreenivasan, 1966; Chacko,Abraham & Andal, 1953, Chacko & Krishnamurthy,1954, Sreenivasan, 1964a,b, 1965, 1967).

These studies show that the dominant phytoplank-ton and their seasonality are highly variable in differ-ent waterbodies according to their nutrient status, age,morphometry, and other locational factors. However,the phytoplankton is generally dominated by blue-green algae followed by diatoms, chlorococcales andeuglenoids as subdominants (Zafar, 1986). The phy-toplankton densities usually remain high throughout

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the year but two peaks are common in summer andpost-monsoon/early winter period. Unni (1993) whoanalyzed the data from a large number of studies, ob-served that the species diversity (50–100 species) ofhypertrophic reservoirs is higher (and similar to thatof tropical lakes in southeast Asia) than that of theoligotrophic reservoirs (about 15 species). In a short-term comparative study of nine south Indian reservoirs(between 9◦27′ and 11◦48′ N, and 240 to 2300 maltitude), Uhlmann et al. (1982) also observed sur-prisingly large number of phytoplankton taxa (mostlygreen and blue-green algae) even in waters deficient inorthophosphates. Diatoms were recorded only in tworeservoir at higher altitude (> 2000 m).

Studies on the phytoplankton communities ofrivers started with Roy (1949, 1955), Chacko &Ganapati (1949), Iyengar & Venkataraman (1951),Chacko, Shrinivasan & Evangeline (1953) and Duttaet al. (1954). Since late 1950s, River Ganga (Laxmi-narayana, 1965) and River Yamuna (Rai, 1962, 1974;Ray et al., 1966; Chakrabarty et al., 1959) havebeen investigated regularly (see Krishnamurti et al.,1991; Gopal & Sah, 1993) besides many other rivers(Prasad & Saxena, 1980; Venkateswarlu, 1969, 1970;Venkateswarlu & Jayanti, 1968; Venkateswarlu, 1986;Kar et al., 1987).

Diatoms are a good indicator of pollution anddominate the relatively unpolluted stretches of therivers also. With increasing levels of pollution, thediatom dominance is replaced by that of green andblue-green algae. These general trends are confirmedby the studies of several rivers in Andhra Pradesh(Venkateswarlu, 1986) and studies of River Yamuna(Rai, 1974; Gopal & Sah, 1993) and River Ganga(Lakshminarayana. 1965; Krishnamurti, 1991) overthe past more than thirty years.

More or less similar observations have beenmade on the phytoplankton communities in numer-ous smaller waterbodies most of which are eutrophicand experience large water level fluctuations betweenthe dry summer and rainy seasons. Of some interestare also many studies on the planktonic communitiesof thermal springs (Prasad & Srivastava, 1965; Va-sishta, 1968; Jana, 1977, 1978; Jana et al., 1982; Jha,1992; Saha, 1993). The phytoplankton are generallydominated by bluegreen algae although they exhibitvariations along the thermal gradient (Bilgrami et al.,1985).

The phytoplankton studies however suffer from thefact that the majority of them have employed nets withmesh size of 50–60µm, and the Sedgwick Rafter

cell has often been used to count them. Both meth-ods result is gross underestimation of species richnessas well as population densities. A few reports on pri-mary production by different methods suggest that thephytoplankton of Indian lakes and reservoirs (and alsoprobably the rivers) are dominated by nannoplank-ton (Pandey & Singh, 1980; Khan & Zutshi, 1979a;P. B. Rao et al., 1982). Yet, most of the studies haveconcluded that the phytoplankton populations are farsmaller and support relatively large zooplankton pop-ulations. In view of the fact that rotifers and cladocerausually feed on smaller plankton (including bacte-rioplankton), the importance of nannoplankton hasbeen generally overlooked. Variations in the seasonaldynamics are often correlated with physico-chemicalcharacteristics although the role of macrophytes andgrazing by zooplankton and fish has generally beenoverlooked (see e.g., Nasar & Kaur, 1982). Underthese conditions, the reported seasonal variations donot portray the true picture of wax and wane ofphytoplankton communities.

Zooplankton communities

Studies on the zooplankton communities of rivers arevery few. The studies on river Yamuna (Chakrabarty etal., 1959; Rai, 1974; DeZwart 1991) show large spatialand temporal variations and a dominance of rotifersin polluted sections of the river. The overall speciesrichness appears to have declined with growing levelsof pollution. Zooplankton in River Ganga have beeninvestigated only in certain stretches but the resultsare highly variable making it impossible to draw anyconclusion about their seasonal trend or along the rivercourse (Krishnamurti et al., 1991).

Zooplankton communities have been investigatedin numerous reservoirs, lakes and shallow waterbod-ies (Arunachalam et al., 1982; Sharma & Pant, 1984;Yousuf, 1989; Subla et al., 1992; Sugunan, 1995).The dominance of zooplankton in shallow waterbodiesby rotifers, cladocera or copepods varies according tothe degree of organic pollution (Rao & Durve, 1989;Nasar, 1983, Moitra & Bhowmik, 1968; Verma &Munshi, 1987). In most of the studies, two or morepeaks of zooplankton densities have been recorded ofwhich one is generally during the early winter season(December) and the second peak is variable for dif-ferent groups. Within rotifers and copepods, differenttaxa obtain their peak populations at different times ofthe year, thus keeping the zooplankton diversity rela-tively high throughout the year. In an interesting study

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of a highly polluted pond, Abdul Kader et al. (1978)reported complete absence of phytoplankton and totaldependence of zooplankton on the bacteria.

Benthic communities

Studies on benthic communities of both lentic andlotic environments are relatively recent and madein the context of biological monitoring (Pandit etal., 1991). Phytobenthic communities of streams andrivers have rarely been investigated (Negi, 1993).There are several reports on the zoobenthos of therivers in the Ganga River system (Ray et al., 1966;De Zwart 1991; Sunder & Subla, 1986; Pahwa, 1979,Singh & Srivastava, 1989; Kulshreshtha et al., 1989),River Kaveri (Sivaramakrishnan et al., 1995) and otherstreams (Gupta & Michael, 1983; Verma et al., 1984b;Arunachalam et al., 1991). The benthic fauna is dom-inated by various arthropods (chiefly insecta), gastro-pod molluscs and oligochaetes. Stream flow, nature ofsubstratum and organic pollution have generally beenshown to regulate the species composition and domi-nance of different taxa in various stretches of the rivers(e.g. Negi & Singh, 1990; Singh & Nautiyal, 1990;Arunachalam et al., 1991; Burton & Sivaramakrish-nan, 1993; Sivaramakrishnan et al., 1995; Gupta& Michael, 1983). The seasonal changes in speciescomposition and abundance of ephemeroptera wereaffected by disturbance in the catchment of streamswhich influence the substrate heterogeneity (Gupta& Michael, 1992). Recently, Sivaramakrishnan et al.(1995) who analysed data for the entire Kaveri riversystem using canonical multiple discriminant analysis,showed that landscape differences in the catchmentwere important factors influencing the benthic fauna.

Das & Srivastava (1956, 1959) and Michael(1968a) were among the first to study the zooben-thos of lakes and ponds for their importance as fishfood. Recent reports are those of Singh & Sinha(1993), Yadava et al. (1984), Ahmed & Singh (1989),Vikram Reddy & Malla Rao (1989). These stud-ies show that the benthos is dominated by gastropodmolluscs in littoral areas rich in aquatic vegetationwhereas oligochaetes (mainly tubificids) and diptera(chironomids) dominate in organically rich habitats.Several reports have appeared on the phytal fauna(fauna specifically associated with aquatic vegetation),particularly on aquatic weeds such as water hyacinthandSalviniasp. (Michael, 1968b; Arunachalam et al.,1980; Sobhana & Nair, 1983; Sarma & Gopalaswamy,1974; Sarma et al., 1981). The fauna is highly diverse

and varies with the macrophyte species. In general,the gastropods and oligochaetes dominate although insome cases amphipods, nematodes, copepods and/orchironomids are dominant constituents.

Periphyton

Studies on periphyton are relatively few. Misra &Singh (1968) were among the first to report on epi-phytic algae on both natural and artificial substrates.Philipose et al. (1976) made a detailed analysis ofperiphyton community and its seasonal dynamics in aperennial pond at Cuttack. The epiphytic algae grow-ing on various macrophytes such asMyriophyllumspicatum, Ceratophyllum demersum, Potamogetonnatans, Typha angustifoliaandPhragmites australis,as well as artificial substrates have been reported fromseveral lakes in Kashmir (Sarwar & Zutshi, 1987,1988, 1989a,b; Sarwar, 1996). Theseir studies re-vealed that the periphyton communities are very richin their species composition which is dominated bydiatoms, green algae and blue-green algae. Other stud-ies have reported also the epiphytic faunal elementsincluding protozoa and rotifers (Vass et al., 1978; Ku-mar, 1985; D. N. Das et al., 1994; Ticku & Zutshi,1993, 1994). Recently, Kaur & Mehra (1994, 1997)studied the epiphytic organisms on the roots of waterhyacinth from different sites along the River Yamunaand suggested that these roots serve as an excellentsubstrate for the epiphytic forms and can be used forbiological monitoring.

Macrophytes

The macrophyte communities have, in contrast re-ceived very little attention. These were classified,according to their zonation along the water depth gra-dient, into submerged, free floating, floating-leaved,emergent and wet meadow types until late 1960s (e.g.,Kachroo, 1956). Hogeweg & Brenkert (1969) who ex-tensively surveyed the Indian vegetation in a varietyof habitats, for the first time applied the growth formsystem proposed by Hartog & Segal (1964) with somemodifications. The growth forms are plants of com-parable structure and similar relations to their phys-ical environment. They recognized 23 growth formsamong Indian aquatic vegetation but the system suf-fers from the problem of how to define an aquaticplant. For example, plants such asSagittaria, Bu-tomus, Eichhornia, andScirpuswere excluded fromtheir classification. The immense phenotypic plastic-ity and adaptability to the ever-changing environment

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under the monsoonic climate result in great modifi-cation of phenophases under diverse ecophases, andthis in turn renders the growth-form system inapplica-ble to Indian aquatic vegetation (see Gopal et al.,1978; Gopal, 1990). Although several earlier stud-ies recognized associations of two or more species(e.g., Mirashi, 1954; Vyas, 1964), Zutshi (1975) forthe first time used the Braun-Blanquet’s phytosocio-logical approach to identify 26 associations, based ongrowth form spectrum and ecological affinities, in theaquatic vegetation of Kashmir. The ordination methodof classifying vegetation has not yet been employed inIndia.

Primary and secondary production

Studies of primary prouction in Indian freshwaterswhich were started much before the IBP was initiated(Sreenivasan, 1960, 1963, 1964a, b), have focused onphytoplankton in fishery reservoirs, tanks and smallponds, using light and dark bottle method. Many southIndian reservoirs were investigated in detail duringthe 1960s for both primary and secondary (fish) pro-duction. These results have been summarized earlierby Sreenivasan (1966, 1972), Ganapati and Sreeni-vasan (1970, 1972), Ganapati (1972) and Natarajan &Pathak (1987).

Outside south India, most important and detailedstudies have been made on Himalayan lakes in Kash-mir (including high altitude lakes; Kaul, 1977; Wan-ganeo, 1984; Zutshi & Wanganeo, 1984; Zutshi et al.,1972, 1980; Khan & Zutshi, 1980; Vass & Zutshi,1983; Zutshi & Vass, 1977; Vass et al., 1989; Zutshi,1991). The lakes and reservoirs of Rajasthan, U.P. andCentral India have also been extensively studied (Jana,1979; S. R. Singh & Swarup, 1980; Bhargava, 1988;Bhargava & Saxena, 1987; Unni, 1985; Rao & Durve,1989; Verma et al., 1984a; Jakher et al., 1990).

Most of the studies relate the observed val-ues of primary production (oxygen evolution) withmacroplankton or net plankton. In a few studies, usinglabelled carbon (C14) for the estimation of photosyn-thetic rates, it has been shown that the nannoplanktoncontribute upto 60% or more to the net photosynthe-sis (Zutshi & Vass, 1977; Pandey & Singh, 1980;Khan & Zutshi, 1979a,b; Rao et al., 1982). The grossprimary production ranges from 35 mg C/m2/day to17.5 g C/m2/day. In general, the shallow lakes, fishponds and temple tanks are more productive than deeplakes and large reservoirs. A good correlation existsbetween the depth of the water body and the gross

primary production (Ganapati, 1972). The temperatelakes, particularly the high altitude lakes in Kashmir,are much less productive than the tropical and sub-tropical lakes. However, during the recent years, theselakes are becoming eutrophic and more productive.The respiration varies from 40 to 60% (sometimes ashigh as 75%) of gross primary production. Thus, thenet primary production ranges from 20 mg C/m2/dayto 7.8 g C/m2/day, with a photosynthetic efficiency ofless than 0.1 to 13.8% of the PAR.

Studies primary production of aquatic macro-phytes were initiated at Varanasi and Srinagar (Gopal,1967; Kaul, 1971) during the IBP, and were soonfollowed at several other universities. These studiesconsidered the peak biomass or the sum of positiveincrements in biomass over a year as the net an-nual production. Most of these studies concentratedon individual species in their pure stands, whereascommunity production estimates were not made. Thefactors affecting primary production in macrophytes,and the role of mortality ad herbivory have not beenestimated. The information available until 1988 hasbeen summarised by Vyas et al. (1990), and little newadvancement has been made in this regard.

Very little is known about the trophic interactionsand energy flow in macrophyte dominated systems(e.g. Haniffa, 1978; Haniffa & Pandian, 1978; Pandit& Kaul, 1982; Pandit, 1993).

Nutrient dynamics

A comprehensive study of nutrient dynamics has neverbeen made in any Indian aquatic ecosystem. However,reports on the chemical composition of aquatic plants,and some faunal components, from a variety of habi-tats are quite common. The concentrations of nutrientsand other elements are often used to assess the nu-tritive value of the plants and other organisms or tointerpret the potential for nutrient removal from pol-luted wastewaters. The nutrient transfers along foodchain, their internal dynamics, release by death anddecay as well as nutrient transformations within thewater column and/or sediments have rarely been in-vestigated. The available studies on nutrient uptake byplants and their decomposition have been reviewed indetail in Gopal (1990).

Aquatic microbiology

Indian studies on aquatic microbiology have generallybeen confined to the enumeration of bacteria and fungiand their seasonal dynamics in streams, fishponds,

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sewage ponds and shallow lakes (Dayal & Tandon,1963; Dayal & Thakurji, 1965; Jana, 1977; Khulbe& Bhargava, 1977; Mer et al., 1980; Khulbe, 1980;Mer, 1992; Sridhar et al., 1992).

Detailed ecological studies on the bacterial pop-ulations and their activity are few. Jana, Patel et al.(1980) reported that under experimental conditions,bacterial population was inversely related to diurnaltemperature variation and dissolved oxygen, and posi-tively correlated with hardness, chloride and ammonianitrogen. The distribution of nitrogen-fixing and den-itrifying bacteria was investigated by Jana & Patel(1984) and Jana & Roy (1986) under different fish-farming practices. Jana & Patel (1986) observed thatthe seasonal variation in iron-precipitating bacteria inthe water and sediments of fish ponds was related toorganic matter and nitrite contents. Mishra & Tiwari(1982) and Tiwari & Mishra (1982, 1985) studiedin some detail the depth-wise distribution and sea-sonal variation of heterotrophic planktonic bacteria(such asAchromobacter, Bacillus, Pseudomonas) inWard’s Lake (Shillong). They observed the popula-tions to peak in late spring season and correlated thepopulation densities with pH, temperature and oxy-gen saturation. Tiwari & Mishra (1981) reported ondiurnal variations in the microbial activity of bacteria,fungi and yeasts in the same lake.

While much attention has been paid to the col-iform bacteria in rivers and lakes (e.g., Kaushik &Prasad, 1964; Phirke & Verma, 1972; Agarwal et al.,1976), the aquatic fungi pathogenic to plants, fish andhumans have also been examined (Khulbe & Durga-pal, 1997). Seasonal changes in fungal populations ofboth lakes and rivers, particularly in relation to organicmatter, temperature, pH and other habitat factors havebeen examined in several studies (Khulbe, 1989, 1991;Nasar & Datta Munshi, 1980; Khulbe & Durgapal,1992, 1993; Khulbe et al., 1993, 1995).

A few studies have reported on the succession offungi on decomposing autochthonous and allochtho-nous leaf litter; for example, pine needles in Kumaonstreams (Sati & Tiwari, 1992), pine and teak litter inlake water at Shillong (Mishra & Tiwari, 1983); andScirpus tuberosus(Panwar & Sharma, 1983).

Weed control

The studies on aquatic plants were taken up mainlybecause they were seen as a problem for agricultureand fisheries either directly as weeds in crop fields(V. Shankar, 1966) and fish ponds or indirectly by

obstructing flow in irrigation channels (Narayanayya,1928). The aquatic weed problem was highlightedsoon after the independence in the Damodar Valleyarea (Kachroo, 1956, 1959). The fisheries researchstation in Cuttack focused on the aquatic weeds in fish-pond (Philipose, 1968, Philipose et al., 1970; Mitra,1955a,b, 1960). Extensive research was carried outon weed control by using mechanical, chemical andbiological methods (VP Rao, 1969; Ramachandran& Ramaprabhu, 1968) and this led to a UNESCO-supported international symposium on aquatic weedsin December 1973 (Varshney and Rzoska, 1976).The ecologists joined the research effort to under-stand the ecological equipment of aquatic weeds sothat ecological strategies could be developed for theircontrol. A research project at Varanasi investigatedweeds common to India and the USA such as water-hyacinth,Spirodela polyrhiza, Hygrophila auriculata,andEleocharis palustris(R. Misra, 1969). Waterhy-acinth was already by this time a nuisance which haddefied all efforts for its control (see Gopal, 1987).Salvinia molestainfestation broke out in 1965 inKakki reservoir in Kerala, followed soon byAlternan-thera philoxeroides(Maheshwari, 1965) andSalvinianatans(Zutshi & Wanganeo, 1979).

Because weed control measures did not succeed,and the environmental concerns were raised againstthe use of chemicals in 1960s, biological control stud-ies were initiated with the establishment of a researchstation of the Commonwealth Institute of BiologicalControl at Bangalore (Sankaran & Rao, 1972). Studiesfocused on grass carp, various insects and pathogensbut again without much success (exceptNeochetinaeichhorniaewhich was recommended for waterhy-acinth and has been tried with limited success). In DalLake, mechanical weed harvesters were used but withlimited success and some adverse effects on the biota(Zutshi & Ticku, 1990). At the same time, attentionwas diverted to integrated management which advo-cated utilization of aquatic plants for various purposes– food, fodder, fibre, fuel, compost, medicine, mulch,paper, etc., but none of the methods seems to be ef-fective as the aquatic weeds keep growing instead ofshowing any sign of decline.

Toxicology, biomonitoring and pollution abatement

The effects of various organic and inorganic toxicsubstances (herbicides, pesticides, industrial effluents,heavy metals, and hydrocarbons) on the morphology,histology, physiology, biochemical composition, en-

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zyme activities, behaviour, growth and reproductionof various aquatic organisms have become a favouritearea of research during the past two decades or sothroughout the country. More emphasis is being laidon short-term experimental studies of laboratory scalethan on the field investigations. Hundreds of paperspublished in many Indian and European Journals aswell as dozens of collective volumes bear testimonyto the mushrooming of research activity. Fishes, mol-luscs, crabs, prawns, insect larvae, and cladocera areamong the most investigated organisms. It will be fu-tile to single out even a few papers in this area andhence, mention may be made only of a few books suchas Agrawal & Das (1990), Mishra & Saxena (1992),Gopal & Asthana (1991), Agrawal et al. (1989),Yousuf et al. (1992), Verma et al. (1979), Haniffa& Narayanan (1992), Singh (1993), Trivedy & Goel(1985), Kant et al.(1989), Shastree (1991). The studieson plants focus on the uptake of these pollutants bythem (e.g., Unni & Philips, 1990, 1992) whereas thetoxicological effects have rarely been examined (Mha-tre & Chaphekar, 1985; Chawla et al., 1989). Algaehave been the subject of many intensive investigationsof the effects of heavy metals, pesticides and mineraloils (Rai et al., 1981; Gaur & Kumar, 1986; Mallick &Rai, 1990; Rai et al., 1990; A. K. Singh & Rai, 1991;Rai & Mallick, 1993).

In view of the relevance of toxicological studiesfor biomonitoring, the Industrial Toxicology ResearchCentre (Lucknow) and the Central Pollution ControlBoard (New Delhi) organised training programmes incollaboration with two Dutch institutes. This collab-oration resulted in a Manual of Ecotoxicology (deKruijf et al., 1988) which should help provide newdirections to research in this growing area.

Biological studies are being increasingly employedin monitoring the water quality in rivers and lakes.In India also, efforts are bing made to develop bio-monitoring tools (Anonymous, 1985b; Zafar et al.,1981). Diatoms and other algae, various zooplanktonparticularly rotifers and benthic macroinvertebratesare being examined for their biomonitoring potential.The Central Pollution Control Board developed, withthe help of the Dutch Government, a biomonitoringprogramme for River Yamuna and compared severalchemical and biological approaches to the assessmentof water quality. However, it became clear that nosingle approach could be effectively used to assessthe condition (De Kruijf et al., 1992). Recent analy-sis of benthic invertebrate data for River Kaveri byusing different indices also brought out differences

between them (Sivaramakrishnan et al., 1996). Thus,until the responses of various organisms to differentpollutants under the diverse ecological regimes of In-dia are properly understood and unless the organismscan be identified to the species level, simple extrapola-tion of information obtained in the temperate countriescannot be expected to serve the purpose.

Another area gaining ground is the use of aquaticplants and animals, especially fish, for pollution abate-ment. There are many reports suggesting that macro-phytes such as water hyacinth can be used to removepollutants from wastewaters (Gopal, 1987; Jain et al.,1990; Tripathi & Shukla, 1991), and that fish (tilapiasand other carps) could be cultured in treated sewage(Jhingran et al., 1988). However, most of these studiesare on laboratory scale experiments and field stud-ies are required to learn the actual potential of theseorganisms.

Conclusions

In the above pages, we have attempted to presenta sample of biological researches of India’s aquatichabitats. The sample is neither statistically designednor wholly representative, but we are sure that it re-flects truly the major developments and trends. Inbrief, the Indian studies are short-term, descriptive re-ports on a few isolated components whereas long-termanalytical and experimental studies or comprehensivestudies of the whole ecosystems are almost completelylacking. As pointed out by T. A. Rao (1991), Indianstudies have relied heavily on correlations betweenvariables but the cause-effect relationships have rarelybeen examined. Almost all the investigations are car-ried out as a part of short-term (2–3 years) researchprojects of doctoral students who have been trainedeither in botany or zoology. Thus, one of the bioticcomponents (phytoplankton or zooplankton or ben-thos or fish or macrophytes) is picked up for studyfor a short period (mostly one year cycle) togetherwith the analysis of the aquatic environment for a fewphysico-chemical parameters depending upon the fa-cilities readily available. The few studies which havebeen made over many years, were not planned, long-term investigations. Hence, the sampling sites andmethods have been changing, making it difficult tocompare the results. Studies on population interac-tions, biomanipulation, food chain dynamics, energyflows are very rare. Simulation studies or large scalein-situ experimental investigations are wholly lacking.

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Thus, there is an urgent need for long-term ex-perimental research which requires training in appro-priate methodology and development of infrastructuresuch as strengthening of field and laboratory facilities.Establishment of regional and national institutes ofaquatic ecology will go a long way in managing thequality of water and aquatic biological resources forsustainable development.

Acknowledgements

We thank our students and colleagues in various in-stitutions for their help in scanning the literature. Weare also thankful to the Jawaharlal Nehru Universityfor providing necessary facilities for our work. We arealso grateful to Prof. H. J. Dumont for this opportunityto associate ourselves with the Golden Jubilee of theJournal.

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