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Faculty of Graduate Studies
Water and Environmental Engineering Masters Program
MSc. Thesis
The Opportunity Cost of Drinking Water Quality
Degradation in Ramallah and Al-Bireh
Governorate
تكاليف الفرصة البديمة لتدني نوعية مياه الشرب
البيرة في محافظة رام هلل و
Master’s Thesis Submitted By
Najwan Imseih
Student number
1075349
Supervised By
Dr. Maher Abu-Madi
June 2010
ii
Faculty of Graduate Studies
Water and Environmental Engineering Masters Program
MSc. Thesis
The Opportunity Cost of Drinking Water Quality
Degradation in Ramallah and Al-Bireh
Governorate
تكاليف الفرصة البديمة لتدني نوعية مياه الشرب
البيرة في محافظة رام هلل و
Master’s Thesis Submitted By
Najwan Imseih
Student number
1075349
Supervised By
Dr. Maher Abu-Madi
This thesis was submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Master’s
Degree in Water and Environmental Engineering from the Faculty of Graduate Studies,
Water Institute Studies, at Birzeit University, Palestine.
June 2010
iii
The Opportunity Cost of Drinking Water Quality
Degradation in Ramallah and Al-Bireh
Governorate
تكاليف الفرصة البديمة لتدني نوعية مياه الشرب
البيرة في محافظة رام هلل و
Submitted by
Najwan Imseih
This thesis was prepared under the main supervision of Dr. Maher Abu-Madi and has
been approved by all members of the examination committee.
Examination Committee:
Dr. Maher Abu-Madi ………………………………………
Supervisor
Dr. Ziad Mimi ………………………………………
Member
Dr. Yousef Naser ………………………………………
Member
The findings, interpretations and the conclusions expressed in this study do not necessarily
express the views of Birzeit University, the views of the individual members of the MSc.
Committee or the views of their respective employers.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENT Abstract ........................................................................................................................................ vii
viii ........................................................................................................................................... الخالصة
Dedication ..................................................................................................................................... ix
Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................... x
List of Abbreviations ................................................................................................................... xi
List of Figures .............................................................................................................................. xii
List of Tables .............................................................................................................................. xiii
Chapter One Introduction ........................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Overview .......................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem ................................................................................................. 1
1.3 Research Questions .......................................................................................................... 2
1.4 Research Objectives ........................................................................................................ 2
1.5 Significance of the Study ................................................................................................. 3
1.6 Approach and Methodology ............................................................................................. 4
1.7 Assumptions and Limitations ........................................................................................... 4
1.8 Scope ................................................................................................................................ 5
1.9 Thesis Outline .................................................................................................................. 6
Chapter Two The Study Area: Ramallah and Al-Bireh Governorate ................................... 7
2.1 Location ............................................................................................................................ 7
2.2 Climate ............................................................................................................................. 8
2.2.1 Rainfall ........................................................................................................................... 8
2.2.2 Temperature .............................................................................................................. 8
2.2.3 Humidity ................................................................................................................... 9
2.2.4 Wind .......................................................................................................................... 9
2.3 Topography and Drainage ................................................................................................ 9
2.4 Land Use ........................................................................................................................ 10
2.5 Demography ................................................................................................................... 13
2.6 Groundwater Aquifer Basins .......................................................................................... 14
2.7 Water Demand................................................................................................................ 14
2.8 Water Supply .................................................................................................................. 14
2.8.1 Domestic Water Resources ..................................................................................... 15
2.8.2 Quantity of Water Supply ....................................................................................... 17
2.9 Economy......................................................................................................................... 18
2.10 Water and Sanitation Infrastructure ............................................................................... 19
v
2.11 Water Tariffs .................................................................................................................. 20
Chapter Three Literature Review ............................................................................................ 22
3.1 Environmental Economics ............................................................................................. 22
3.2 Economic Valuation of Water Degradation ................................................................... 23
3.3 Economics of Opportunity Cost ..................................................................................... 25
3.4 International Drinking Water Quality ............................................................................ 26
3.5 Local Water Quality ....................................................................................................... 27
3.6 Water Quality Testing and Monitoring in the West Bank ............................................. 27
3.6.1 The Palestinian Water Authority ............................................................................ 28
3.6.2 The Palestinian Ministry of Health ......................................................................... 28
3.6.3 Jerusalem Water Undertaking and West Bank Water Department ......................... 29
3.6.4 UNRWA ................................................................................................................. 29
3.7 Laboratory Water Testing .............................................................................................. 30
3.7.1 Major Chemical and Physical parameters in water................................................. 31
3.7.2 Microbiological parameters in water ...................................................................... 35
3.8 Water Quality Standards and Guidelines ....................................................................... 36
3.8.1 General Definitions ................................................................................................. 36
3.8.2 WHO Drinking Water Standards ............................................................................ 37
3.8.3 Palestinian Drinking Water Standards .................................................................... 39
3.9 International Bottled Water Consumption ..................................................................... 39
3.10 Bottled Water Consumption in Palestine ....................................................................... 41
3.11 Bottled Water Quality Assessments ............................................................................... 41
3.12 Bottled Water Standards and Guidelines ....................................................................... 42
3.13 Adopted Definitions for Bottled Water .......................................................................... 44
3.14 Production and Treatment of Bottled Water in Palestine ............................................... 45
3.15 Footprints of Bottled water ............................................................................................ 47
3.16 Local Bottled Water Industries ...................................................................................... 47
3.17 Filtered Water ................................................................................................................. 48
Chapter Four Approach and Methodology ............................................................................ 49
4.1 Research Approach ....................................................................................................... 49
4.2 Data Collection .............................................................................................................. 51
4.3 Analytical Procedures ................................................................................................... 53
Chapter Five Results and Discussion ..................................................................................... 59
5.1 Public Water Quality Assessment .................................................................................. 59
5.1.1 Chemical and Physical Water Quality Parameters Measured at the Sources ......... 60
vi
5.1.2 Chemical and Physical Water Quality Parameters in the Network ........................ 65
5.1.3 Microbial Analysis of Public Drinking Water ........................................................ 69
5.2 Bottled Water Industry Analysis ................................................................................... 71
5.2.1 Comparison of Quality versus Cost ....................................................................... 72
5.3 Water Filter Industry Analysis ....................................................................................... 75
5.4 Questionnaire Analysis .................................................................................................. 77
5.5 Economic Analysis ......................................................................................................... 81
5.5.1 Expenditure on Bottled Water ................................................................................ 82
5.5.2 Expenditure on Water Purification Apparatuses..................................................... 86
5.5.3 Total Expenditure on Drinking Water .................................................................... 88
5.5.4 Opportunity Cost of Drinking Water Expenditures ................................................ 89
5.5.5 Future Value of Total Expenditure on Drinking Water Supplies ........................... 90
Chapter Six Conclusions and Recommendations ................................................................... 92
6.1 Conclusions .................................................................................................................... 92
6.2 Recommendations .......................................................................................................... 93
6.3 Further Research ............................................................................................................. 95
References .................................................................................................................................... 96
Appendix 1 ................................................................................................................................. 101
Appendix 2 ................................................................................................................................. 104
vii
ABSTRACT
In the recent years, it has been observed that there is an increase of consumption of bottled
drinking water in Palestine, mostly due to the perception that public drinking water is of low
quality, while some consumption is due to taste and lifestyle preferences. In addition, many
households have installed water purification equipment to protect against inferior (real or
perceived) public water quality. In the past 10 years mainly, the consumption of bottled water
and the installation of home water purification apparatuses have noticeably increased in the
Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate. This research attempts to assess the quality of public
drinking water in the Ramallah and Al-Bireh Governorate, and to estimate the averted
expenditure on different drinking water to monetize the opportunity cost in 2009.
Generally, it was found that the supplied public water in the Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate
conforms to the Palestinian standards for safe and healthy drinking water. Bottled water
consumption in 2009 is estimated at 58.3 liters per capita per year in the Ramallah and Al-Bireh
governorate. The total expenditure on bottled water in the Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate
was found to be 23.25 million NIS in 2009, the total averted expenditure on bottled water was
estimated to be 22.0 million NIS and the total expenditure on water purification apparatuses was
found to be about 1.43 million NIS. Thus, the total expenditure on drinking water totaled to
23.43 million NIS in 2009. When these expenditures are represented as the opportunity costs, the
average person purchasing bottled water is forgoing the opportunity to save 400.94 NIS/yr, and
the average person who has installed a water filter is forgoing the opportunity to save 74.74
NIS/yr, which are both costs associated with drinking water expenditures. This research has
shown that water pollution and possible contamination, or the perception thereof, of public
drinking water has a cost to society.
viii
الخالصة
تعز زيادة . لوحظ ارتفاع في استيالك المياه المعبأة في المناطق الفمسطينية, خالل السنوات األخيرة الماضية
باإلضافة إلى , االستيالك لممياه المعبأة غالبا العتقاد المواطنين بأن مياه الشرب العامة ذات جودة منخفضة
كما أن ىناك عدد من المنازل يستخدم أجيزة تنقية . ونمط الحياة العصرية, أسباب أخرى منيا طعم المياه
خالل العشرة سنوات الماضية لوحظ ارتفاع في . المياه البيتية لحمايتيم من تدني مستوى المياه العامة
كما تضاعف عدد , استيالك المياه المعبأة وتركيب أجيزة تنقية المياه في منطقة محافظة رام هلل و البيره
تيدف ىذه الدراسة إلى فحص جودة المياه .الشركات المزودة لممياه المعبئة وعمالء شركات أجيزة تنقية المياه
وتقدير مجموع ما تم انفاقو عمى المياه المعبأة , في منطقة رام هلل و البيره خالل العشر سنوات الماضية
. 2009خالل عام
قدرت . بشكل عام وجد أن جودة المياه في رام هلل والبيرة تطابق المواصفات الفمسطينية لجودة مياه الشرب
لتر ماء لكل شخص سنويا في منطقة رام 85.3 بحوالي 2009كمية استيالك المياه المعبئة خالل العام
مميون شيكل 1.43 عمى المياه المعبأة و 2009 مميون شيكل في عام 22.0وتم إنفاق مبمغ. هلل والبيرة
.2009مميون شيكل في عام 23.43 وىذا يعني انو تم انفاق ما مجموعو. عمى أجيزة تنقية المياه البيتية
عن ىتخل فقد لمياه المعبأة ل هشراءمواطن عند لفان ا, ت بسعر الفرصة البديمة عندما يتم تمثيل ىذه النفقا
قد أجيزة تنقية المياه البيتيةالذي قام بتركيب كما أن المواطن سنة ، ال في شيكل 400.94 إلنقاذفرصة
.نفقات مياه الشربب التكاليف مرتبطة جميع هذه سنة ، وال فيشيكل 74.74إلنقاذ عن فرصة ىتخلأو االعتقاد العام بين المواطنين بتدني مستوى , أو احتماالت تموثيا, أظيرت ىذه الدراسة أن تموث المياه
. تشكل عبء اقتصادي عمى المجتمع, المياه العامة
ix
DEDICATION
To my loving husband,
To my amazing parents,
To my wonderful family and friends.
x
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My greatest gratitude and appreciation goes to all those who contributed to this study, whose
active support, encouragement and guidance made this research possible.
My personal thanks go to my husband, my parents, my family and friends for their assistance,
much appreciated words of encouragement, and constant moral support.
Particular thanks are due to the Birzeit University, Institute of Environmental and Water Studies,
and especially Dr. Maher Abu Madi for providing the inspiration for the topic of this research,
for his continuous guidance and for his intellectual leadership. Thank you to Dr. Ziad Mimi and
Dr. Yousef Naser, members of the examination committee, for your thoughtful comments and
suggestions.
Special thanks to the Palestinian Water Authority, Jerusalem Water Undertaking, Ministry of
Health, Central Public Health Lab, Ministry of National Economy, the Palestinian Central
Bureau of Statistics, and to all those who took the time to meet with me, for all the valuable
information they provided.
xi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CPHL Central Public Health Lab
JWU Jerusalem Water Undertaking
L. Liters
l/c/d Liters per capita per day
Mcm Million cubic meters
MoH Ministry of Health
MoNE Ministry of National Economy
NIS New Israeli Shekel
PCBS Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics
PSI Palestinian Standards Institute
PWA Palestinian Water Authority
WBWD West Bank Water Department
WHO World Health Organization
xii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2-1 Location map for Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate ........................................... 7
Figure 2-2 Drainage systems in Ramallah and Al-Bireh Governorate .................................... 10
Figure 2-3 Built up areas ......................................................................................................... 12
Figure 2-4 Land use map ......................................................................................................... 12
Figure 2-5 Palestinian wells in Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate ...................................... 16
Figure 3-1 Water pollution impacts .......................................................................................... 24
Figure 4-1 Key Steps in the Research Approach Process......................................................... 50
Figure 5-1 Major chemical and physical parameters measured at the sources ........................ 61
Figure 5-2 Major chemical and physical parameters measured in the network ...................... 66
Figure 5-3 Summary of coliform tests from 2000 to 2009 ...................................................... 70
Figure 5-4 Bottled water providers in the Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate ..................... 71
Figure 5-5 Sales from the first bulk bottled water provider in the Ramallah region ............... 72
Figure 5-6 Distribution of types of drinking water ................................................................... 77
Figure 5-7 Respondents‟ reasons for water type selection ...................................................... 80
xiii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2-1 Summary of Demography Characteristics .................................................................. 13
Table 2-2 Economic indicators in Palestine from 1994 to 2008 ................................................. 19
Table 2-3 Factors for water tariff structure ................................................................................ 21
Table 3-1 Global Bottled Water Statistics .................................................................................. 40
Table 5-1 Summary of microbial tests performed from 2000-2009 ........................................... 70
Table 5-2 Comparison of bottled water providers in the Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate .. 74
Table 5-3 Average costs of bottled water .................................................................................. 82
Table 5-4 Bottled Water Consumption (Avertive Behavior) ...................................................... 84
1
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
1.1 Overview
Issues associated with drinking water have been stirring some attention in the environmental and
economic fields as well as among regular consumers worldwide. Bottled water industries
especially have seen increasing demands for their products in recent years. The world bottled-
water market represents an annual volume of 89,000 million liters, and is estimated to be worth
USD 22,000 million (Ferrier, 2001). Palestinian consumers are drinking more bottled water
every year, partly due to the fact that it is perceived as safer or of better quality than the public
drinking water. There seems to be many perceptions and some speculation regarding the public
drinking water quality of the Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate. Collectively, hundreds or
thousands of New Israeli Shekels (NIS) are being spent on drinking water, which includes public
drinking water, purchased bottled water, and the costs incurred for the installation and
maintenance of water purification apparatuses in the homes. If in fact the public drinking water is
safe and healthy to drink, then this means that a significant amount of expenditure is being spent
on bottled water and water purification apparatuses and thus represents a significant opportunity
cost. In today‟s economy, the opportunity cost, or the value of what is foregone to have the next
best alternative, is an important cost for the average consumer.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
In the past ten years, the consumption of bottled water and the installation of home water
purification apparatuses have noticeably increased in the Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate. In
fact, the number of bottled water companies and water filter dealers has multiplied. The
observable and sometimes intrusive marketing efforts of these industries are causing a stir among
2
the local residents. People are troubled with the various allegations that their tap water is
contaminated or unhealthy and are generally confused as to which drinking water is the healthier
choice, causing them to expend more of their income on drinking water supplies. By shedding
some light on the quality and cost of public water, in comparison to the quality and cost of
bottled and filtered water, consumers will be able to make an educated decision about the type of
water which is most suitable for them and their families. Additionally, the per capita water
consumption in the Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate has generally been calculated by
dividing the total quantity of supplied water by the population. This estimate, though, does not
take into consideration the amounts of bottled drinking water consumption into the equation,
leaving a gap in this regard.
1.3 Research Questions
Some of the questions which this research aims to answer are:
o What is the quality of public drinking water in the Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate?
o What is the expenditure on drinking water supplies (which includes tap water, bottled water
and/or filtered water) and how does this translate as the opportunity cost?
o What is the average bottled water consumption in the Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate?
o What are the proportions of the population drinking different types of water in the
governorate?
o What are some perceptions of residents regarding the public drinking water?
1.4 Research Objectives
The main objectives of this research are to assess the quality of public drinking water in the
Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate, to estimate the expenditure on different drinking water
3
supplies, which include bottled drinking water and home water purification apparatuses, and to
monetize the opportunity cost of these expenditures. The specific objectives of this research are
to:
1) Compile a grouping of chemical and microbial water quality data for public drinking water
supplies in the Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate and carry out a water quality
assessment.
2) Gather information on the bottled water industries in Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate
and provide an estimate of the quantity of bottled water sold in the governorate.
3) Estimate the yearly bottled water consumption in the Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate.
4) Provide an estimate of the cost of water degradation, if any, in the Ramallah and Al-Bireh
governorate based on averted expenditures, using the most recent data available, and
monetize the opportunity cost of these expenditures.
5) Estimate indicator values of the proportions of residents in the Ramallah and Al-Bireh
governorate consuming different types of water.
6) Better understand the perceptions of consumers regarding their choice of drinking water
type.
1.5 Significance of the Study
This study will be a significant endeavor in assessing the quality of drinking water and the
expenditure on its various sources in the Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate. This study will
contribute to enhancing the knowledge of average consumers on drinking water quality based on
scientific facts and economic calculations. The results of this study will provide some insight and
information for further research for water scientists and water economists. The study provides a
scientific discussion of concerning water quality issues and intends to provide useful information
on common issues and concerns related to drinking water in the Ramallah-Al Bireh governorate.
4
1.6 Approach and Methodology
The research approach adopted in this study is made up of a combination of methods. The study
is both desk-based and field-based. Scholarly articles and books were reviewed on water quality
assessments and standards, the international bottled water industry, and home water purification
processes and systems. In addition, primary and secondary data on water quality was collected.
Interviews were carried out with actors in the bottled water industry and filter dealers as an aid to
reveal essential primary data. Research data was sourced, collected and collated accordingly. A
questionnaire was distributed to 155 households in order to obtain indicator values of the
proportions of residents in the Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate consuming different types of
water, to estimate the household expenditures on drinking water, to better understand perceptions
regarding public drinking water, and to provide an estimate of the average bottled water
consumption in the Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate. The aggregated data from the company
surveys and questionnaires is used to find the total expenditure on drinking water supplies for the
year 2009 in the Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate and to provide an estimation of the
opportunity costs.
1.7 Assumptions and Limitations
Several assumptions and limitations influenced this study and it should be noted that a study is
only as good as the data on which it is based. Based on water supply data and population
estimates, it is assumed that in the study area there is no shortage of water, i.e. that sufficient
water reaches the residents at all times of the year. Thus, it is assumed that the purchase of
bottled water in the Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate is not attributed to a shortage in public
drinking water. One scenario in this case plays out when tap water becomes fouled following
water cuts and people avert to purchasing bottled water. It is also assumed that bottled water is
5
consumed all year long, and not only during the summer months when intermittent water
shortages in some areas do in fact occur. Environmental information was difficult to collect and
in the real world data gaps can be a significant limitation, such as missing data on water quality
in certain years, and lack of data on bottled water consumption and water filter industries in
Palestine.
1.8 Scope
In discussing the issue of purchased water, it is essential to note that Palestine is a special case.
Many Palestinian communities rely a great deal on purchased tankered water, private wells,
springs, etc. to meet their daily water demands. Considering that many rural areas are not even
served by a water distribution network, a study of the quality and costs associated with public
drinking water and bottled water for Palestine as a whole would be inaccurate. Yet the situation
in Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate is quite different. Significant parts of Ramallah and Al
Bireh governorate, including the Ramallah and Al-Bireh twin cities, ten other cities/towns, more
than 43 villages and 5 refugee camps, are served by a water distribution network. There are a few
remaining localities not served by a water network, which is about 3% of the households in the
governorate, but these will be disregarded in this study.
This study does not attempt to be considered as a purely economic study rather it collaborates
between the scientific, technical and economic aspects of the general topic of drinking water.
Additionally, it is important to note that this study does not intend to undermine the importance
of the bottled water and filter industries which are an important sector in the Palestinian
economy and livelihood, yet this study does provide a discussion of concerning issues and
6
intends to a provide useful information and a comprehensible understanding of selected issues
regarding drinking water in the Ramallah-Al Bireh governorate.
1.9 Thesis Outline
This thesis is composed of six chapters. Chapter 1 offers an introduction to the content and
structure of the research, including the statement of the problem, research questions and
objectives and research assumptions and limitations. Chapter 2 describes the study area of
Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate, providing a briefing of the general characteristics and water
resources of the area. Chapter 3, the literature review, discusses environmental economics, water
quality standards, parameters and assessments, bottled water guidelines and trends and briefly
discusses filtered water. Chapter 4 explains the approach and methodology adopted in this
research from purpose of the study to the data collection and analysis phase. Chapter 5 provides
the results and offers a discussion of the results. Chapter 6 draws conclusions and offers
recommendations formulated as an outcome of this research.
7
CHAPTER TWO THE STUDY AREA: RAMALLAH AND AL-BIREH
GOVERNORATE
2.1 Location
In the central area of the West Bank, lies the governorate of Ramallah and Al-Bireh. It is
bordered by the Jerusalem governorate in the south, the Nablus and Salfit governorates in the
north, Jericho governorate in the east, and the 1948 borderline between Israel and West Bank
from the west, as shown in Figure 1. The twin cities of Ramallah and Al-Bireh are located within
this governorate. The two cities are about 860 meters above sea level, and have a moderate and
pleasant climate, allowing them to be a center for commercial and tourist attraction.
Figure 2-1 Location map for Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate (HWE, 2009)
8
2.2 Climate
The climate of the area is mainly that of the Mediterranean type, characterized by long, warm,
dry summers and short, cool, rainy winters.
2.2.1 Rainfall
Rainfall is limited to about six rainy months per year, usually between November and April. In
general, the distribution of rainfall is strongly influenced by the topography, with higher rainfall
in the hills and mountains. The average rainfall was recorded by the Palestinian Meteorological
Department, with over 80 rainfall stations distributed geographically from the northern to the
southern parts of the West Bank, and was found to be 40-70 days for the rainy season of the year
2008. The annual quantity of rainfall in Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate in 2007 was 543.9
mm (PCBS, 2008a). The average annual rainfall is higher in the western part of the governorate
than the eastern part. The average annual rainfall in the eastern part of the governorate varies
from 200 to 450 mm, whereas in the western part of the governorate, the average annual rainfall
varies from 350 to 550 mm. In the mountains the average annual rainfall heights vary from 550
to 700 mm (HWE, 2009).
2.2.2 Temperature
Since the Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate is part of the hilly region of the West Bank, it has
lower temperatures compared to other governorates. The mean annual temperature is 17.1 °C, as
stated by the PCBS in 2008, and the maximum annual average temperature is 21.4°C whereas
the minimum annual average temperature is 13.1°C. January is the coldest month with
temperatures between 6-12 °C, while August is the hottest month with temperatures between 22-
27 °C (PCBS, 2008a).
9
2.2.3 Humidity
The average annual relative humidity in the Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate was 57% in
2007 and reaches its highest rates during the months of January and February. For the extreme
maximum relative humidity, the highest value was 100% registered for (January – April) in
Ramallah Station (PCBS, 2008a).
2.2.4 Wind
In winter season, the wind moves in a general west-east direction with an average daily wind
speed of 16.0 km/hour in December, but during summer winds are northwestern and
northeastern, hot and dry with an average wind speed of 18.6 km/hour in August (PCBS, 2008a).
2.3 Topography and Drainage
Surface elevations in the Ramallah and Al Bireh governorate vary widely. The highest point in
the governorate is 1,022 m above sea level at Tal A‟sur, whereas the lowest elevation is 100 m
below sea level at the southeast corner of the governorate. The topography of Ramallah and Al-
Bireh is divided into three main parts: the eastern slopes, mountain crests and western slopes.
The eastern slopes are located between the Jordan Valley and the mountains and are
characterized by steep slope forming wadis. The mountain crests form a steep surface water
divide that separates the eastern and western slopes, with an elevation ranging between 750 and
800 meters above sea level. The western slopes are characterized by gentle slopes with an
elevation ranging between 250-500 meters above sea level (HWE, 2009).
There are two major drainage systems in the Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate: one runs to the
west towards the Mediterranean while the second runs to the east towards the Jordan River (as
10
shown in Figure 2-2). Figure 2-2 also shows that the groundwater divide and the surface water
divide do not coincide on the same line. As it can be seen for the surface water divide, Ramallah
drains to the west while Al-Bireh drains to the east. As for the groundwater flow movement, both
cities drain to the east.
Figure 2-2 Drainage systems in Ramallah and Al-Bireh Governorate (HWE, 2009)
2.4 Land Use
The Ramallah and Al- Bireh Governorate covers an area of approximately 855 km². This makes
up about 15.1% of the West Bank and 14.2% of the Palestinian territories (Gaza Strip and West
Bank) (PCBS, 2008b).
11
There are a number of different land use classes within the Governorate boundaries, and these
include Palestinian built up areas, Israeli settlements, cultivated areas, forests, nature reserves
and industrial areas.
There are about 80 Palestinian built up areas in the governorate. Ramallah, Al-Bireh, Silwad,
Bani Zeid, Birzeit, Deir Dibwan and Bitunia are the only communities designated as
municipalities. Village councils govern other built up areas. In addition, there are five refugee
camps, Al-Amari, Qaddura, Al-Jalazone, Silwad and Deir A‟mmar. Figure 2-3 shows the built
up areas in Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate.
There are 24 Israeli settlements in the Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate, occupying
approximately 30.27 km2 of the governorate‟s land (3.54 % of the total governorate‟s land). The
current population of the Israeli settlements is estimated to be 81,851 settlers (PCBS, 2008b).
The total cultivated area in Governorate covers approximately 184.9 km2 (PCBS, 2008b). Rain-
fed agriculture is the most dominant farming pattern in the governorate, occupying
approximately 184.4 km2
while the remaining lands are irrigated (see Figure 2-4). The total
forested area is about 2.1 km2 and the areas designated as „Natural Reserves‟ in the governorate
make up a total area of almost 34.9 km2 (PCBS, 2008b).
There are two industrial areas in Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate; one is located to the south
of Ramallah City and the other to the east of Al-Bireh City. Together they cover an area of
approximately 1.34 km2.
12
Figure 2-3 Built up areas (HWE, 2009)
Figure 2-4 Land use map (HWE, 2009)
13
2.5 Demography
The Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate covers an area of about 855 km2 and holds a population
of approximately 279,730 persons, as of December 1, 2007. This includes 140,827 males and
138,903 females. The population density is about 327 capita/km2. The population of Ramallah
and Al-Bireh governorate can be classified by type of locality, where 136,406 or 51.9% of the
total governorate population live in urban areas, 111,259 or 42.3% of the total governorate
population live in rural areas, 15,276 or 5.8% of the total governorate population live in camps.
The total number of households in the governorate is 49,676, where 27,182 are located in the
urban areas, 19,750 are in the rural areas, and 2,744 are in camps. The average size of the
governorate households is 5.3 and the population natural increase rate is 3%. According to
estimates in 2009, the percentage of people aged 0-14 years in the governorate is about 38.1% of
the total governorate population. About 55.5% of the total population is aged between 15-64 and
3.9% of the population is aged 65 years and over (2.6% of Governorate population ages are
unstated) (PCBS, 2009). This data is summarized in Table 2-1.
Table 2-1 Summary of demography characteristics
Total Population of Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate 279,730
Number of households in Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate 49,676
Population Density
327 capita/km2
Average size of household 5.3 persons
Natural population increase rate 3%
Males Females
Population classification by sex 140,827 138,903
0-14 years between 15-64 65 years +
Population classification by age 38.1% 55.5% 3.9%
Urban Rural Camps
Population classification by locality 136,406 (51.9%) 111,259 (42.3%) 15,276 (5.8%)
Number of households 27,182 19,750 2,744
Source: PCBS, 2009
14
2.6 Groundwater Aquifer Basins
The West Bank lies over three main aquifer basins: Eastern, Northeastern and Western Basins.
Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate lies over the Eastern and Western Basins. The Eastern
Aquifer Basin underlies the Eastern part of governorate. Its water flows towards the east and
southeast. The Western Aquifer Basin underlies about 45% of the Ramallah and Al-Bireh
governorate to the west and its water flows towards the west (HWE, 2009).
2.7 Water Demand
In calculating the water demand for Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate, the World Health
Organization standard for the amount of required water for drinking and other domestic uses per
capita of 150 l/c/d is adopted (WHO, 2008). Considering the most recent population consensus
for 2007 was 279,730 inhabitants, the needed amount of water is about 15.3 Mcm/yr. The
Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics calculated the per capita daily allocation of water for
Ramallah- Al Bireh governorate from the quantity of water supplied, which is about 13.70 Mcm,
with a population of about 279,730, leading to a daily allocation per capita of 134.2 l/c/d. The
Palestinians can supply only about 3.4 Mcm/yr from their own resources (PCBS, 2008c); the rest
are purchased from the Israeli water company „Mekorot‟. This is discussed further in the next
section.
2.8 Water Supply
The main water resources in the West Bank, and region as a whole, are groundwater aquifers.
Wells and springs constitute the main sources of water in the West Bank. Surface water and
seasonal small rivers running in the wadis can also be considered as additional water sources
which are used mainly for agricultural purposes.
15
In general, the supply of drinking water in the West Bank can be classified into 2 main sources:
i) wells and springs managed by municipalities, village councils, or water distribution
organizations; and ii) purchased water from the Israeli water company „Mekorot‟, which is
distributed by the West Bank Water Department (PWA, 2007).
2.8.1 Domestic Water Resources
In the Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate, the sources of domestic water supply are Palestinian
owned wells, purchased water resources, and springs. About 25% of water in the Ramallah- Al
Bireh governorate is obtained from Palestinian owned wells, mainly the Ein Samia groundwater
wells, which are operated by the Jerusalem Water Undertaking and about 75% of water is
purchased from Mekorot (PWA, 2007). The water produced from the Ein Samia wells is mixed
with the water purchased from Mekorot to supply about 50 communities in the Ramallah and Al-
Bireh governorate, and some communities within the jurisdiction of the Jerusalem governorate.
1. Palestinian owned wells - Ein Samia Well Field: This well field is made up of 5 Palestinian
wells owned by the Jerusalem Water Undertaking (JWU) for the Ramallah and Al-Bireh
governorate. The JWU is responsible for the management, operation, and monitoring of these
wells. The Ein Samia wells are located in the eastern aquifer of the West Bank at a depth of
60 to 600 meters below ground level. The annual extraction from the Ein Samia wells in
2007 was about 3.356 Mcm (PCBS, 2008d). The maximum annual extraction capacity of the
wells in Ein Samiya is 3.5 Mcm which is possible only with adequate rainfall during the
winter season, and it has been shown that there is a decrease in the productivity of the Ein
Samia wells (HWE, 2009).
2. Purchased water resources: These include water purchased for the West Bank Water
Department and from the Israeli water company „Mekorot‟.
16
West Bank Water Department (WBWD) Wells: These wells are originally Palestinian
wells which were drilled during the Jordanian Mandate period, but were confiscated by
the Israeli occupation authorities and were handed over to Mekorot. The WBWD holds
the responsibility for distribution of waters to the Palestinian cities, villages and the
Israeli settlements inside the West Bank. Four wells are located in the Shibtin area, west
of Ramallah city, but only one of them is currently in operation, producing about 0.552
Mcm/yr, (PWA, 2007).
Israeli Water Company (Mekorot): The sources of water for Mekorot are either from
wells inside the green line or inside the West Bank, and recently also from desalination
plants constructed inside Israel. The total amount of the purchased water from Mekorot in
2007 was about 10.875 Mcm (PCBS, 2008e) to supply the major parts of Ramallah and
Al-Bireh governorate. This includes the pumped water from the wells which are located
in the Palestinian Territory and controlled by Mekorot.
Figure 2-5 Palestinian wells in Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate (HWE, 2006)
17
3. Springs: There are a total of 31 springs in the governorate, with an annual discharge of 1.714
Mcm (PCBS, 2008f). Only 6 of these springs are used for drinking water. The springs are
located in villages within the governorate. A number of these springs, such as Ein Arik
spring and Al‟Ajool spring are no longer used for drinking water purposes because water
distribution networks have been installed and the JWU has supplied these areas with piped
water (PWA, 2007).
2.8.2 Quantity of Water Supply
The quantity of water supplied for the domestic sector in Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate
was 2.82 Mcm in 2007 (PCBS, 2008g). This represents the water quantities pumped from wells
with domestic permits. No water quantities used for domestic use and pumped from agricultural
wells with agricultural permits were recorded, and likewise no water quantity discharged from
springs and used to supply localities through public networks were recorded. About 10.88 Mcm
of water was purchased from Mekorot (which includes the pumped water from the wells which
are located in the Palestinian Territory and controlled by Mekorot). Thus, the total quantity of
water supplied for the domestic sector in Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate was about 13.70
Mcm in 2007, the second highest governorate in the West Bank following Hebron, which was
supplied with 16.87 Mcm in 2007 (PCBS, 2008g). It is important to note that in some areas there
is a big difference between supply and actual household use. By taking into consideration the
commercial and public consumption and after deducting the loss rate, this difference can be high.
18
2.9 Economy
Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate has become the economic center in the West Bank. In recent
years, the governorate has developed at an incredibly high rate, where many new commercial
centers and housing projects have been constructed and many investors have established new
businesses (HWE, 2009). Economic activities in Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate range from
agricultural to commercial and industrial activities, but generally speaking, agricultural activity
has declined and cultivated lands are being replaced by residential and commercial ventures.
The number of economically active Palestinian population in Ramallah and Al-Bireh
governorate is 67,254 or 35.6% of the total Palestinian population (in the age group of 10 and
over), including 54,356 males or 57.5% of the total male population in the governorate (in the
age group of 10 and over) and 12,898 females or 13.7% of the total female population in the
governorate (in the age group of 10 and over). The number of unemployed people of the
Palestinian population of the Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate is about 7,516 or 11.2% of the
total population (in the age group of 10 and over). The rate of unemployment by locality type is
16.1% in refugee camps, 13.4% in rural areas, and 11.8% in urban areas (PCBS, 2009). The
average household‟s monthly expenditure in the West Bank (household consisting of 6.1
persons) was JD 707.7 in 2008 and the food share of total expenditure is 35.4% (PCBS, 2008h).
The most commonly used indicator of the national output of goods and services has been the
gross domestic product (GDP), which is the value of final goods and services produced within
the nation during a specified period of time. GDP per capita is calculated by dividing GDP by the
population of the country, while GDP at constant prices may be measured over a series of years
19
by discounting changes in the value of money (Gilpin, 2000). Table 2-2 shows the GDP in
constant prices, GDP per capita, and household expenditure in Palestine from 1994 to 2008.
Table 2-2 Economic indicators in Palestine from 1994 to 2008
Source: MAS, 2010.
2.10 Water and Sanitation Infrastructure
In Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate, there are two main institutions working in the water
sector as suppliers: the Jerusalem Water Undertaking and the West Bank Water Department. The
served area of JWU extends over 600 km2 and covers for the time being, significant parts of
Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate, which includes Ramallah and Al-Bireh twin cities, 10 other
cities/towns, more than 43 villages and 5 refugee camps, and the northern part of Jerusalem. The
number of subscriptions is about 51,567 serving a total estimated population of 280,000 people.
The remaining localities in the Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate are either supplied with water
by the West Bank Water Department or not yet served (JWU, 2007). About 92% of the
governorate is served by a public network, 5% is served by a private system, and about 3% has
no piped water supply (PCBS, 2007).
20
2.11 Water Tariffs
The Palestine Water Authority (PWA) is officially mandated to establish an appropriate unified
tariff system and monitor its implementation for the water supply and wastewater utilities. The
PWA, with the Ministry of Local Government and various municipalities and institutions,
produced the „Tariff Policy Guidelines‟ which interprets the Water Law No. 3 / 2002, with the
aim to promote water conservation and ideal consumption. The main goals of the guidelines are
to: allow water departments to recover costs for producing and distributing water; ensure social
equality, such that households with limited income are able to pay for the tariffs on water
consumed for basic human needs; and to promote water conservation, such that the tariff
increases with increase water usage (PWA personal communication, 2010).
To differentiate between different water consumers, the tariff system classifies consumers
according to water usage, and applies the water tariff accordingly, as shown in Table 2-3. The
price of one cubic meter in level 1 is the same as that in level 2, thus they can be considered one
main group. The value of 10 m3 was selected as the end range for level 2 because it was found to
be the highest amount of consumption essential for basic human needs in the average Palestinian
household, where the average Palestinian household was considered to have 6 persons, thus:
10 m3 = 10,000 liters/6 months = 1666.7 liters/capita/month = 1666.7/30 = 55.6 l/c/d
This amount (55.6 l/c/d) was considered sufficient for basic human needs, including drinking and
cooking, etc. Based on mathematical calculations and classifications of different sectors, the
factors for water tariff structure, shown in Table 2-3, were developed to be adopted by the PWA,
municipalities, and water providers.
21
Table 2-3 Factors for water tariff structure
Type of Use Levels of Consumption (m3)
Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5
<5 5.1 – 10 10.1 – 20 20.1 – 30 >30
Domestic 1.0 1.0 1.2 – 2.0 2.0 – 2.5 2.5 – 3.0
Public Institution 1.0 1.0 1.5 – 2.0 2.0 – 2.5 2.5 – 3.0
Commercial 2.0 – 3.0 2.0 – 3.0 2.5 – 4.0 2.5 – 4.0 2.5 – 4.0
Industrial 2.0 – 3.0 2.0 – 3.0 2.5 – 4.0 2.5 – 5.0 2.5 – 6.0
Source: PWA, personal communication.
Depending on the type of water use and on the levels of consumption, the price of water is
multiplied by the respective factor to determine the water tariff. Presently, each municipality or
water provider in the West Bank charges a different price for the quantities of water sold, and
each applies their own water tariffs. In the Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate, the Jerusalem
Water Undertaking has adopted a tariff structure which is fundamentally similar to the structure
developed by the PWA (Table 2-3), yet the West Bank Water Department and many
municipalities have not (PWA, personal communication). It is envisioned by the PWA that all
water providers in Palestine will adopt this unified water tariff structure.
22
CHAPTER THREE LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter reviews the literature on environmental economics, valuation of water quality
degradation and opportunity costs, drinking water quality, and bottled water and filtered water
production both locally and internationally. Given the importance of drinking water, there is a
wealth of literature on the topic.
3.1 Environmental Economics
„Environmental economics‟ is a specialized branch of economics which embraces the issues of
pollution control, climate change, protection of the natural environment, and conservation, and
issues in the resolution of which markets play little or no part, but in which vast natural assets
need to be allocated sensibly to the common good (Gilpin, 2000). The subject is therefore
concerned with costs and benefits on a social and global scale. Likewise, „Ecological
Economics‟ is a multidisciplinary field which integrates elements of economics, ecology and
other sciences. According to Costanza et. al (1997), ecological economics, encompasses a
concern for: (1) sustainability, or the maintenance of human well-being and the services rendered
by natural systems over intergenerational time scales; (2) economic efficiency, or the satisfaction
of human preferences as operationalized through cost-benefit analysis; and (3) distributional
equity, or the just sharing of burdens and benefits between social groups. Economists analyze the
problem of environmental disruption as a form of external effects (Ng, 2005) and thus pollution
can be considered a negative externality.
23
3.2 Economic Valuation of Water Degradation
Economic valuation refers to the assignment of monetary values to non-market goods and
services, where the monetary values have a particular and precise meaning (Bateman, et.al.,
2002). Here, the non-marketed good has no market but contributes positively to human
wellbeing, such as cleaner water or air. One way of measuring the economic values attached to
non-marketed goods and services is by seeing if they influence actual markets for some other
good.
The concept of „economic value‟ is discussed by Bolt et. al (2005), where it is defined as the
maximum willingness to pay for an environmental or natural resource. For example, individuals
spend money on bottled water or water filters to avoid exposure to water pollution. This
information allows economists to measure the economic values. Some guidance to the value that
people place on their environment can be estimated by observing how much is spent on
preventing damage to it and on its enhancement, such as the costs of water filters (Gilpen, 2000).
Bolt et. al (2005) outline the effects of water pollution, the impacts associated with them and
possible techniques to value these impacts, as shown in Figure 3-1.
24
Figure 3-1 Water pollution impacts (Bolt et. al., 2005)
Bolt et. al. (2005) state that often the valuation of health impacts from pollution considers only
the actual number of cases of sickness, however, when defensive actions are possible, a
researcher must consider how individuals respond to avoid (increase) exposure to an
environmental hazard. This is known as averting or defensive behavior. Therefore, the effect of
pollution is not only sickness, but also the amount of resources spent to avoid it.
The averting behavior method begins with the notion that people try to protect themselves when
faced with environmental risk thus requiring expenditures that would not be made if not faced
with the environmental health risk. For example, the purchase of bottled water or water filters
may only be made when faced with the risk of contaminated drinking water. In the context of
water resources, households may respond to increased degradation in various ways that are
Water Pollution
Health Impacts
Medical cost
Human capital
Averting behavior
Contingent valuation
Loss of ecosystems
Change in productivity
Cost of replacement
Hedonic prices
Contingent valuation
25
generally referred to as averting or defensive behaviors so as to avoid the adverse impacts of
water contaminants (Birol, 2006). These include buying non-durables (e.g., bottled water),
making expenditures to reduce water contamination (e.g. purchasing filters), and changing
behavior to avoid exposure to the contaminant. Um et. al. (2001) studied the willingness to pay
for improved drinking water quality using averting behavior method with perception and found
that the perception measure provided a valid explanation for citizens‟ aversion to using tap water
in Korea.
The averted expenditures on bottled water in Lebanon were studied by Sarraf et al. (2004), where
it was found that the lack of safe potable water, or perception thereof, has an additional cost in
terms of averted expenditure on bottled water, estimated at US$82-89 million per year, or around
0.5 percent of GDP per year.
3.3 Economics of Opportunity Cost
„Opportunity Cost‟ is defined as the value of the thing that is sacrificed by making a particular
choice, where the value of resources allocation to the options chosen is conventionally measured
in money terms (Bateman et. al., 2002). In other words, opportunity cost is the value of what is
foregone in order to have something else. This value is personal to each individual and
determined by wants and resources (such as income). Today economists recognize that water
resources, and the natural systems they support, provide many economic goods and services
(Jarvis, 2008). A consideration of opportunity cost assists in ensuring that resource are put to the
best use and that all costs are taken into account, thus in cost-benefit analysis (CBA), the
opportunity costs should be taken into account in the assessment, yet CBA is often used in
26
situations where the signals that market prices often provide are either absent of fail to reflect
adequately the opportunity cost of the resources involved (Gilpin, 2000).
3.4 International Drinking Water Quality
The United Nations General Assembly, at its Millennium meeting in 2000, established eight
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) with targets to be achieved by 2015, with the aim of
speeding up poverty alleviation and socio-economic development. The MDGs, which respond to
the world's main development challenges, were drawn from the actions and targets contained in
the Millennium Declaration that was adopted by 189 nations-and signed by 147 heads of state
and governments during the UN Millennium Summit in September 2000 (UN, 2009). Water
quality management contributes both directly and indirectly to achieving the targets set out in all
eight MDGs, and it is most significant to ensure environmental sustainability and indicators of
water quality can be used to demonstrate progress toward the targets, by plotting trends in water
quality over time and over space (UN, 2006). Overall, the total economic benefits of meeting the
MDG target, to halving the proportion of people without access to safe water and sanitation by
2015, have been estimated at US$ 84 billion (SIWI, 2005). Water contributes to poverty
alleviation in many ways – through sanitation services, water supply, affordable food and
enhanced resilience of poor communities to disease, climate shocks and environmental
degradation (UN, 2009).
The problem of drinking water quality, however, is not confined to the developing world where
water treatment may not exist or is inadequate. Studies have also shown that drinking water
quality in developed countries may also not be assured. Many first world waters suffer from
serious and long lasting contamination, mainly due to: high amounts of salt, a particular problem
27
for many irrigated areas and coastal areas with over-exploited aquifers; and fertilizer and
pesticide residues from agriculture which in some areas have percolated down to deep aquifers
(Dickie, 2006). For example, in the US, there is increasing anxiety over the level of
contamination with chemicals and pathogens in water sources and water supplies (Richardson,
2003; Berry et al, 2006). In France, drinking water testing uncovered that 3 million people were
drinking water whose quality did not meet WHO standards, and 97% of groundwater samples
did not meet standards for nitrate in the same study (UN, 2009).
3.5 Local Water Quality
Water quality in the Eastern, North Eastern and Western aquifers of the West Bank area are
characterized as good, with some limitations concerning the major parameters such as chloride,
sodium, potassium, sulphate, nitrate, and other biological indicators such as fecal coliform, and
total coliform (Samhan et al., 2009). Generally, water in the Ramallah area is considered of good
quality (interview with staff of Palestinian Water Authority, Jerusalem Water Undertaking and
Ministry of Health). Anayah, and Almasri (2009), carried out an assessment of nitrate
concentrations in the aquifers of the West Bank, Palestine, and found that in general, all the
districts except Ramallah and Al-Bireh, have nitrate concentrations that severely exceed the
maximum contaminant level of 10 mg/l NO3-N (50 mg/l NO3, based on the USEPA for the year
2000.
3.6 Water Quality Testing and Monitoring in the West Bank
The protection of valuable water resources and regular monitoring of the water quality in the
West Bank are the main environmental priorities of the Palestinian National Authority. Water
quality monitoring in the West Bank is not only one of the main responsibilities of the
28
Palestinian Water Authority (PWA) but is also a fundamental concern for many other national
organizations. Thus, the joint efforts and cooperation of all concerned parties ensure that safe and
clean water reaches the population.
3.6.1 The Palestinian Water Authority
The Palestinian Water Authority (PWA) is the regulating body for the water sector in the West
Bank and Gaza. By its own definition, its roles and responsibilities include the enforcement of
water pollution controls and protection of water resources. One of the highest priorities of the
PWA is to ensure the safety and health of Palestinian residents, the protection of water resources,
and the prevention of their contamination and overexploitation. The PWA regularly monitors
water quality through a monitoring program, carried out by the Water Quality Department.
Water samples are regularly gathered from wells and springs, and are analyzed chemically and
physically (PWA, 2007). Bacteriological tests are carried out by the Ministry of Health, since
that ministry is responsible for the water purification/chlorination.
3.6.2 The Palestinian Ministry of Health
The Palestinian Ministry of Health (MoH) is the regulator of the health subsector in Palestine.
The MoH is responsible for establishing and regulating health standards and guidelines in the
West Bank. These include drinking water standards and guidelines for other uses of water in the
West Bank (MAS, 2009). MoH is responsible for monitoring the quality of water reaching the
users. The tests performed are mainly physical, chemical, and microbiological tests, which are
carried out by the Central Public Health Laboratory. The Central Public Health Laboratory
(CPHL) is the technical and scientific body of the Ministry of Health, accredited by the
Palestinian Standards Institute (PSI) according to the ISO/IEC 17025, 1999 (updated in 2005). It
29
provides suggestions and opinions to the Ministry of Health concerning health issues. The
mission of the CPHL is to identify and control the agents that might affect human health, which
is achieved by performing suitable laboratory analysis, surveys and scientific researches on
special issues.
The CPHL cooperates with other public health divisions to prevent and control diseases and to
identify health hazards in the environment, food, water, etc. and to help in corrective action
decision. These divisions include the: Sample Receiving Division, which is responsible for
receiving and handling water samples, among others; Microbiology Division, where
microbiological test are carried out for water, wastewater, etc.; Chemistry Division, where
chemical tests are carried out; Quality Assurance Division, which monitors and maintains the
quality assurance program and reports the results of its observations to the Directorate (personal
communication with CPHL).
3.6.3 Jerusalem Water Undertaking and West Bank Water Department
These institutions are responsible for monitoring their water systems, which includes the sources,
water tanks, and main distribution networks which fall under their jurisdiction (PWA, 2007).
Regular monitoring includes physical and bacteriological testing, which have the most
significance in regards to public health based on WHO guidelines (WHO, 2008).
3.6.4 UNRWA
The United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East
(UNRWA) provides assistance, protection and advocacy for Palestinian refugees. UNRWA is
the main provider of basic services, including water, to registered Palestine refugees, and is
30
responsible for monitoring their water services inside Palestinian refugee camps. Their water
resources, which include springs, wells, water distribution pipelines carrying purchased water
from Mekorot, main water tanks, are regularly monitored according to WHO standards (PWA,
2007).
3.7 Laboratory Water Testing
To ensure that water quality in Palestine is in accordance with standards, the Jerusalem Water
Undertaking and Central Public Health Lab of the Palestinian Ministry of Health undergo regular
sampling of the water at different sources and carry out a variety of quality tests. This process
includes: i) Sampling ii) Transport of samples iii) Testing of samples. These are considered
equally important for ensuring accurate test results (JWU, 2006). In reality, every water sample
in contact with the atmosphere contains dissolved gases, including oxygen and carbon dioxide
and every water sample in contact with sediment and rock contains other dissolved constituents
such silicon and calcium. Therefore, in the natural environment there is no such thing as „pure
water‟ in the chemically rigorous definition (Vanloon and Duffy, 2005).
Water samples in Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate are collected regularly by the proper
authorities and are tested for major chemical and microbial parameters. Main chemical analysis
includes major cations such as calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), sodium (Na) and potassium (K),
and major anions like bicarbonates (HCO3), chloride (Cl), sulphate (SO4) and nitrate (NO3).
Major physical parameters include pH, temperature and conductivity and major microbial
parameters are fecal coliform and total coliform.
31
The following sections provide the usual chemical, physical, and microbiological characteristics
of water and describe their significance. Reference is made to the following standards:
a) The Palestinian Standards Institute Guidelines for Drinking Water- updated in 2005;
b) The World Health Organization Guidelines for Drinking Water-Water Quality, updated
in 2008.
3.7.1 Major Chemical and Physical parameters in water
Chemical substances are naturally found in some drinking water supplies but these are generally
only a concern if they are present above guideline levels and if a person is exposed to them over
a period of years. Advances in science are showing that exposure to some chemical contaminants
above guideline levels may be a concern in the short-term as well. Physical and aesthetic quality
guidelines address parameters which may affect consumer acceptance of drinking water, such as
taste, odor and color. A description of each of these parameters, based on scientific references
(Twort, et al, 2000; WHO, 2008; EPA, 2009) is presented below:
Calcium
Calcium is found in most water in the form of calcium carbonate or bicarbonate, especially in
water that are associated with chalk or limestone, and as calcium sulphate. The level of calcium
depends on the type of rock through which the water has passed. Since calcium is an essential
part of the human diet and since the nutritional value from water is usually minimal compared to
the amounts of calcium obtained from an average diet, there are no health objections to high
calcium content in drinking water. Thus, no maximum allowable limits are specified in the WHO
guidelines. The PSI guidelines suggest a maximum desirable limit of 100 mg/l. Main limitations
may be expressed to prevent excessive scale formation.
32
Chloride
Chlorides are found in almost all water, usually in combination with sodium. Chlorides occur
from several sources including mineral deposits, agricultural or irrigation discharges, urban
runoff, or from sewage and industrial effluents. The main problems caused by high chloride
content in water are: i) increase corrosion rate of iron, steel and plumbing metals; ii) taste, where
some people may detect chlorides in drinking water at concentration levels as low as 150 mg/l,
and at levels above 250 mg/l a salty taste can be obvious to most people. The WHO guide level
for chloride is 250 mg/l. This is the same level required by the PSI guidelines.
Magnesium
Magnesium forms highly soluble salts which contribute to the hardness of water. Thus, high
amounts of magnesium in domestic water cause problems of scale formation. The WHO
guidelines do not specify maximum concentrations of magnesium. The PSI guidelines suggest a
maximum desirable limit of 100 mg/l.
Sodium
Sodium compounds are very abundant in the environment and are soluble in water. Sodium may
impart a taste on water, depending on the water temperature and anions present. The WHO
guideline value and the PSI guideline value for sodium is 200 mg/l, based on taste.
Potassium
Potassium is an abundant element, but rarely found in high concentrations in natural waters. The
WHO guideline does not specify a maximum value for potassium. The PSI guideline suggests a
maximum acceptable limit of 10 mg/l.
Fluoride
Fluoride in drinking water has been associated with dental issues. Fluoride levels have to be
closely controlled since an excessive amount can lead to fluorosis, resulting in mottling of the
33
teeth, and low levels of fluoride may result in increased dental problems. The greatest reduction
of dental decay occurs if the fluoridated water is drunk in childhood during the period of tooth
formation. The WHO and PSI guideline value is 1.5 mg/l.
Sulphates
Sulphates come from several sources such as the dissolution of gypsum and other mineral
deposits containing sulphates; from seawater intrusion; from the oxidation of sulphides,
sulphites, and thiosulphates in well aerated surface waters; and from industrial effluents where
sulphates or sulpuric acid have been used in processes such as tanning and pulp paper
manufacturing. The WHO maximum allowable value is 250 mg/l SO4 based on taste and
corrosion potential, where the PSI maximum allowable value is 200 mg/l SO4.
Nitrite and Nitrate
Nitrite is an intermediate oxidation state of nitrogen. The presence of nitrites may be a sign of
sewage pollution, but that may not always be the case. Nitrate is the final stage of oxidation of
ammonia and the mineralization of nitrogen from organic matter. High Nitrate concentrations in
both surface water and groundwater may be attributed to the use of nitrogenous fertilizers on the
land. Water with high nitrates may be potentially harmful to infants, causing
methaemoglobinamia, also known as „Blue Baby Syndrome‟. The WHO guideline value for
nitrate as NO3 is 50 mg/l and for nitrite as NO2 is 3 mg/l. The PSI guideline value for nitrate as
NO3 is 50 mg/l, but may be acceptable to a maximum limit of 80 mg/l if no alternative water
source is available. The PSI guideline does not specify a value for nitrite.
Total Dissolved Solids and Electrical Conductivity
The total dissolved solids (TSD) refer to the amount of salts in water. Since salts are in the form
of ions in solution, then this allows electrical conductivity. Thus, electrical conductivity, which is
a measure of the ability of a solution to carry electrical current, is dependent on the amount of
34
TDS. Water with high levels of TDS can result in a salty taste and may cause scaling to water
systems. On the other hand, water with low levels, which is desirable for many industrial
processes, may also have an unacceptable taste to consumers and may be corrosive to domestic
plumbing. There is no WHO or PSI guideline value for conductivity, instead the WHO and PSI
have set a guideline level of 1,000 mg/l for total dissolved solids.
pH value
The pH value is a measurement of the acidity of water. It is an important parameter in water
chemistry since many of the processes involved in water treatment are pH dependent. A solution
is said to be neutral when the numbers of hydrogen ions and hydroxyl ions are equal, each
corresponding to an approximate concentration of 10-7
moles/l. This neutral point occurs at pH
7.0 at 25°C. At pH values less than 7.0, the water has acid characteristics; at pH values greater
than 7.0, the water has basic characteristics. Waters which have percolated through chalk or
limestone, as is the case in most of the West Bank, generally have higher pH values. The WHO
guidelines give a range of 6.5-8.5 for the pH value of drinking water and a treatment pH value of
<8.0 for effective disinfection with chlorine. Likewise the PSI sets a pH range of 6.5-8.5 for
drinking water.
Hardness
Hardness refers to the characteristic of typical hard water, which when it reacts with ordinary
soap forms a curd or scum. Hardness is expressed as CaCO3. The problems caused by excessive
hardness are mainly the formation of scale in kettles, boilers and hot water systems. Based on
aesthetic characteristics, the WHO and PSI guidelines suggest maximum desirable limit for total
hardness as CaCO3 to 500 mg/l.
35
Alkalinity
Alkalinity is generally considered as the opposite of acidity, where as the pH value increases, the
alkalinity increases. The alkalinity of water actually comes from the sum of bicarbonates,
carbonates, and hydroxides of calcium, sodium, and potassium. Alkalinity is a key factor in
determining the corrosive properties of water. Both the WHO and PSI guidelines do not specify a
maximum value for alkalinity.
Turbidity
Turbidity is an optical property which causes light to be scattered and absorbed rather than
transmitted in straight lines through a sample. The WHO guidelines set the maximum value to be
5 NTU, which is acceptable to consumers, and also set a treatment standard of less than or equal
to 1 NTU for successful disinfection. The PSI set a maximum value of 1 NTU.
Color
The color of water is a physical characteristic which determines the acceptability of water upon
consumer perception. The WHO and PSI guidelines give a guide level of 15 TCU (true color
units), above which the color would be noticeable in a glass of water by most people.
3.7.2 Microbiological parameters in water
The most significant risks to people's health from drinking water come from microscopic
organisms such as disease-causing bacteria, protozoa and viruses. The guidelines that relate to
these microorganisms are stringent because the associated health effects can be quite severe and
can also affect health over the long-term.
Total Coliform and Fecal Coliform
Coliform bacteria are found all over the environment and have been used as indicator organisms
by water microbiologists. This group may contain a species that are referred to as
36
„thermotolerant (fecal) coliforms‟, which is natural to the intestine and is present in the feces of
man and other warm blooded animals. E.coli is one of these, which if found in drinking water
provides clear evidence of fecal pollution. The WHO and PSI standards have a common standard
for drinking water:
- no fecal coliforms detected in 100 ml of sample;
- the Total Coliform in the water tested must not exceed 3/100 ml;
- 95% of 100 ml samples must not show the presence of coliform organisms.
3.8 Water Quality Standards and Guidelines
3.8.1 General Definitions
In water quality, the terms „standards‟ and „guidelines‟ are used interchangeably. These terms
can be generally defined to prevent confusion. According to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary
(2010), a „standard‟ is something set up and established by authority as a rule for the measure of
quantity, weight, extent, value, or quality and a „guideline‟ is a guide or an indication or outline
of policy or conduct. In other words, a standard is usually a collection of specific requirements
for a system or procedure, which must be met by everyone. A guideline is typically a collection
of „suggestions‟, developed for best practice and they are not requirements to be met, but are
strongly recommended based on facts and evidence.
The words „pollutant‟ and „contaminant‟ are also generally used interchangeably, but a
distinction can be made by adopting the definitions made by the Dictionary of Environmental
Science and Technology, where a contaminant is defined as “any substance present in the
environment above a „natural‟ level whether or not it causes a detrimental effect” and a pollutant
is defined as “a contaminant that causes adverse effects”. Here, it is possible to define water
37
pollution as any concentration of chemical (or microorganism) in water above the „natural‟ (also
called background or baseline) level (Vanloon and Duffy, 2005). This definition implies that
there must be a set of standards or guidelines which provide an indication of the properties which
if exceeded would constitute an adverse effect. Scientific research over the past years have
helped identify many toxic products in drinking water and have helped develop regulations and
guidelines for the protection of the public health from waterborne diseases. The World Health
Organization (WHO) set such guidelines for drinking water quality which act as advisory values
for world-wide application. The Palestinian Standards Institute also set such standards which are
mandatory for water undertakers in Palestine. These are discussed below.
3.8.2 WHO Drinking Water Standards
An established goal of WHO and its Member States is that ‘all people, whatever their stage of
development and their social and economic conditions have the right to have access to an
adequate supply of safe drinking-water’ (WHO, 2008). ‘Safe drinking water' here refers to a
water supply which is of a quality which does not represent a significant health risk, is of
sufficient quantity to meet all domestic needs, is available continuously, is available to all the
population and is affordable. These conditions can be summarized as five key words: quality;
quantity; continuity; coverage; and, cost (WHO, 2008). The first WHO publication dealing
specifically with drinking water quality was published in 1958 as „International Standards for
Drinking-Water’.
Thousands of organisms and substances have been identified in drinking water supplies around
the world, but the WHO Guidelines do not specifically discuss each and every one because it is
neither necessary nor feasible to develop recommendations for all these. Microorganisms
38
selected for evaluation were selected through an international consultation process, on the basis
of the presence in water and likely risk to human health. A special emphasis was given to
developing guidance on selection of indicator organisms that can give early warning of faecal
contamination and likely potential risks of disease.
The WHO Guidelines adopted a clear policy that microbiological quality must be the key water
quality priority, and thus the chemicals for evaluation were selected through an international
consultative process, guided by three main criteria: i) The substance presents a potential hazard
for human health; ii) The substance was detected relatively frequently and at relatively high
concentrations in drinking-water indicating that there may be significant exposure to humans; iii)
The substance was of major international concern (i.e. of interest to several countries). On this
basis, 128 priority chemicals were selected for evaluation in the WHO Guidelines and health-
based acceptable levels of exposure from drinking-water (Guideline Values) recommended for
95 of these, taking into account all sources of exposure. Guideline values were not recommended
for certain substances because they were found to be not hazardous to health, because of
inadequate health effects information, or because the concentration of the chemical normally
found in drinking-water does not represent a hazard to human health.
The guideline values set forth by the WHO represent the concentration of a chemical constituent
that does not result in any significant risk to the health of the consumer over a lifetime of
consumption. Guidelines are set for indicator bacteria - E.coli or thermotolerant (faecal)
coliforms and total coliforms, which give a good indication of the likelihood of faecal
contamination in a water supply.
39
It is important to note that short-term deviations above the guideline values do not necessarily
mean that the water is unsuitable for consumption. The amount by which, and the period for
which, any guideline value can be exceeded without affecting public health depends upon the
specific substance involved. Also, no attempt was made in the guidelines neither to define
minimum desirable concentrations of essential elements in drinking-water nor to determine
aesthetic parameters.
3.8.3 Palestinian Drinking Water Standards
The Palestinian Standards Institute (PSI) is Palestine‟s standards organization, founded in 1994.
PSI provides access to national and global standards, mainly in the fields of food, electrical
engineering, mechanical engineering, civil engineering, and chemistry.
In 2005, PSI released an updated version of the „Drinking Water‟ specifications, PSI 41-2005
(PSI, 2005). This publication presents conditions for the physical, biological, and chemical
characteristics of drinking water. In the same year, the PSI also released „Bottled Drinking
Water‟ specifications. These are discussed in section 3.12. The „Drinking Water‟ specifications
specifically refer to that water „which is suitable for drinking, domestic purposes, that which is
used in the food industry, and that which complies with specifications PSI 41-2005.
3.9 International Bottled Water Consumption
The world bottled-water market represents an annual volume of 89,000 million liters, and is
estimated to be worth USD 22,000 million; western Europeans are the world‟s major bottled
water consumers, consuming about 85 l/c/year (Ferrier, 2001). According to the Food and Water
Watch, a nonprofit consumer rights organization based in Washington-DC, consumers are
40
wasting hundreds and thousands of dollars on bottled water because they think it is healthier or
safer than its counterpart from the tap. Their report shows that Americans alone are drinking a lot
of bottled water: 31.4 billion gallons or 98.4 liters per person in 2006 (FWW, 2007). Lebanon‟s
population consumes a large quantity of bottled water, where the bottled water consumption is
about 115 liters per capita per year (Sarraf et. al., 2004). Table 3-1 shows the global bottled
water statistics for production volume, production value, and per capita consumption for bottled
water between 2000 and 2003. The numbers show that the per capita consumption is generally
increasing over the years for most countries and in terms of per capita consumption, West
Europe and the USA top the list. Appendix 1 offers the per capita bottled water consumption by
country from 1999 to 2004. It is shown that Italy, Mexico, and the United Arab Emirates lead the
table with over 160 liters per person per year. European countries dominate the top of the list and
poorer countries are found at the bottom of the list, as shown in table 3-1, providing some
indication of perhaps the limited availability and/or the high cost of bottled water in developing
countries. Appendix 1 also offers the global bottled water, which shows that bottled water
consumption is greatest in Europe, though the rate of increase in North America and Asia is
higher.
Table 3-1 Global Bottled Water Statistics
Source: International Council of Bottled Water Associations, 2004
41
According to Gleick, 2004, the global consumption of bottled water is growing faster than 10%
per year with substantial growth in sales volumes on every continent. The highest growth rates
are occurring in Asia and South America, with annual sales increases of 15% or more in places
as diverse as Egypt, Kuwait, the United States, and Vietnam, and the slowest growth is occurring
in European countries, where bottled water has long had a commercial foothold. Even there,
growth rates of five to ten percent per year are common.
3.10 Bottled Water Consumption in Palestine
In 2007, the average monthly household quantity of mineral water consumed in the Palestinian
territory was 0.765 L, where 0.049 L. were consumed in the Gaza Strip, 1.105 L in the West
Bank, and 0.615 L in the West Bank not including Jerusalem. In the Palestinian territory, the
average household monthly consumption is subdivided by localities as follows: 0.113 L in
camps, 0.5 L in rural areas and 1.098 in urban areas. This is also subdivided by „household level
of living‟ as 0.06 L for households classified as „worse-off‟, 0.911 for households classified as
„middle‟, and 1.159 for households classified as „better-off‟ (PCBS, 2008). The Level of Living
is identified by the proportion of consumption on food out of the total consumption and is
distributed to three categories: Better-off (food consumption to total consumption less than 30%);
Middle category (food consumption to total consumption between 30-44%); Worse-off (food
consumption to total consumption between 45-100%).
3.11 Bottled Water Quality Assessments
The main selling point of bottled water companies has generally been the superior water quality
over any other sources. Yet, the quality of bottled water has been questioned in several reports
and scientific studies. The Natural Resources Defense Council carried out a four-year scientific
42
study of bottled water which included the testing of more than 1,000 bottles of 103 brands of
bottled water, and found that while most of the tested waters were found to be of high quality,
some brands were contaminated -about one-third of the waters tested contained levels of
contamination (NRDC, 1999). Zamberlan da Silva et al, (2006) showed that the bacteriological
quality of municipal tap water is superior when compared with the 20-L bottles of mineral water
collected from water dispensers and samples collected from new 20-L bottles of mineral water
before installation in the dispensers. Other studies have investigated chemicals and trace metals
found in bottled water (Snyder, et al, 2009; Keresztes, et al, 2009; Krachler, et al, 2008).
3.12 Bottled Water Standards and Guidelines
Bottled water standards and guidelines have been set by the Palestinian Standards Institute. The
WHO Guidelines apply to bottled water and ice intended for human consumption but do not
apply to natural mineral waters, which should be regarded as beverages rather than drinking-
water. The Codex Alimentarius Commission has developed Codex standards for such mineral
and bottled waters.
In 2005, the Palestinian Standards Institute (PSI) released an updated version of the PSI „Bottled
Drinking Water‟ specification, PSI 69-2005, updated in 2008 (PSI, 2008). This publication
outlines the types of bottled water and their classification, guidelines for methods of water
production, treatment, bottling, storage, and transport. These guidelines describe procedures for
labeling and marketing bottled water, and provide requirements for the chemical and
microbiological characteristics of the water, as well as methods for testing. The PSI standard
refers to complementary references from:
- Codex Alimentarius Commission, second edition (revised 1999)
43
- FDA, Food Code U.S. Public Health Service -1999
- Food Chemcial Codex FCC
These are discussed in further below.
Codex Alimentarius Commission, second edition (revised 1999)
The Codex Alimentarius Commission was created in 1963 by FAO and WHO to develop food
standards, guidelines and related texts such as codes of practice under the Joint FAO/WHO Food
Standards Program. The main purposes of this Program are protecting health of the consumers
and ensuring fair trade practices in the food trade, and promoting coordination of all food
standards work undertaken by international governmental and non-governmental organizations.
The Codex Alimentarius provides a collection of internationally recognized standards, codes of
practice, guidelines and other recommendations relating to foods, food production and food
safety. It has been published in many languages including Arabic. Codex Alimentarius standards
and guidelines have been published for bottled water and drinking water.
FDA Food Code U.S. Public Health Service, 1999
The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) publishes the Food Code to assist food control
governmental authorities in regulating the retail and food service industry, which includes
restaurants, grocery stores and institutions. The Food Code provides a scientifically sound
technical and legal basis for regulators and allows them to develop or update their own food
safety rules and to be consistent with national food regulatory policy. The Food Code is updated
every four years but during this period the Food Code Supplement provides updates,
modifications, or clarification on certain provisions. In 2009, the latest edition of the FDA Food
Code was published.
44
Food Chemical Codex FCC
The FCC, first published in 1966, provides a collection of internationally recognized standards
for the purity and identity of food ingredients. The FCC aims to protect commerce and public
health by providing criteria and analytical methods to determine the quality of food ingredients.
FCC standards are used as agreed standards between suppliers and manufacturers in ongoing
purchasing and supply decisions and transactions and they can aid manufacturers in
distinguishing genuine products from inferior ingredients and substances. This helps to make
the food supply chain safer and assuring consumers of the quality of the food products they eat.
3.13 Adopted Definitions for Bottled Water
According to the Palestinian Standards Institute Guidelines for Bottled Drinking Water (PSI 69-
2005), the following definitions have been adopted to classify the different types of bottled
water:
1) Bottled water: Water filled into sealed containers which is safe and suitable for direct
consumption, and complies with these set forth standards.
2) Sparkling Bottled Water: bottled water to which CO2 has been added during treatment.
3) Groundwater: water which originates from the subsurface and aquifers.
4) Natural water: water which has not been subjected to any type of treatment, except for
disinfection, such that there have been no changes made to the natural physical and
chemical properties.
5) Mineral water: water which originates from a natural source and has a value of TDS which
is equal to or less than 250 mg/l.
45
6) Treated drinking water (purified): water which has been subjected to a type of treatment
method or technology, such as ion exchange or reverse osmosis or any other suitable
treatment which allows the water to comply with drinking water standards.
7) Spring water: water which naturally emerges from underground to the surface at a natural
location.
8) Well water: water which is pumped from a groundwater well.
3.14 Production and Treatment of Bottled Water in Palestine
The Palestinian Standards Institute guideline for „Bottled Drinking Water‟ describes standards
and procedures for the production and treatment of bottled drinking water, and its filling, storage,
transport, and marketing.
The standards for bottled drinking water production and treatment include:
The water source must be licensed by the Palestinian Water Authority (PWA) and
monitored by the Palestinian Ministry of Health (MoH), through which a microbial test
must be performed daily and chemical tests must be performed routinely every six months.
Water must be transferred from the source to the bottling factory by a transmission line or
water tanks, which must be licensed by the MoH and PWA.
The water bottling production line must only be used for water and not any other product.
Only the following processes may be used for the treatment of water:
o Sedimentation and filtration;
o Activated Carbon Filter;
o Disinfection, using methods approved by the MoH;
o Distillation;
46
o Reverse Osmosis;
o Ion exchange.
The standards (PSI, 2005) for bottled drinking water filling, storage, transport and marketing
include:
Water may be filled in glass containers or plastic „PET‟ only for 2 L. volumes; other types
of plastic such as „PC‟ may be used for volumes greater than 2L., only with MoH approval.
Re-filling plastic bottles of the 2 L. volume or smaller is prohibited.
Refillable plastic bottles and caps must be cleaned and disinfected, based on MoH
procedures, before each use.
Bottles must be sealed properly after filling to ensure that the water is not contaminated
throughout the transporting and storage process; sealing caps must be new and must be
produced from materials such as PP, PE.
Water bottles must adhere to PSI standards, if available, or to Codex standards.
Water must be transported and stored under sanitary conditions and away from direct
sunlight.
The bottled water label must describe:
o The type/classification of water;
o Type of treatment (for treated water);
o Source of water name and location, production country, production factory and
location.
o Constituents: Mineral constituents (calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium,
bicarbonate, chloride, sulphate, nitrate, nitrite, fluoride, iron) and pH, TDS.
o Additions of CO2;
o Size of container;
47
o Production and expiration date;
o Etc.
3.15 Footprints of Bottled water
The bottling processes adopted by companies in Palestine generally consume 1.5-2 L. of water
for every 1 L. of water (interviews with bottled water companies‟ personnel). This volume is
mainly needed by bottling operation and process, packaging and the transportation phases. This
signifies a considerable water footprint for the bottled water industry. In an Italian study, a
Footprint Integrated approach was used to assess and compare the impact on the environment
and on the resources of tap water and PET-bottled natural mineral water. The results showed that
in comparison based on Ecological Footprint and Carbon Footprint, tap water showed about 300
times lower values than bottled water, however, the water footprint values, where only water
consumption was accounted, were almost the same for tap water and bottled water (Botto,
2009).
3.16 Local Bottled Water Industries
The bottled water industry in Palestine is a relatively new industry. Before 1999 there were very
few bottled water brands being sold in the Palestinian market, and very few of the companies
were local. The number of local bottled water companies in Palestine has significantly increased
since the year 2000 and the bottled water industry has greatly expanded.
Recently in the Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate, there has been a noticeable increase in
bottled water brands being found in the market. Based on records from the Ministry of National
Economy and on field visits, there are over 14 companies producing bottled water for the
48
Palestinian market. According to the Ministry of National Economy, about 90% the bottled water
industry in Ramallah is dominated by four major companies, 2 of which are locally bottled and 2
are imported either from Jordan or Israel.
3.17 Filtered Water
Residents of Ramallah and Al-Bireh are increasingly purchasing water purification apparatuses
to treat their drinking water. It should be noted that different units remove different contaminants
or classes of contaminants from the water. A water treatment device can either be free-standing,
attached to a tap, plumbed in with a dedicated faucet (also called a point-of-use device)
connected to a refrigerator‟s water and ice dispensing system; or centrally attached to treat all
water entering a house (a point-of-entry device) (EPA, 2005). Generally, homes are equipped
with point-of-use devices. The following provides a description of the types of point-of-use-
devices used in the homes in Palestine and their processes (EPA, 2005):
o Filter pitchers: Most water pitchers use granular- activated carbon and resins to bond with
and trap contaminants. These filters are effective at improving the taste of water, and many
will also reduce lead and other contaminants.
o Activated carbon filters: These filters are effective at improving the taste of tap water and
some will also reduce lead, protozoan cysts, and many other contaminants
o Reverse Osmosis Units: Reverse osmosis units force water through a semi-permeable
membrane under pressure, leaving contaminants behind. Reverse osmosis units use
approximately three times as much water as they treat, but they are effective in eliminating
all disease-causing organisms and most chemical contaminants.
49
CHAPTER FOUR APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY
This chapter presents the study‟s selected research methodology. The methodology is influenced
by the purpose of this study and is based on an assessment of the optimal strategy for responding
to the research questions. Based on the purpose of the study and the research questions stated in
chapter one, this chapter discusses the research approach adopted for the data collection phase
and data analysis procedures.
4.1 Research Approach
The basic research method used in this study is a combination of approaches. The study was both
desk-based and field-based. Scholarly articles and books were reviewed on environmental
economic assessments, water quality assessments and standards, the international bottled water
industry, and home water purification processes and systems. In addition, secondary data on
water quality was collected. Interviews were carried out with actors in the bottled water industry
and filter dealers as an aid to reveal essential primary data. Research data was sourced, collected
and collated accordingly. A survey was conducted to reaffirm selected results and to provide the
additional aspect of consumer perception to the discussion of drinking water. Figure 4-1 shows
the key steps in the research approach process.
50
• What is the opportunity cost of water quality degradation in Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate?
• Determine scope and objectives
• What is the quality of public drinking water in the Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate?
• Compile chemical and microbial water quality data for public drinking water sources and perform assessment
• What is the average bottled water consumption in the governorate and what are some perceptions of residents regarding the public
drinking water?
• Gather information on the bottled water industries and water filters industry in the governorate
• Carry out survey
• Obtain indicator values
• What is the expenditure on drinking water supplies and how does this translate as the opportunity costs?
• Quantify/value the costs, opportunity costs, future costs
Figure 4-1 Key Steps in the Research Approach Process
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4.2 Data Collection
Secondary data was primarily collected through desk-based research, where data was obtained
from electronic databases, libraries, and scholarly articles and books. The so-called „ancestry
approach‟, in which references from key papers are systematically traced, was also used. The
data used for the public water quality assessment was gathered and assembled from several
sources, mainly the databases of the Palestinian Water Authority, Jerusalem Water Undertaking,
and the Central Public Health Lab of the Palestinian Ministry of Health. Interviews were held
with officials from these institutions to pursue in-depth information about the topics and to
identify gaps and questions which can be tackled through this research.
The field-study consisted of a survey of fourteen bottled water companies and/or suppliers,
which offer bottled water in the Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate market. A list of these
companies, with contact information, was obtained from the Ministry of National Economy.
Interviews were arranged with the directors, mangers and/or technicians of each company. The
„general interview guide approach‟ was adopted, which is an interview approach that intends to
ensure that the same general areas of information are collected from each interviewee. This
method was selected because it is more structured than the informal conversational interview
(Turner, 2010), and provides more focus than the conversational approach but still allows some
adaptability in getting the information from the interviewee.
The same approach was adopted to gather information from the water filter dealers. In this case it
was more difficult to obtain a list of all the dealers. According to the Ministry of National
Economy, no such list exists because water filter suppliers are not registered under a specialized
company name, rather many are registered under a „general trading‟ company name, which deals
with many products, including the filters. Therefore, interviews were arranged with the managers
52
of one of the main water filter dealers in the governorate, which supplies units to many smaller
companies, and with the managers of a number of water filter companies, identified through
local listings.
To gather supplementary data on consumers‟ intentions, behavior, attitudes and opinions
regarding their drinking water supplies, an unstructured questionnaire was prepared and
distributed to 155 households, which were selected randomly. The sample size was selected
based on adopted scientific procedures for selection of the appropriate sample size in survey
research as follows:
𝑛 = 𝑁
1 + 𝑁𝑒2
Where n is the sample size, N is the number of households in the Ramallah and Al-Bireh
governorate and e is the level of precision. The level of precision, or sampling error, is assumed
to be ±8 percent, the confidence or risk level is selected at 2, which indicates the maximum
variability in a population. This gives the sample size as follows:
𝑛 = 49,676
1 + (49,676)(0.08)2
𝑛 = 155
The questionnaires were distributed evenly over the urban and rural areas of the governorate to
justly reflect the behaviors and opinions of the different regions of the governorate. The
questions asked aimed to gather information on:
- Type of water consumed in the household (tap, bottled or filtered water).
53
- Reasons for consuming that water type.
- Amount of water consumed for drinking purposes only.
- Satisfaction of the water consumed.
The main purpose of the questionnaire is to obtain indicator values of the proportions of
residents in the Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate consuming different types of water, in order
to estimate the household expenditures on drinking water, to better understand perceptions
regarding public drinking water, and to provide an estimate of the average bottled water
consumption in the Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate. The questionnaires were distributed to
university students, government officials, employed persons, housewives, and random members
of society, etc., through direct, face-to-face interviews and through phone interviews. Open
format questions, which are those questions that give an opportunity for people to express their
opinions, were asked to solicit true, insightful and even unexpected suggestions.
4.3 Analytical Procedures
The analysis adopted in this research was generally inspired by the „averting behavior method‟.
The averting behavior method begins with the notion that people try to protect themselves when
faced with environmental risk thus requiring expenditures that would not be made if not faced
with the environmental health risk. The averting behavior method in practice is outlined by
Sarraf et.al, (2004) where the application of this approach to valuation is based on the
assumption that individuals recognize the existence of a hazard and take actions to avoid it. The
steps to be followed in the analysis are:
1. Identification of the environmental hazard and the affected population
2. Observation of the responses of individuals
3. Measurement of the cost of taking actions
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There are however important limitations to this method. Individuals may undertake more than
one form of averting behavior in response to an environmental change and the averting behavior
may have other beneficial effects that are not considered explicitly (Birol, et. al., 2006). For
example, the purchase of bottled water to avoid the risk of consuming polluted supplies may also
provide added taste benefits. This limitation is mitigated in this study, as described below.
This study thus begins with an analysis of the public water quality in the Ramallah and Al Bireh
governorate. Data was gathered for the past 10 years, between 2000 and 2010, from the
Palestinian Water Authority, Jerusalem Water Undertaking, and the Central Public Health Lab of
the Palestinian Ministry of Health. The chemical and microbial water quality data which was
collected is analyzed and compared against Palestinian Standards Institute guidelines and
standards for drinking water. The water quality data which was analyzed consists of chemical
parameters (including Ca, Mg, Na, K, Cl, HCO3, SO4, NO3), physical parameters (including total
hardness, TDS, EC, pH) and microbiological parameters (mainly total coliform, fecal coliform).
The assessment was carried out for water quality „at the source‟, which includes the Ein Samia
well field, Shibtin Well, and Mekorot connections, and water quality „in the network‟, which
includes sampling points within the municipal water distribution network. The data for water
quality taken at monitoring points within the distribution network of the (CPHL) Ramallah and
Al-Bireh governorate was obtained mainly from the Central Public Health Lab of the Palestinian
Ministry of Health. It is important to note the following in regards to this data from the CPHL:
The laboratory was established in 2002, but the water quality database was organized and
digitized in 2004. Thus, it is difficult to obtain any water quality data before 2004.
55
In 2004, 2005, and 2006, the terminology for types of water being tested was ambiguous
and inexplicit. The exact location of the water samples collected during these years was not
recorded. For example, water type classified as „Groundwater well‟ does not specify which
well the sample was taken from and water types classified as „Municipal water‟ did not
specify whether the sample was taken from the distribution network, home connection,
water tanks, etc. making is impossible to differentiate. In this case, more explicit data was
adopted for the groundwater wells from the JWU, and the municipal water was assumed to
mean samples from the water distribution networks.
In 2007, the CPHL created a comprehensive and explicit „water quality sampling data
sheet‟, to allow proper classification of water sample types.
It has been noted in literature that the costs associated with monitoring the many parameters that
influence water quality, when compared to those associated with monitoring only a few water
quantity variables, usually means that water quality monitoring is not undertaken as frequently as
water quantity monitoring (Rogers et al, 1998). This was observed in the data collection phase
since much of the data gathered was not comprehensive enough to include measurements for all
the major parameters, at all the monitoring points, throughout the years. For example, the
majority of water quality data for the sources was obtained from the Jerusalem Water
Undertaking, and the some of the missing data was found in the Palestinian Water Authority,
though altogether there still remains to be some major gaps, as will be noticed in the graphs.
The water quality assessment answers the first research question regarding the quality of public
drinking water in the Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate and identifies whether or not there
actually is an environmental hazard of water quality degradation.
56
The data collected from the bottled water companies is compiled, explored and evaluated to find
the amount of bottled water sold and to estimate the volume of the bottled water market in the
governorate. The data collected from water filter companies is gathered and analyzed to
determine the types of water purification apparatuses available in the Palestinian market, and to
calculate the average cost for installation, operation and maintenance of these apparatuses.
The method for calculating the averted expenditure on bottled water is adopted from the research
report „Cost of Environmental Degradation- The Case of Lebanon and Tunisia‟ carried out by
Sarraf et. al. (2004). In this report, a method for determining this type of expenditure is
developed and applied. This report also applies the concepts and methods outlined in the manual
„Estimating the Cost of Environmental Degradation- A training manual‟, which is a result of
several studies undertaken by the Middle East and North Africa Department on estimating the
monetary value of environmental degradation in eight countries in the region. The method for
calculating the averted expenditure on bottled water assumes that since bottled water
consumption is most likely to be avertive behavior to avoid risk of illness from inferior quality
tap water and in part is also a preference (taste, accessibility, etc), the quantity associated with
choice of preference is estimated by adjusting for GDP per capita differentials and price
differentials between several European countries (in the 1970s) and Ramallah and Al-Bireh
governorate (using income elasticities of demand of 0.25 to 0.40 and price elasticities of demand
of -1.5 to -2.0). The difference between the actual quantity of consumption and the estimated
quantity associated with preferences is the estimated quantity associated with avertive behavior
to reduce the risk of waterborne illnesses.
57
The estimate of "expected" bottled water consumption if consumers perceived no health risk of
potable municipal water is estimated by adjusting consumption levels of bottled water in several
European countries in the 1970s before the doubling and tripling in consumption that resulted in
large part because of perceptions of increased health risk of potable municipal water. The
European consumption level in the 1970s is adjusted to Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate‟s by
applying the income elasticities of demand and the price elasticities of demand according to the
formula:
𝑄 = 𝑄𝑒𝑢 ∗ 𝑌
𝑌𝑒𝑢 𝑒
∗ 𝑃
𝑃𝑒𝑢 𝑒 ′
Where Q is expected consumption level in Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate, Qeu is
consumption level in the European countries in the 1970s, Y is GDP per capita in Palestine, Yeu is
GDP per capita in 1975 in the European countries, e is income elasticity of demand, P is bottled
water prices in Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate, Peu is bottled water prices in the European
countries, and e' is price elasticity of demand. The bottled water expenditure to protect against
risk (avertive behavior) is then the actual expenditure minus the expected expenditure on bottled
water due to non-risk reasons (such as preference, taste, accessibility, etc.).
The aggregated data from the company surveys and questionnaires is used to find the total
expenditure on drinking water supplies (other than public water) for the year 2009. The total
expenditure is calculated as follows:
Total Expenditure on Drinking Water Supplies =
Total expenditure on bottled water + Total expenditure on water purification apparatuses
Where the total expenditure on bottled water and water purification apparatuses is calculated
from the data gathered from the companies and based on proportions found in the questionnaire.
58
The notion of opportunity cost is fundamental to decision-making, and it involves the
comparison of the „worth‟ of a given choice and the value of the scarified choice, where the latter
is expressed in terms of the cost of making the given choice (Bateman et. al., 2002). Thus, based
on the calculated expenditure on the different drinking water supplies, the opportunity cost of
each type is calculated.
The total present expenditure is projected into the future to see what this present value will be
worth in the future 10 or 20 years. The future value is calculated based on the compounding
interest equation:
Future Value = Present Value (1 + i ) n
Where i represents the growth rate per year and n represents the number of years. The growth
rate i is calculated by taking into account the population growth and market growth rates.
Summary
The methods outlined in this chapter will provide guidance for the research carried out within
this study. The next chapter will apply these methods and will offer additional details for the
adopted methods within this research.
59
CHAPTER FIVE RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
This chapter discusses the results of the public water quality analysis carried out for the
Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate. The results of the field visit to the bottled water companies
and filter dealers are discussed in the next sections, followed by a discussion of the
questionnaire.
5.1 Public Water Quality Assessment
One of the keys for successfully understanding the phenomenon of the booming bottled water
industry in Ramallah is to undergo an assessment of the public water quality in the area, to be
able to understand why bottled water is increasingly being consumed. Water quality
measurements are essential for demonstrating the comparability of data obtained and water
quality assessments worldwide. Quality tests for various types of physical, chemical and
biological contaminants in drinking water also provide the data for necessary quality control
tools. Water which is potable for human use can be described as that water which does not pose
any threat to the health of a human being over its prolonged use over a human lifetime, water
which does not contain any color, taste, smell or suspended material, and does not contain any
chemical, organic or biological matter which may cause harm to humans (WHO, 2008). Water
may contain a number of elements and salts in limited amounts which may be beneficial to the
human body. For these reasons, water is treated and tested to ensure that it is safe and healthy for
consumption. Water pumped at the sources from Ein Samia wells is treated by chlorination,
while water from the Mekorot connections is already treated and ready for consumption.
60
To reach a reasonable and comprehensive assessment of water quality in Ramallah- Al Bireh
governorate, it is important to assess the water quality „at the source‟, which includes the Ein
Samia well field, Shibtin Well, and Mekorot connections, and to assess the water quality „in the
network‟, which includes sampling points within the municipal water distribution network. This
should provide a view of the quality of water at all points, i.e. the source and the network before
reaching the end user.
5.1.1 Chemical and Physical Water Quality Parameters Measured at the Sources
Based on the data collected from the PWA, CPHL and JWU, the main chemical and physical
parameters were plotted against the PSI standard values to analyze the compliance of municipal
water with the PSI drinking water standards. This is depicted in the graphs below, Figure 5-1, for
the major drinking water parameters.
The sources of drinking water for Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate, as of 2009, which were
analyzed are:
1. Ein Samia well no. 1
2. Ein Samia well no. 2
3. Ein Samia well no. 3
4. Ein Samia well no. 4
5. Ein Samia well no. 6
6. Shu‟fat connection (Mekorot water supply point)
7. Ramallah connection (Mekorot water supply point)
8. Doleb connection (Mekorot water supply point)
9. Umm Saffa connection (Mekorot water supply point)
61
Figure 5-1 Major chemical and physical parameters measured at the sources
Source: Compiled data from PWA, CPHL, and JWU.
62
Figure 5-1 Major chemical and physical parameters measured at the sources (cont.)
Source: Compiled data from PWA, CPHL, and JWU.
63
Figure 5-1 Major chemical and physical parameters measured at the sources (cont.)
Source: Compiled data from PWA, CPHL, and JWU.
64
Figure 5-1 Major chemical and physical parameters measured at the sources (cont.)
Source: Compiled data from PWA, CPHL, and JWU.
65
It is shown that all the major parameters which have occurred in the water samples taken at the
sources, range within or below the maximum allowable limits, according to the PSI standards.
Two exceptions can be noticed:
1) Potassium levels from the Shu‟fat connection exceed the maximum allowable limit in 2002.
No specific reason was found for this increase. According to the WHO, potassium is an
essential element in humans and is seldom, if ever, found in drinking water at levels that
could be a concern for healthy humans, but it can occur in drinking-water as a consequence
of the use of potassium permanganate as an oxidant in water treatment. Thus, adverse health
effects due to potassium consumption from drinking-water are unlikely to occur in healthy
individuals (WHO, 2009).
2) Turbidity levels in 2004 at all the Ein Samia wells exceed the maximum allowable limit in
2004. According to hydro-geologists from the PWA, some possible explanations for the
increase in turbidity in that year can be attributed to:
Over abstraction from the wells, which promotes the release of sediments and fine particles
into the water as it is being pumped;
Reduced rainfall causing reduced recharge, in that lower rainfall leads to an increase in
solubility of some minerals and ions into the surrounding formation to dissolve in water;
Earthquake, or slight shifting of tectonic plates, causing a „stir‟ in the groundwater.
5.1.2 Chemical and Physical Water Quality Parameters in the Network
If water testing is performed only at sources in such settings, then results of monitoring may not
reflect the quality of water actually consumed in the home (Wright et al, 2004), so it was
important to consider this in the water quality assessment. The results are shown in Figure 5-2.
66
Figure 5-2 Major chemical and physical parameters measured in the network
Source: Compiled data from PWA, CPHL, and JWU.
67
Figure 5-2 Major chemical and physical parameters measured in the network
Source: Compiled data from PWA, CPHL, and JWU.
68
Figure 5-2 Major chemical and physical parameters measured in the network
Source: Compiled data from PWA, CPHL, and JWU.
From the above assessment of chemical and physical parameters in water samples taken at the
sources and from within the distribution network, it can be seen that all major parameter values
fall within the PSI standard values for drinking water. One exception is noticed regarding the
turbidity, where it ranged between 0-0.8mg/L between the years 2000-2010 (the PSI limit is
1mg/l), but was measured at 2 mg/L in 2004. High turbidity in drinking water means that it may
not be acceptable for consumers due to high amounts of sediments, possibly sand and other
unappealing matter. The turbidity returned to acceptable limits in the following years.
Calcium values were found to range between 20-79 mg/L, where the PSI limit is 100 mg/L.
Calcium is an essential part of the human diet and according to the WHO there are no health
objections to high calcium content, if it should occur, in drinking water, however the PSI did
specify a maximum limit of 100 mg/L to prevent excessive scale formation. Chloride was found
to range between 25-190 mg/L at the sources and 125-159 mg/L in the network (PSI limit is
69
250mg/L). Increased chloride values, over 250 mg/L may inflict a salty taste to water, but most
people will not be able to detect the salty taste if chloride values are below 150mg/L. Too high or
too low values of fluoride in drinking water may be harmful for human consumption. Values of
fluoride were found to range from 0.1-0.85 mg/L which is within the allowable PSI limits.
Potassium values ranged from 1-6 mg/L, which are within PSI limits of 10 mg/L, with an
exception in 2002 where it averaged 13mg/L, but this does not pose any direct harmful effects on
human health (WHO, 2009). Magnesium values ranged from 18-42 mg/L (PSI limit 100 mg/L)
and sodium values ranged from 10-80 mg/L (PSI limit 200 mg/L). Both magnesium and sodium
may impart a salty taste to water if they occur above the allowable limits. Nitrates averaged
between 0-28 mg/L (PSI limit 50 mg/L) and sulphates ranged from 0-70 mg/L (PSI limit 200
mg/L). TDS, another indicator of the taste of water, ranged between 200-600 mg/L (PSI limit
1000 mg/L). pH values were found to be within acceptable limits, measured between 7.0-8.3
mg/L (PSI limit 6.5-8.5 mg/L). The total hardness, which relates to aesthetic characteristics and
scaling affects in water, was found to range between 180-380 mg/L in the sources and was found
to measure up to 420 mg/L in the network, where the PSI limit is 500 mg/L, so it is also within
the allowable limits.
5.1.3 Microbial Analysis of Public Drinking Water
Table 5-1 below provides a summary of microbial tests performed by the Jerusalem Water
Undertaking at the sources and within the network, through the years 2000 to 2009. The number
of tests performed is classified as number of tests passed and number of test failed. The
calculation of „percent passing‟ is described by the PSI Drinking Water Standard, sections 4-1-1,
4-1-2 and 4-1-5, which state that “95% of the water samples, which must be taken from the same
source within a period of 12 months, must comply by the stated biological specifications”. This
70
includes “the Total Coliform in the water sample must not exceed 3/100 ml” and “the Total Fecal
Coliform in the water sample must not exceed 0/100 ml”. Figure 5-3 shows that from 2000 to
2009, all the microbial tests performed passed the PSI value of at least 95% of test must be
passing. This shows that based on the data, the water sources serving the governorate are
microbially safe for drinking purposes.
Table 5-1 Summary of microbial tests performed from 2000-2009
Year Total number of tests
(Coliform bacteria)
Number of tests
passed
Number of tests
failed
% passing
2000 660 656 4 99.4
2001 519 517 2 99.6
2002 414 411 3 99.3
2003 416 414 2 99.5
2004 556 554 2 99.6
2005 795 786 9 98.9
2006 905 893 12 98.7
2007 845 844 1 99.9
2008 828 826 2 99.8
2009 805 804 1 99.9 Note: Membrane Filtration method used.
Note: WHO standards limits % passing not less than 95% within a 12 month sampling period.
Source: Department of Testing and Analysis, Jerusalem Water Undertaking- Ramallah District, 2010
Figure 5-3 Summary of coliform tests from 2000 to 2009
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
% P
ASS
ING
YEAR
% passing PSI minimum allowable limit
71
5.2 Bottled Water Industry Analysis
The bottled water industry in Palestine is a new and rapidly growing industry. A summary of the
data gathered through the field visits which were carried out to the fourteen bottled water
companies and or suppliers is provided in Appendix 2. The number of bottled water providers in
Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate has increased over the years, from 1996 (when there was
only one company) to 2010 (when there is about 13 companies), as it is shown in Figure 5-4.
Figure 5-4 Bottled water providers in the Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate
Of the current bottled water providers, 4 companies offer the bulk (19 L) containers and about 10
other companies offer the 0.5 L and 1.5 L and 2 L bottles. Information gathered from the
companies shows that the Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate is one of the highest consumers of
bottled water compared to other governorates in the West Bank. Generally, all companies stated
that the highest demand for bottled water is in the urban areas of the governorate, mainly in
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
1996 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Nu
mb
er
of
bo
ttle
d w
ate
r p
rovi
de
rs
Year
Bottled Water Providers in Ramallah and Al-Bireh Governorate
72
Ramallah city, Al-Bireh, and Birzeit. All companies noted an increase in the demand for bottled
water since their year of establishment, but this has been difficult to monitor due to the
increasing competition. Statistics from one company show that sales nearly tripled since its
establishment in 1999, when it was the only bulk bottled water provider serving the Ramallah
region.
Figure 5-5 Sales from the first bulk bottled water provider in the Ramallah region
In general, sales data from bottled water companies showed that bottled water sales in the winter
are about one third of the sales in the summer. Therefore, it can be inferred that the purchasing of
bottled water is not solely a reaction to the public water shortages in the summer months.
5.2.1 Comparison of Quality versus Cost
To provide a comparison of the drinking water providers in the governorate, Table 5-2 was
prepared. This table shows some of the main water quality parameters, as provided by each
source, and the related cost of one cubic meter of water. From the first glance, it is obvious that
there is a huge difference in the cost of public water, which costs about 4.1 NIS per cubic meter
0
20000
40000
60000
80000
100000
120000
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Nu
bm
er o
f b
ott
les
sold
Year
Bottled Water Sales (19L. container)
73
for the first 10 m3 and the cost of bottled water, which ranges from about 700 NIS to 1,600 NIS
per cubic meter. So what exactly is the consumer paying for with this huge price difference?
A comparison between, for example, the public water source and bottled company number 1
shows that for an extra cost of 1,838 NIS/m3, one receives water with 52.4 mg/l less sodium
(which gives the water a slightly less salty taste), 21.52 mg/l more Ca (which may be considered
healthy for humans but may increase the hardness), 4.99 mg/l less Mg, 28.11 mg/l less SO4, 9.54
mg/l more NO3, 0.45 mg/l more F, 77.58 mg/l more Cl, 188.3 mg/l less TDS (also giving the
water a less salty taste), and the same pH value.
It is also worth noting the differences in cost and quality between the different bottled water
companies. In comparing company 6 and 8, which are both 1.5 L bottled water producers,
company 6 will cost 611.1 NIS more for every cubic meter purchased, but will offer 13.3 mg/l
more sodium, 11.85 mg/l more calcium, 14.04 mg/l more magnesium, 9.5 mg/l less sulphate,
18.77 mg/l more nitrate, 0.12 mg/l less fluoride, 14.99 mg/l more chloride, 115 mg/l more TDS
and just about 1 pH higher.
A discussion of the health benefits or detriments associated with the higher or lower values of
these measured parameters is beyond the scope of this study, but table 5-2 does point out that all
types of water conform to Palestinian drinking water standards for acceptable and healthy
drinking water. Thus, there is a significant difference in cost for essentially the same healthy,
acceptable drinking water.
74
Table 5-2 Comparison of bottled water providers in the Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate
Parameter
(mg/l)
Public
Water
Source
19 L containers 1 ½ L bottles
1* 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 PSI
standard
Na 71.7 19.3 44.62 26.6 30 9.9 25.3 3 12 46 23 27 14 12 12 200
Ca 41.18 62.7 29.92 74.5 35 20 75.85 20 64 62 38 50 66 64 64 100
Mg 30.49 25.5 14.42 28.6 22 9.5 28.7 18 14.66 31 16 25 27 14.66 14.66 100
SO4 39.71 11.6 10 28.2 12 9.9 24.5 <0.1 34 28 10 23 12 34 34 200
NO3 3.36 12.9 2.39 12.3 10 - 26.3 0.4 7.53 33 16.4 - 17 7.53 7.53 50
F 0.68 0.23 0.198 0.33 0.2 0.08 0.2 0.05 0.32 - 0 - - 0.32 0.32 1.5
Cl 105.08 27.5 68.52 37.2 50 - 50 72 35.01 80 50 - 25 35.01 35.01 250
TDS 458.3 270 220 320 250 - 390 163 275 - - 300 - 275 275 1,000
pH 7.8 7.75 7.5 7.6 7.5 - 8.36 7.2 7.4 7.9 - - 7.5 7.4 7.4 6.5-8.5
Cost
(NIS/m3)
4.1 1842.1 1052.6 1578.9 1052.6 1333.3 1333.3 1333.3 722.2 1333.3 833.3 1333.3 2000 1000 1000
*Note: Names of the bottled water companies (providers) have been replaced with numbers.
75
5.3 Water Filter Industry Analysis
The domestic water purification apparatuses being marketed in the Palestinian market have
caused a stir with many people. Vigorous marketing efforts have been adopted by some
companies, in which company representatives test water samples from a potential client‟s home
then purposely scare them into buying the units. It is very difficult to obtain list of all the water
filter dealers in the governorate due to the fact that most of these dealers are not registered under
a company name indicating that they sell these filters. In the Ministry of National Economy,
companies selling water purification systems are mostly registered under „general trading‟
classification, so it would be extremely difficult to pinpoint the ones selling these systems.
Through a field study, it was found that the types of water filtration systems available in the
Palestinian market are:
o 1st-stage filter: Polypropylene filter cartridge, 5 micron opening, which removes sand,
silt, dirt, and rust particles.
o 2nd
-stage filters: Carbon block cartridge, 5µm nominal sediment filter, which removes
chlorine, bad taste and odor, and organic chemicals from water, while providing filtration
capabilities and dirt-holding capacity.
o 3rd
-stage filter system: This system is made up of one polypropylene filter cartridge and
two carbon block cartridges, set up consecutively.
o 4th
-stage filter system: This system is made up of one polypropylene filter cartridge, two
carbon block cartridges, and a membrane set up consecutively. The membrane may be
one of:
76
- Microfiltration membranes, which have a nominal pore size of 0.2 microns, are capable of
removing suspended solids, bacteria or other impurities.
- Ultrafiltration membranes, which have a nominal pore size of 0.0025 to 0.1 microns, capable
of removing salts, proteins and other very fine particles or other suspended matters.
- Nanofiltration membranes, which can separate very fine particles or other suspended matters,
with a particle size in the range of approximately 0.0001 to 0.005 microns, and is capable of
removing viruses, pesticides and herbicides.
o 5th
-stage filter system: Reverse Osmosis Filter, made up of a sediment filter, 2 carbon
filters, RO membrane, post carbon filter. RO is the finest available membrane separation
technique and separates very fine particles or other suspended matters, with a particle size
up to 0.001 microns, so it is capable of removing metal ions and fully removing aqueous
salts.
o 6th
- stage filter system: This system adds to the 5th
-stage system a UV-radiation unit to
kill germs and bacteria and fungi.
On average, the costs of these systems are:
- 1st –stage: Initial cost = 150 NIS; Routine cost = 40-60 NIS/year
- 2nd
-stage: Initial cost = 250 NIS; Routine cost = 70-100 NIS/year
- 3rd
-stage: Initial cost = 400 NIS; Routine cost = 70-100 NIS/year
- 4th
-stage: Initial cost = 500 NIS; Routine cost = 70-100 NIS/year
- 5th
-stage: Initial cost = 1800 NIS; Routine cost = 200-250 NIS/year
- 6th
-stage: Initial cost = 3000 NIS; Routine cost = 200-250 NIS/year
77
Filter companies have stated that sales are also on the rise. One of the main water filters dealers
in the year 2000 sold 200 filters units, in 2005 sold 2000 units, and in 2009 sold about 3000 units
in the Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate alone.
5.4 Questionnaire Analysis
As outlined in Chapter 4, 155 questionnaires were distributed among residents of the governorate
of Ramallah and Al-Bireh to obtain indicator values of the proportions of residents consuming
different types of water, to estimate the household expenditures on drinking water, to better
understand perceptions regarding public drinking water, and to provide an estimate of the
average bottled water consumption in the Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate. Results of the
survey showed that 32.0% of the sample drink bottled water, 37.4% drink tap water, 11.3% have
installed a water filter and drink from the filtered water, 14.0% drink both tap and bottled water,
2.0% drink both bottled and filtered water, 0.6% drink both tap and filtered water, and 2.7%
drink from other sources which include private rainwater cisterns, private springs, etc..
Figure 5-6 Distribution of types of drinking water Source: Questionnaire
32.0%
37.4%
11.3%
14.0%
0.6% 2% 2.7% Bottled water
Tap water
Filtered water
Tap and Bottled water
Tap and Filtered water
Bottled and Filtered water
Other (rainwater cistern, spring, etc.)
78
It was found that 11.3% of the sample has installed a point-of-use water filter at their taps. The
average capital cost for the installed water filters was about 1,400 NIS. About 58% of the
respondents had installed multi-stage filters, with an average cost of about 2,000 NIS, 32%
installed a standard 1-2 stage filter, with an average cost of 315 NIS, and 11% did not know what
type of filter they had installed.
The results of the questionnaire showed that of the bottled water consumers, their average bottled
water consumption is about 259.7 liters per capita per year, or about 0.71 liters/capita/day. Of
these bottled water consumers, the highest consumption was 864 l/c/yr (2.37 l/c/d) and the lowest
consumption was 67.5 l/c/yr (0.18 l/c/d).
It is important to note that the questionnaire results showed about 32% of the sample drink only
bottled water and this result seems somewhat high and may be attributed to the following
reasons: the sample size taken was not large enough to be representative of the actual population;
the answers of some respondents may not have been entirely accurate; the precision may not
have been high enough.
Another aim of the questionnaire was to better understand the perceptions of consumers of
different water types. The reasons stated by respondents for their selection of drinking water type
in their homes are displayed in the Figure 5-7.
When asked „Why do you choose to drink (tap/bottled/filtered water), the responses showed that
the greatest reason for not drinking tap water among bottled water consumers is there is a lack of
79
trust of the supplied tap water. The majority of filtered water drinkers felt that their tap water is
unclean. Over half of tap water drinkers felt that their water was clean and felt no reason to resort
to any other type.
About 33% of consumers of both tap and bottled water regularly drink tap water and only
purchase bottled water when they feel their tap water tastes bad, during and/or after water cuts.
This is due to the fact that during or after a prolonged water cut, sediments from the roof tanks
reach the tap causing a change in taste and color. About 24% stated that there is a difference of
opinions inside the household, where some members had no problem drinking tap water while
others preferred to drink bottled water, and 14% of the households stated that drinking bottled
water alone is too expensive so these household consumed both. Consumers of both bottled
water and filtered water felt that either bottled water alone was too expensive or that bottled
water is more accessible than the tap/filtered water.
Generally speaking, about 48% of the respondents do not drink tap water while about 52% will
drink tap water, regardless of their preference. In summary, it can be said that there are
conflicting perceptions of the public drinking water in the Ramallah and Al Bireh governorate.
80
Figure 5-7 Respondents’ reasons for water type selection
15%
81%
2% 2%
Bottled Water Consumers
Distrust of tap water
Bottled water is cleaner/Better taste and colorBottled water has low sodium
Storage tanks are contaminated
55%
7%5%
13%
20%
Tap Water Consumers
Tap water is clean
Tap water has better taste than other waterTrust
It's cheaper/ can’t afford otherNo reason
65%6%
6%
12%12%
Water Filter Consumers
Tap water is dirty
Distrust of tap water
Bad taste of tap water
Due to marketing effort
Less expensive than bottled wter
81
Figure 5-7 Respondents’ reasons for water type selection (cont.)
5.5 Economic Analysis
The data collected throughout this research with the aggregated results of both the survey of
bottled water companies and water filter providers and the questionnaire are employed to carry
out an economic analysis of the situation. The aim of this analysis is to estimate the total
expenditures on drinking water, using the most recent data available, and to monetize the
opportunity cost.
14%
24%
10%33%
5% 14%
Perception of Consumers for Both Tap & Bottled Water
Bottled water is too expensive alone
Difference in opinion within family
Bottled water is purchased for children only
Bottled water purchased when tap water tastes bad/during or after water cutsBottled water is purchased for appliances only
No specific reason
82
5.5.1 Expenditure on Bottled Water
The total number of bottles sold in 2009 from the bottled water companies and providers
available in the governorate‟s market was found to be as follows:
18.9 L 258,456 bottles
2 L 860,400 bottles
1.5 L 5.22 million bottles
0.5 L 3.84 million bottles
The total volume of bottled water sold in 2009 in the Ramallah and Al Bireh governorate was:
[258,456 * 18.9] + [860,400 * 2] + [5,220,000 * 1.5] + [3,840,000 * 0.5] = 16.35 million liters,
where 4.88 million liters were sold as 18.9 L bottles, 1.72 million liters were sold as 2 L bottles,
7.83 million liters were sold as 1.5 L bottles and 1.92 million liters were sold as 0.5 L bottles.
Considering a population of 279,730 persons (PCBS, 2008), then the bottled water consumption
in the Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate in 2009 was 58.3 liters per capita.
The average cost of bottled water was calculated by taking the average price of bottles sold in
bulk and as single. The average costs are shown in Table 5-3.
Table 5-3 Average costs of bottled water
Size of bottle (L) Average Price (NIS) Cost per liter (NIS)
18.9 25.0 1.3
2 3.0 1.5
1.5 1.95 1.3
0.5 1.05 2.1
Average cost (NIS/L) 1.55
Average cost ($US/L) ≈ 0.4
83
The total expenditure on bottled water in 2009 can thus be calculated as follows:
[258,456 * 25] + [860,400 * 3] + [5,220,000 * 1.95] + [3,840,000 * 1.05] = 23.25 million NIS,
or just about $6.25 million US (where US$ 1 = 3.72 NIS). This is equivalent to about $22.3
US/yr.
The bottled water expenditure to protect against risk (avertive behavior) is the actual expenditure
minus the “expected” expenditure (on bottled water for reasons such as preference, taste,
accessibility, etc.). The estimate of "expected" bottled water consumption if consumers perceived
no health risk of potable municipal water is estimated according to Table 5-4. This table provides
the information used to arrive at an estimate for the avertive expenditure on bottled water, and
offers a range of values for the income and price elasticities of bottled water demand, since these
values may exist over a range and are difficult to fix due to lack of concrete data in the region.
84
Table 5-4 Bottled Water Consumption (Avertive Behavior)
1 See section 2.9
2 See section 5.5.1
3 See table 5-3
4 See section 5.5.1
5 Source: Various sources, as cited by Sarraf et al, 2004
6 Source: MAS, 2010 (see table 2-2)
7 Calculated by: item 4 minus the average of items13 and 14
8 Calculated by: average of high and low values from item 15
9 Calculated by: item 16 multiplied by item 3
Value Units
1. Per capita expenditures in Palestine1 1967 US$/capita/yr
2. Bottled water expenditures in Ramallah and Al-Bireh
governorate (2009)2
22.3 US$/capita/yr
3. Average price of bottled water in Ramallah and Al-Bireh
governorate 3
0.4 US$/liter
4. Bottled water consumption in Ramallah and Al-Bireh
governorate (actual) 4
58.3 Liters/capita/yr
5. GDP per capita 1975 (Western Europe and US) 5 17253 US$/capita
6. GDP per capita 2008 (Palestine) 6 1290 US$/capita
“LOW” “HIGH”
7. Bottled water consumption in several European countries in the
1970s 5
30 30 Liters/c/yr
8. Income elasticity of bottled water demand (“Low” and “High”) 5 0.25 0.4
9. Price elasticity of bottled water demand (“Low”) 5 -1.5 -1.5
10. Price elasticity of bottled water demand (“High”) 5 -2 -2
11. Average price of bottled water in several European countries 5 0.3 0.3 US $/liter
12. Average price of bottled water in Ramallah and Al-Bireh
governorate 3
0.23 0.23 US $/liter
13. “Expected” bottled water consumption in Ramallah and Al-
Bireh governorate: non-risk related (“Low”)
10 7 Liters/c/yr
14. “Expected” bottled water consumption in Ramallah and Al-
Bireh governorate: non-risk related (“High”)
9 6 Liters/c/yr
Protection against risk of waterborne illnesses:
15. Bottled water consumption to protect against risk 7
49.8 51.8 Liters/c/yr
16. Average bottled water consumption to protect against risk 8
50.8 Liters/c/yr
17. Total cost of bottled water consumption to protect against risk 9
$20.3 US$/capita/yr
85
As it is shown in Table 5-4, the per capita expenditures in Palestine, the bottled water
expenditures in Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate, the average price of bottled water, and the
bottled water consumption in Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate are factors which are taken
into consideration within the calculations and are obtained from various sections throughout this
report. The GDP per capita in Western Europe and US in 1975, before the doubling and tripling
in consumption that resulted in large part because of perceptions of increased health risk of
potable municipal water, is compared to the GDP per capita in Palestine for 2008, where it is
assumed that a significant amount of consumption results from perceptions of adverse health
risks. To illustrate the calculations made in Table 5-4, a sample calculation of the “expected”
quantity of bottled water consumption in Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate, which is non-risk
related, as a result of the „low‟ income elasticity of bottled water demand and „low‟ price
elasticity of bottled water demand is shown as follows:
𝑄 = 𝑄𝑒𝑢 ∗ 𝑌
𝑌𝑒𝑢 𝑒
∗ 𝑃
𝑃𝑒𝑢 𝑒 ′
= 30 ∗ 1290
17253
0.25
∗ 0.4
0.3 −1.5
≈ 10 L.
Where Q is expected consumption level in Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate, Qeu is
consumption level in the European countries in the 1970s, Y is GDP per capita in Palestine, Yeu is
GDP per capita in 1975 in the European countries, e is income elasticity of demand, P is bottled
water prices in Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate, Peu is bottled water prices in the European
countries, and e' is price elasticity of demand.
This equation is part of a method adopted by Sarraf et. al. 2004 for estimating the avertive
expenditure on bottled water. The price elasticity of demand is a measure of the rate of response
of quantity demanded due to a price change. It is used to see how sensitive the demand for a
good is to a price change. The higher the price elasticity, the more sensitive consumers are to
86
price changes, and a very low price elasticity implies that changes in price have little influence
on demand.
The average of the values of “expected” bottled water consumption in Ramallah and Al-Bireh
governorate which are non-risk related and are related to low price elasticity of bottled water
demand is 9.5 L/c/yr and the average of the values which are related to high price elasticity of
bottled water demand is 6.5 L/c/yr. The actual bottled water consumption in Ramallah and Al-
Bireh governorate (58.3 L/c/yr) minus the averages of “expected” consumption is 49.8 L/c/yr
and 51.8 L/c/yr respectively. Thus, the „low‟ value of bottled water consumption to protect
against risk is 49.8 L/c/yr and the high value is 51.8 L/c/yr, the average of which is 50.8 L/c.yr.
Based on the amount of average bottled water consumption to protect against risk (50.8
L/c/year), the total expenditure on bottled water to protect against risk is:
(50.8 L/c/year) * (1.55 nis/L) * (279730 capita) = 22.0 million NIS/yr, or 78.7 NIS/c/yr.
5.5.2 Expenditure on Water Purification Apparatuses
The results of the questionnaire showed that a total of 13.9% of households in the governorate
have installed water filters. This includes the households which drink filtered water exclusively,
households which drink both bottled and filtered water, and households which drink both tap and
filtered water, which are 11.3%, 2.0% and 0.6% of the total sample respectively. Of these
households, 80% are living in urban areas and 20% are living in rural areas. Therefore, 11.12%
of households with filters are located in urban areas and 2.78% of households with filters are
located in rural areas. In the Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate, there is a total of 27,182
87
households in urban areas and 19,750 households in rural areas (PCBS, 2008). The estimated
number of households with filters can then be estimated as:
[27,182 * 0.1112] + [19,750 * 0.0278] = 3,572 households with filters in the governorate,
where 3023 households are located in urban areas and 549 households are located in rural areas.
Responses from the questionnaire showed that the average capital cost of the water filters
installed is 1,400 NIS and the average operation and maintenance cost is about 261.5 NIS/year.
As the technical life of the filtration apparatus is limited, the routine cost for operation and
maintenance, needed for the upkeep of the apparatus over its service life, is added to the capital
cost, needed for the provision of the apparatus. The annual cost for investment, operation, and
maintenance is calculated to account for the depreciation rate, where:
Depreciation rate (d) = 1/n *100% (n=service life)
Assuming that the service life of the average water filter is 10 years, the depreciation (based on a
fixed annual rate) is 10% (1/10*100%) per year.
The annual costs to be paid by user are:
Operation and maintenance: 261.5 NIS/year
Depreciation: 0.1 * 1400NIS = 140 NIS/year
The total annual cost is thus 401.5 NIS/household (261.5 NIS + 140NIS).
The total expenditure on water purification apparatuses in the Ramallah and Al-Bireh
governorate can be calculated as follows:
[3,572 households] * [401.5 NIS per household per year] = 1.43 million NIS.
88
Another illustration of future costs associated with the capital investment and routine costs of
water filtration apparatuses, by taking into consideration the time value of money, is by adding
the present value (PV) of the routine cost, over the service life, to the initial investment. The
present value is equivalent to a present sum, which invested with a compound interest, is equal to
a future cost:
𝑃𝑉 = 𝐶 ∗ 1−(1+𝑖)−𝑛
𝑖
Where C is the routine cost (assuming equal annual cost for operation and maintenance over the
entire service life), i is the interest rate, and n is the service life. The routine cost C is 261.5
NIS/year, the interest i is assumed to be 7% (based on general knowledge of Palestinian banks),
and the service life is 10 years. The present value of the investment is 1400 NIS. The present
value of the routine cost is calculated as follows:
𝑃𝑉 = 261.5 ∗ 1−(1+0.07)−10
0.07 = 1837 NIS
The present value of the total cost = 1400 + 1837 = 3237 NIS per unit household.
5.5.3 Total Expenditure on Drinking Water
Based on the results found in sections 5.5.1 and 5.5.2, the total averted expenditure on drinking
water supplies in 2009 can be calculated as follows:
Total Expenditure on Drinking Water Supplies =
Total averted expenditure on bottled water + Total expenditure on water purification apparatuses
Total Expenditure on Drinking Water = 22.0 million NIS + 1.43 million NIS
= 23.43 million NIS.
89
Therefore, about 23.43 million NIS were expended in 2009 on drinking water supplies other than
the supplied tap water.
5.5.4 Opportunity Cost of Drinking Water Expenditures
The opportunity cost can be considered as the value of what is foregone in order to have
something else, or the cost of foregoing the opportunity to purchase something else. This concept
can be visualized as follows:
The results of the questionnaire showed that the bottled water drinkers consume 0.71 l/c/d of
bottled water. Let‟s assume that the average person drinks 0.71 l/d of water, then the cost for that
amount of tap water is:
0.71 l/c/d * (1m3/1000L) * (4.1 NIS/1m
3) * (365 days/yr) = 1.06 NIS/c/yr
Assuming that the average cost of bottled water per liter is 1.55 NIS/L. (Table 5-3), for that same
consumption, the cost of bottled water would be:
0.71 l/c/d * (1.55 NIS/L) * (365 days/yr) = 402 NIS/c/yr
Assuming that the average cost of a filter over its service life is 401.5 NIS/household/year and
the average household size is 5.3 (PCBS, 2008), then the cost for that same consumption of
water from a filter would be:
[401.5 NIS /5.3] = 75.8 NIS/c/yr
90
So, for a 1-year period, the average person purchasing bottled drinking water is forgoing the
opportunity to save (402 - 1.06) = 400.94 NIS /yr. The average person who has installed a water
filter is forgoing the opportunity to save (75.8 - 1.06) = 74.74 NIS/yr. These amounts represent
the opportunity costs associated with drinking water expenditures.
5.5.5 Future Value of Total Expenditure on Drinking Water Supplies
To illustrate the concept of the time value of money, and to evaluate the worth of the expenditure
after a given period of time, the value of total expenditure on drinking water can be forecasted
into the future for 10 years or 20 years, using the future value equation:
Future Value = Present Value (1 + i ) n
Where i represents the growth rate per year and n represents the number of years.
To compound the amount of money at a given rate, as a scenario, it is assumed that the
proportion of bottled water and filter consumers remains constant throughout the next 20 years.
The growth rate will be set to include both the yearly natural population growth rate, which is
3%, and the yearly increasing demand for bottled water, which is estimated to be about 10% per
year worldwide (Gleick, 2004). Thus the total growth rate is considered to be 13%. The future
value of the drinking water expenditure in the next 10 years is:
Future Value 2020 = (23.43 *106) * (1 + 0.13)
11
= 89.87 million NIS
91
The future value of the drinking water expenditure in the next 20 years is:
Future Value 2030 = (23.43 *106) * (1 + 0.13)
21
= 305.08 million NIS
These forecasted values show the value that a sum of money will have in the future, taking into
account the effects of population growth rate and bottled water demand. These future costs will
accrue to future generations if trends continue at the same rates. This brings up the question of
what is the responsibility of policy makers to future generations and whether utility can be
derived from providing benefits to others. These forecasted values also question whether these
expenditures, present and future, can be invested to improve the quality, taste, color, etc. of
public drinking water reaching consumers through rehabilitating main water lines and household
connections and by raising awareness and improving trust among the residents regarding their
drinking water supplies.
92
CHAPTER SIX CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 Conclusions
Palestine‟s population consumes bottled water mostly due to the perception that public drinking
water is of a low quality, while some consumption is due to taste and lifestyle preferences. In
addition to bottled water consumption to protect against inferior (real or perceived) public water
quality, many households have installed water purification equipment. Water pollution and
possible contamination, or the perception thereof, of public drinking water has a cost to society.
The main objective of this research was to assess the quality of public drinking water in the
Ramallah and Al-Bireh Governorate, and to estimate the expenditure on different drinking water
to monetize the opportunity cost. The compilation and assessment of chemical and microbial
water quality data for public drinking water supplies in the Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate
showed that generally speaking, the supplied public water in the governorate conforms to the
Palestinian standards for safe and healthy drinking water.
Bottled water consumption in 2009 is estimated at 58.3 liters per capita per year in the Ramallah
and Al-Bireh governorate where about 16.35 million liters of bottled water were sold in total.
Bottled water consumption is in large part likely due to be avertive behavior to avoid perceived
risk of illness from inferior quality tap water and in part is also a preference (taste, accessibility,
etc.). The total expenditure on bottled water in the Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorate was
found to be 23.25 million NIS in 2009, the total averted expenditure on bottled water was
estimated to be 22.0 million NIS and the total expenditure on water purification apparatuses was
found to be about 1.43 million NIS. Thus, the total expenditure on drinking water totaled to
93
23.43 million NIS. When these expenditures are represented as the opportunity costs, the average
person purchasing bottled water is forgoing the opportunity to save 400.94 NIS/yr, and the
average person who has installed a water filter is forgoing the opportunity to save 74.74 NIS/yr,
which are both costs associated with drinking water expenditures.
This information shows that despite the fact that water quality data, obtained from water
providers, shows that there is no adverse health risks associated with the consumption of public
drinking water, there remains to be perceived health risks among consumers and a significant
amount of money is being spent on avertive actions such as the purchase of bottled water and
installation of tap water filters.
6.2 Recommendations
It is apparent from this research that the general perception of public drinking water being of low
quality is leading many consumers into expending a significant amount of money into
purchasing what is thought to be „better‟ drinking water. It is recommended that public water
providers exert greater effort firstly into maintaining high drinking water quality in the
distribution system of the governorate and secondly marketing this water to the general public to
gain their trust and approval. This can be achieved by providing the public with accurate and
concise annual water quality reports which can be easily accessed and comprehended by the
average population and by providing a transparent monitoring system. It is also essential to raise
awareness among the public on the importance of regular maintaining and cleaning of private
roof and water tanks, checking household connections and fixing leaking or deteriorated pipes to
ensure that the water being supplied to them is not being contaminated as it enters the home.
94
For residents who perceive a problem with their tap water, it is recommended that home tap
water quality be tested by the proper authorities, such as the Palestinian Water Authority and
Ministry of Health who will carry out a professional testing and will provide an un-biased
assessment, based on which the consumer may make educated decisions regarding their choices
on their choice of drinking water. These actions can undoubtedly raise the level of trust among
residents of the governorate and would eventually reduce their reliance on alternative, more
costly, drinking water supplies. In today‟s economy, the opportunity cost for drinking water
expenditures should be an important consideration and valuable concept to the average
consumer.
For water monitoring institutions and regulators, the following recommendations are derived:
- The labels of locally bottled and internationally imported bottled water must be monitored
more closely to ensure that they conform to PSI bottled water standards (PSI 69-2005).
- The constituents of imported bottled water must be checked to make sure that this water is
safe for human consumption.
- Bottled water must be monitored and analyzed regularly to ensure this it adheres to the
claims made on the bottle labels.
- More information is needed at the regulatory level regarding the industries and products
dealing with drinking water, for both bottled water and filter industries, due to the high
importance and apparent misconceptions regarding this issue.
- Increased information exchange and coordination between the Palestinian Water Authority,
water providers, Ministry of Health, Ministry of National Economy, among others, regarding
the issues of public drinking water and the industries dealing with drinking water.
95
6.3 Further Research
This study has provided a discussion of water quality issues and bottled drinking water in the
Ramallah-Al Bireh governorate. As with any study, further research is required to reveal
additional information and to take this study to the next level. Some possible further research,
which would elaborate on certain issues mentioned throughout this study, may be as follows:
Study on the socio-economic aspects of bottled water consumption, taking into consideration
factors such as household income, price of bottled water, price of alternatives, preferences,
etc.
Study on household water quality, comparison of quality at the network, in the roof tank, at
the tap.
Study on the quality of filtered water: threats and benefits.
Study on the quality of bottled water compared to drinking water standards and to the bottle
labels; the quality of bottled water after time and storage effects, etc.
96
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APPENDIX 1
Per Capita Bottled Water Consumption by Country, 1999 to 2004
(Source: The Pacific Institute, 2009)
102
103
Total bottled Water Consumption by Region, 1997 to 2004
(Source: The Pacific Institute, 2009)
104
APPENDIX 2
Summary of Bottled Water Industry Data
No Year of
Establishment
Source of
Water
Size of
Containers
Produced
Water Treatment Process Areas of
Distribution
# of bottles sold in
Ramallah and Al-
Bireh governorate
(2009)
Approx
Price (NIS)
1 1996 Spring ½ L., 2L. Reverse Osmosis West Bank 2L. : 828,000
½ L. : 168,000
½ L.= 2
2L.= 3
2 1998 Spring ½ L., 1½ L. Sedimentation, sand filtration,
activated carbon filtration,
ozonation, ultra filtration, UV
West Bank,
Gaza, Israel
Approx total: 5.6
million
½ L.: 1.68 million
1 ½ L.:3.92 million
½ L.= 2
1 ½ L.= 1.4
3 1999 Spring 18.9 L. Sedementation, chlorination,
sand filtration, carbon filtration,
RO, softner, UV
West Bank,
Jerusalem
Approx. 115,000 35
4 2000 Imported from
Jordan
½ L., 1½ L Reverse Osmosis West Bank ½ L. : 741,600
1 ½ L. : 225,000
½ L.=2
1 ½ L.= 2
5 2000 Imported from
Jordan
½ L., 1½ L,
2L.
Filtration West Bank ½ L.: 43,200
1½ L.:55,800
2L.: 32,400
½ L.= 2
1 ½ L.= 2.5
2L.= 3
6 2003 Municipality 18.9L. Sand filtration, carbon
filtration, nitrate filtration,
softner, UV, RO, Ozone filter
Ramallah and
Jericho
governorates
Approx. 35,000 20
7 2003 Spring 1 ½ L.
West Bank Approx. 108,456 1 ½ L. = 3
8 2006 Well ½ L., 1½ L Chlorination, sand filtration,
RO, UV, ozonation
West Bank Approx total:
175,000
½ L.: 105,000
1 ½ L.: 70,000
½ L.= 2
1 ½ L.= 2
9 2007 Municipality ½ L., 1½ L Sedimentation, sand filtration,
carbon filtration, RO, softner
West Bank ½ L.: 10,800
1 ½ L.: 10,080
½ L.= 1
1½L.=1.25
10 2008 Spring ½ L., 1½ L Chlorination, sand filtration,
carbon filtration, UV, ozonation
West Bank,
Israel, Gaza
Approx total: 2.028
million
½ L.: 1.092 million
½ L. =1
1½ L.=1.5
105
1½ L. 0.936 million
11 2008 Municipality 18.9L. Sand filtration, carbon
filtration, nitrate filtration,
softner, UV, RO, ozone
filtration,
West Bank - 20
12 2009 Municipality 18.9L. Sand filtration, carbon
filtration, softner, RO, cellulose
filter, UV, ozonation
West Bank - 30
13 2009 Spring 1½ L Chlorination, sand filtration,
carbon filtration, UV, ozonation
West Bank - 1 ½ L.=1.5
14 2010 Spring 1½ L Chlorination, sand filtration,
carbon filtration, UV, ozonation
West Bank - 1 ½ L.= 1.5
106
