Factors contributing to the professional development of reference librarians

Library & Information Science Research

25 (2003) 265–286

Factors contributing to the professional development

of reference librarians

Donna C. Chana,*, Ethel Austerb

aFaculty of Information and Media Studies, Middlesex College, University of Western Ontario,

London, Ontario, Canada N6A 5B7. E-mail address: [email protected] (D.C. Chan).bFaculty of Information Studies, University of Toronto, 140 St.

George Street, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, M5S 3GS

E-mail address: auster@ fis.utoronto.ca

Abstract

This article provides a model of the factors affecting the participation of librarians in profes-

sional development activities. Reference librarians working in large urban public libraries in Ontario

participate in formal and informal updating activities. This article reports on their activities and

individual characteristics and organizational factors. A supportive manager has a positive effect on

participation in formal updating activities, whereas the presence of situational barriers and working

part-time have a negative effect. Participation in informal updating activities is positively influenced

by a favorable attitude to updating and a supportive manager, and is negatively influenced by the

presence of situational barriers, feeling old, working part-time, and the organizational climate for

updating knowledge and skills. It is recommended that libraries develop and implement policies that

support formal and informal training, and emphasize the links between updating and rewards. In

addition, the updating needs of part-time librarians should be addressed.

D 2003 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

For information professionals, maintaining competence is of vital importance. Competence

is the ability to function effectively in the tasks considered essential within a given profession

(Willis & Dubin, 1990). The many changes occurring in the workplace affect the degree of

0740-8188/03/$ – see front matter D 2003 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

doi:10.1016/S0740-8188(03)00030-6

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-519-661-2111 X88473; fax: +1-510-661-3506.

D.C. Chan, E. Auster / Library & Information Science Research 25 (2003) 265–286266

professional competence needed for successful performance of the job. Librarianship has

been experiencing rapid technological change with the development of information technol-

ogies, particularly the Internet. Furthermore, the ‘‘shelf life’’ of the knowledge attained at the

time of the receipt of a professional degree in librarianship is perhaps no more than 5 years

(Smith, 1999; Weingand, 1994). Where once the concern was about the de-skilling effect of

information technologies (Harris, 1994, 1999), the concern now is about the constant re-

skilling that is required because of the rapid changes in Internet technologies, Web interfaces,

and Web sites.

The work environment of librarians is a complex mix of information technologies among

other things. Information technologies in use in libraries include integrated library systems,

CD-ROMs, electronic reference resources, the Internet, networks, and imaging systems.

Internet access is almost universal in public libraries in Canada (LibraryNet, 2000) and the

United States (Bertot & McClure, 2000). Libraries have developed a presence on the Web by

setting upWeb sites, making their catalogs available for searching, and instituting reference

service via e-mail, Web forms, or online chat rooms.

The Internet has implications for the practice of reference work. Where reference librarians

once relied solely on print resources, they may now be able to answer most questions

accurately using only Web-based sources (Janes & McClure, 1999; Zumalt & Pasicznyuk,

1998). There is evidence, however, that traditional print resources still form the main source

by which staff in public libraries answer reference questions (Ross & Nilsen, 2000). This

finding may be caused by librarians’ unfamiliarity with the Internet and inadequate access

because of hardware problems, lack of public workstations, and varying quality of available

information, among other issues. Reference librarians are still wary of the disorganized,

ephemeral nature of information on the Internet (Curry & Harris, 2000).

Nonetheless, changing work practices are not only caused by technological developments;

changes in management techniques also have resulted in altered work processes and practices.

Restructuring through downsizing and amalgamation has occurred in public libraries. In

addition, the search for flexibility in staffing and cost reductions through the use of part-time

and casual professional staff have resulted in changed roles for librarians (Easun, 1998; Han

& Chaudhry, 1999; Johnson, 1996; Mohr & Schuneman, 1997; Owen, 1997). The knowledge

and skills that workers had acquired through education and on-the-job experience may no

longer be relevant for jobs that have been redesigned. Therefore, the competence of librarians

has become an even greater issue in the last few years.

This study examines the role of selected individual characteristics and organizational

factors in affecting the participation of reference librarians in updating activities to maintain

their professional competence. The research focuses on two questions:

1. Are there significant relationships between the participation of reference librarians in

updating activities and individual characteristics (e.g., motivation, age, barriers to

participation, and professional commitment)?

2. Are there significant relationships between the participation of reference librarians in

updating activities and organizational factors (e.g., updating climate and managerial

support)?

D.C. Chan, E. Auster / Library & Information Science Research 25 (2003) 265–286 267

2. Literature review

Maintaining professional competence is the process by which professionals keep current

the knowledge, skills, and abilities needed to function effectively in their profession. It is

assumed that to maintain competence, the professional must participate in updating activities.

An updating activity is any type of information-seeking and educational activity, including

formal and informal types of activities (Willis & Dubin, 1990). Formal updating activities

refer to activities that are scheduled and structured with the explicit aim of encouraging

learning, whereas informal activities occur without strict timetables (Birdi, Allan, & Warr,

1997). Individual characteristics, such as age, professional commitment, and barriers to

participation, influence participation in training and development. Organizational factors,

such as updating climate and managerial support, are also significant factors in participation

in updating activities.

2.1. Participation in updating activities

Updating activities are focused on maintaining current knowledge, skills, and abilities

needed in the present job, and on developing knowledge, skills, and abilities for future

roles. Previous studies have shown that time and effort devoted to professional updating

activities are positively related to the degree of professional competence (Kaufman, 1989;

Schambach, 1994).

Formal updating activities are organized structured programs of education adapted to the

needs of adults. These programs include courses and workshops offered by employers,

educational institutions, and professional associations. General surveys of the Canadian

population have shown that the average annual number of hours spent on job-related training

per employed participant has increased from 118 hours in 1991 to 158 hours in 1997

(Statistics Canada & Human Resources Development Canada, 2001, Table 2.13a).1

Informal updating activities also involve the pursuit of understanding, knowledge, or skill,

but occur outside the curricula of institutions and associations (Livingstone, 1999). These

activities include discussions with colleagues, reading the professional literature, on-the-job

training, conference attendance, and self-directed projects. Surveys of the Canadian popula-

tion show that, on average, professional employees spend about 6 hours per week or more

than 300 hours per year on informal learning related to their career or future employment

(Livingstone, 1998, Table 1.8).2

Informal updating activities are important for librarians. A study of academic librarians

found that the type of activity most frequently undertaken was reading, followed by

professional meetings, conferences and conventions, in-house staff meetings, and ‘‘bull

1 Results of the 1994 International Adult Literacy Survey show that hours of training reported by employees in

Canada are comparable to those reported by employees in the United States (Kapsalis, 1997).2 Comparable statistics for the United States not available.


sessions’’ with colleagues (Parson, 1988). Varlejs (1996, 1999), who studied 521 librarians,

found that, within a 6-month period, 77% had conducted one or more self-directed work-

related learning projects requiring at least 7 hours. Overall, librarians spent three times as

many hours on self-directed learning as on formal continuing education.

2.2. Motivation to participate in updating activities

The literature on competence suggests that motivation to update is the most salient

determinant of participation in updating activities (Dorsett, 1994; Schambach, 1994; Willis &

Tosti-Vasey, 1990). Studies that have examined the link between perceived benefits of

training and participation have found that intrinsic benefits of training (e.g., personal

satisfaction) and extrinsic benefits of training (e.g., better pay) were significant predictors

of participation (Maurer & Tarulli, 1994; Noe & Wilk, 1993).

For librarians, the intrinsic benefits of training seem to be more important. A study of

731 library professionals and paraprofessionals who were participating in continuing

education programs found that professional competence, patron service, collegiality, and

personal concerns were the prime motivating factors for participation (Smith & Burgin,

1991). Overall, respondents rated the individual items associated with professional compe-

tence more highly than they did other factors.

2.3. Age and participation in updating activities

The relationship between age and participation in updating activities is complex. Based

on human capital theory, age is expected to affect an individual’s motivation to update and

an organization’s willingness to train the individual. Older workers (45 years and older) are

considered at risk for obsolescence (Hall & Mirvis, 1995; Rix, 1996; Sterns & Dorsett,

1994; Sterns & Patchett, 1984), yet older workers are less likely to receive employer-

sponsored training (Hum & Simpson, 1996). Older workers are seen as resistant to change,

less interested in challenging jobs, and as a poor investment for training (Hassell &

Perrewe, 1995). Older individuals who are nearing retirement might be expected to be less

willing to participate in updating (Farr, Enscore, Steiner, & Kozlowski, 1984; Larwood,

Ruben, Popoff, & Judson, 1997). On the other hand, empirical research has shown that, for

all classes of workers (Liu, 1999; Tharenou, 1997, 2001), including librarians (Stone,

1969), nurses (Dorsett, 1994), and engineers (Pazy, 1996), age did not always act as a

deterrent to participation in updating activities. Furthermore, longer tenure in an organiza-

tion was related to greater participation in updating activities (Pazy, 1996). In contrast,

longer tenure is related to reduced participation in informal training (Frazis, Gittleman, &

Joyce, 2000).

2.4. Barriers to participation in updating activities

Barriers to participation are factors that interfere with or restrict an individual’s ability

to participate in learning activities. These barriers have been categorized as follows:


situational, or those barriers arising from one’s situation in life (e.g., lack of time and

family constraints); institutional, or practices and procedures of the educational institu-

tion that hinder participation (e.g., inconvenient scheduling and cost); dispositional, or

attitudes and dispositions toward learning (e.g., disinterest and health constraints; Cross,

1981); and informational, or lack of knowledge about the learning activity (Darkenwald

& Merriam, 1982).

A 1998 survey of the general Canadian population focused on the reasons for nonpartic-

ipation among adults who reported needing some job-related formal training but did not take

it. The most frequently cited reasons were lack of time, expense, inconvenient time or

location, and lack of employer support (Sussman, 2002).

Stone (1969) asked 138 professional librarians to rank deterrents to participation in

professional development activities. The poor quality of the activities was ranked as the

most important deterrent, followed by remote or inconvenient location. The other deterring

factors, in order of importance, include lack of (1) available time, (2) new and creative ideas,

(3) leadership, (4) publicity about the event, (5) administrative support, (6) financial support

for transportation costs, (7) release time, and (8) enjoyment.

2.5. Professional commitment and participation in updating activities

Professional commitment is the extent to which individuals identify with their profession

(Morrow & Wirth, 1989, p. 53). Professional commitment has not previously been studied

as a factor in participation in training. Studies using related constructs, however, have

found positive relationships between career commitment and participation in career

development activities (Aryee, Chay, & Chew, 1994; Aryee & Tan, 1992; Facteau,

Dobbins, Russell, Ladd, & Kudisch, 1995; Tannenbaum, Mathieu, Salas, & Cannon-

Bowers, 1991).

The concept of professional commitment is based on an ideal type of a profession.

Depending on the author, there are several dimensions of a profession: identification with the

profession and fellow professionals, ethics, collegial maintenance of standards, commitment

to work and the profession, autonomy, and expertise (Hall, 1968; Kerr, Von Glinow, &

Schriesheim, 1977). Professional behavior is associated with commitment to continuous

learning. Therefore, librarians who have a strong personal identification or commitment to the

profession should be expected to engage in more continuing education activities than those

who do not feel so strongly about being a librarian.

2.6. Updating climate and participation in updating activities

Organizational climate refers to the perceptions that employees hold of management

policies and practices. Updating climate is the perception that the organization facilitates or

inhibits updating (Kozlowski & Hults, 1987, p. 558).

Two studies showed that a supportive climate for updating is positively related to

participation in training and development (Dorsett, 1994; Schambach, 1994). Several


dimensions of an updating climate, such as minimal pressure and updating support, are

positively related to participation (Kozlowski & Hults, 1987). Updating climate is posi-

tively related to motivation to update (Colquitt, LePine, & Noe, 2000; Dorsett, 1994;

Schambach, 1994).

2.7. Managerial support and participation in updating activities

Managerial support is the perception that managers and supervisors in the organization

actively support employees in their updating efforts. Supervisors can stimulate employees to

keep up-to-date by giving recognition and credit for good work, and by basing salary and

promotion recommendations on performance. Managers act as gatekeepers to training and

development opportunities, and they interpret and implement organizational policies. In

short-staffed organizations, focusing on short-term pressures for results can mean that there is

no time for professional development activities during the busy work day (Dubin, 1990; Gers

& Bolin, 1999; Miller, 1990).

Managerial support is a significant factor in the participation of employees in training

and development activities (Birdi et al., 1997; Kozlowski & Hults, 1987; Maurer & Tarulli,

1994; Noe & Wilk, 1993; Pazy, 1996; Tharenou, 1997, 2001). Managerial support is a

predictor of motivation to participate in training and development activities (Facteau et al.,

1995; Tharenou, 2001).

2.8. Conceptual framework

Figure 1 presents a model of maintaining professional competence based on the

relationships outlined previously. Participation in updating activities is theorized to be

Fig. 1. Model of maintaining professional competence.


determined by individual characteristics (e.g., motivation, age, barriers to participation,

and professional commitment) and organizational factors (e.g., updating climate and man-

agerial support).

3. Procedures

The population of the current study is all professional librarians (with MLS or equivalent

degree) with reference duties working in large urban public libraries in Ontario, excluding

Toronto. (The Toronto Public Library was surveyed in the second phase of the study.) These

libraries serve populations of 90,000 and more, and they comprise 17 systems employing at

least 10 professional librarians.

The chief librarians of the library systems were contacted for permission to survey their

staff. The list of professional librarians with reference duties was then obtained from the

human resources departments of the libraries. A total of 348 professional librarians were in

the study population.

The data were collected in spring 2001 by means of a mail survey. The questionnaire had

been pretested the previous fall on a group of reference librarians who were not in the study.

The 12-page questionnaire contained items designed to measure dependent variables, such as

participation in formal and informal activities; independent variables, such as motivation, age,

barriers to participation, professional commitment, updating climate, and managerial support;

and demographic variables. There were 297 completed questionnaires returned for a response

rate of 85.3%.

3.1. Dependent variables

The dependent variables were participation in formal activities and participation in

informal activities. The following sections discuss the measurement of the variables.

3.1.1. Participation in formal activities

Participation in formal activities was measured by the number of hours spent in the

previous year participating in courses or workshops offered in-house, by an educational

institution or professional association.

3.1.2. Participation in informal activities

Participation in informal activities was measured by the number of hours spent in the

previous year participating in various informal activities, such as attending conferences,

discussing with colleagues, participating on listservs, reading the professional literature,

carrying out self-directed projects, writing or editing for the professional literature, and

participating in on-the-job training. Respondents were asked to recall the number of hours

spent in a typical month in these activities. The number reported was multiplied by 12 to yield

annual estimates.


3.2. Independent variables

Motivation was conceptualized using expectancy theory (Vroom, 1964). According to the

theory, individuals will be motivated to participate in updating to acquire new knowledge or

skills if they

� Believe that participation in updating activities will result in their being up-to-date and

competent (expectancy belief )� Perceive that being up-to-date will influence the kinds of work-related outcomes,

such as pay, promotion, praise, or feelings of accomplishment they can obtain

(instrumentality belief )� Value the work-related outcomes (valence)

In expectancy theory, these three factors (expectancy beliefs, instrumentality beliefs, and

valences) combine in a multiplicative fashion to provide motivation to a course of action.

Three sets of items measure expectancy beliefs, instrumentality beliefs, and valences.

Expectancy beliefs focus on the expectations of outcomes that result from frequent

participation in updating, such as greater competence. Instrumentality beliefs refer to the

likelihood of occurrence of certain outcomes, given frequent participation, whereas valences

represent the importance of each of the outcomes to the respondent. The outcomes were

composed of intrinsic rewards, such as personal satisfaction, and extrinsic rewards, such as

job security. A motivation score was calculated by multiplying responses to individual items

and summing them.

3.2.1. Age

There were five measures of age: chronological age, time to retirement, years in the

profession, subjective age and relative age. Cleveland and Shore (1992) found that age

conceptualized in terms of psychosocial age was a useful explanatory measure with respect

to work outcomes, including participation in development activities. Subjective age

refers to how old respondents feel compared with others the same age, whereas relative

age refers to how old respondents feel compared with co-workers.

3.2.2. Barriers to participation

The category of barriers to participation was measured using a modified version of the

Deterrents to Participation scale (Scanlan & Darkenwald, 1984) and the addition of three

other indicators of barriers. The scale-based portion of the measure asked respondents to rate

on a five-point scale how influential a set of 19 reasons were in contributing to decisions

to not participate in updating activities. Examples of items included ‘‘The content of

the activity was not relevant for my needs’’ and ‘‘The locations of updating activities were

often inconvenient.’’

Three additional questions were asked of respondents. These concerned membership in

a professional organization, having a computer at home, and having an Internet

connection at home. Negative answers are considered barriers and were added to the


score obtained on the scale portion of the measure. Membership in a professional

organization facilitates access to conferences and professional literature, whereas having

a computer with Internet access in the home enables additional practice with a rapidly

changing technology.

3.2.3. Professional commitment

Professional commitment was measured using a five-item, summated rating scale adapted

from Blau (1985, 1988, 1989). Respondents were asked to rate on a five-point scale their

agreement or disagreement with statements such as ‘‘This is the ideal profession for a life

work’’ and ‘‘I like this profession too well to give it up.’’

3.2.4. Updating climate

The measure of updating climate was adapted from previous research (Dorsett, 1994;

Kozlowski & Hults, 1987; Schambach, 1994). The measure consisted of 22 statements that

respondents were asked to agree or disagree with on a five-point scale. Some examples of

statements are as follows: ‘‘The library is concerned with the professional growth of its staff’’

and ‘‘The demands of my job leave little time for updating.’’ The ratings were summed to

create the measure of updating climate.

3.2.5. Managerial support

Managerial support was measured using a nine-item scale (Greenhaus, Parasuraman, &

Wormley, 1990). Respondents were asked to rate on a five-point scale their agreement or

disagreement with statements describing the support for career development that they receive

from their immediate supervisor or manager. Some examples of items included the following:

‘‘My manager gives me helpful feedback about my job performance’’ and ‘‘My manager

supports my attempts to acquire additional training or education to further my career.’’ The

summed ratings were used as the measure of managerial support.

3.2.6. Control variables

Control variables of gender, union status, and job status were included, because these have

been identified as consistently affecting participation in training and development (Mathieu &

Martineau, 1997; Noe, Wilk, Mullen, & Wanek, 1997; Tharenou, 1997, 2001). Job status

refers to full-time or part-time employment status.

4. Results

The respondents were primarily women (81.8%), members of a union (63.6%), and full-

time employees (84.2%). The average age of the respondents was 46.9 years, with an average

of 15 years to retirement. Respondents had spent an average of 16.5 years in the profession.

Most of them felt young compared with others the same age (59.7%) and younger than co-

workers (62.7%).


4.1. Independent variables

The average number of hours spent by respondents in formal updating activities was 31.5

hours annually, whereas the average number of hours spent by respondents in informal

activities was 300.8 hours.

4.2. Dependent variables

The motivation scores ranged from 2.2 to 110, with a mean of 55.3 and median of 54. The

reliability of the motivation measure was indirectly indicated by the internal consistency

measures of the three component subscales. The internal consistency measures of the three

subscales ranged from 0.80 to 0.92. The validity of the subscales was assessed by a factor

analysis of the combined scales. Three factors emerged, reflecting for the most part, the

theoretical structure of the measure.

The barriers to participation measure consisted of a scale-based portion and three

additional indicators of barriers. For the scale-based portion of the barriers measure, an

internal consistency measure of 0.86 was obtained. The most influential deterrent to

participation was lack of time, followed by lack of relevance. The least influential deterrent

was health circumstances, followed by family objections. Factor analysis of the scale revealed

two factors, one representing time and family constraints and the other, information,

convenience, and quality constraints. These two factors reflected the theoretical structure

of the measure and were consistent with results from previous studies. With the addition of

the three indicator items, the barriers to participation score ranged from 19 to 77, with a mean

score of 50.3 and median of 51. The higher the score, the greater the perception on the part of

the respondent that there were barriers to participation.

The respondents were highly committed to the profession. The internal consistency

estimate of the professional commitment scale was 0.86. The range of scores was 5 to 25,

with a mean of 20.4 and median of 21. Factor analysis revealed a single underlying

construct, consistent with the theoretical underpinnings of the scale and with results from

previous studies. Because of the negative skew, the scale was transformed to make it more

normal. The scores were reflected about the maximum value and the logarithmic

transformation applied. The transformed scores ranged from 0.96 to 4, with a mean of

2.57 and median of 2.39.

The updating climate measure had an internal consistency estimate of 0.87. Factor analysis

revealed four factors corresponding to the postulated dimensions of updating support,

minimal pressure, information sharing, and innovative climate. This finding is consistent

with the theoretical structure of the scale. Higher scores indicate a more positive perception of

the climate for updating in the organization. The scores ranged from 40 to 101, with a mean

of 73.1 and median of 74.

The managerial support measure had an internal consistency estimate of 0.93. Respondents

perceived their immediate supervisor or manager as supportive of their efforts at updating.

The scores ranged from 9 to 45, with a mean of 30.3 and median of 31. Factor analysis

extracted only one factor. This is consistent with results from previous studies using the scale.


Of the control variables, gender and union status were not significantly3 correlated with the

dependent variables and were not significant in the regression analyses. They were omitted

from the results reported here.

4.3. Descriptive statistics and correlations

Table 1 provides the means, standard deviations, and correlations for all variables. Pairwise

deletion was used for missing data. The number of cases on which the correlations were based

ranged from 243 to 293. The correlations showed that job status, motivation, and managerial

support were significantly related to participation in formal and informal updating activities

(p < .01). The psychosocial measures of age, particularly subjective age, were significantly

correlated with participation in informal activities (p < .01 for subjective age) but not

participation in formal activities. Updating climate was significantly related to participation in

formal activities (p < .01) but not to participation in informal activities. Professional

commitment showed no significant relationship to participation in updating activities.

4.4. Multiple regression

Multiple regression analysis examines the relationship between the dependent variables

and the independent variables while taking the other variables into account. It is possible that

the relationship (or lack of it) between the dependent variable and an independent variable

found in the correlational analysis may change once the other independent variables are taken

into account. The dependent variables are each regressed on the independent and control

variables in a hierarchical fashion. The control variable (job status) was entered into the

regression first, followed by the set of independent variables. Job status was a dichotomous

variable, with full-time status as the reference category. Listwise deletion was used for

missing data.

4.4.1. Participation in formal activities

Table 2 presents the results of the hierarchical regression of participation in formal

activities on the control and independent variables. The standardized regression coefficients

(h), R2, change in R2, and the F value for the model are presented. At Step 1 of the regression,

when only job status was entered, the regression was significant (p < .05). This finding

means that job status accounted for 2% of the variance of participation in formal activities. In

Step 2, the addition of the set of independent variables was significant. The additional

variance accounted for by the set of independent variables was 9% (p < .01). Overall, the

control and independent variables accounted for 12% of the total variance of participation in

formal activities (F(8,245) = 3.97, p < .001).

In this regression, the measures of age were years in the profession and subjective age. The

independent variables that emerged as significant predictors of participation in formal

3 Because this was an exploratory study, a significance level of p =.05 was selected.

Table 1

Means, standard deviations, and intercorrelations for all variables

Correlations

Variables M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

1. Formal activities (log) 3.00 1.01

2. Informal activities (log) 5.34 0.91 .33*

3. Job statusa NA NA � .19* � .15*

4. Motivation 55.3 19.0 .16* .17* .03

5. Chronological age 46.9 8.7 � .04 � .10* .07 � .14*

6. Time to retirement 15.0 9.2 .02 .08 � .02 .15* � .90*

7. Years in profession 16.5 8.9 .07 � .01 � .11* � .18* .72* � .71*

8. Subjective agea NA NA � .03 � .21* � .03 � .17* .31* � .24* .19*

9. Relative agea NA NA � .04 � .12* .07 � .24* .62* � .55* .42* .44*

10. Barriers to participation 50.3 12.7 � .11* � .08 � .04 .03 .03 � .02 .04 .07 .05

11. Professional commitment (log) 3.57 0.81 .09 � .00 .03 .24* � .03 .06 � .05 � .03 � .01 � .11*

12. Updating climate 73.1 11.5 .20* .02 � .03 .37* .08 � .12* .05 � .07 � .04 � .20* .36*

13. Managerial support 30.3 7.7 .24* .15* � .06 .38* � .10* .10* � .10* � .03 � .04 � .15* .34* .57*

Abbreviation: NA, not available.a Categorical variable: Spearman’s rho calculated for correlations with job status, subjective age, and relative age.

* Correlations z.10 are significant at p < .05; correlations z.14, at p < .01.

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Table 2

Hierarchical regression of participation in formal activities on control and independent variables (N = 254)

Independent variable h R2 DR2 F

Step 1 0.02* 0.02* 5.68

Job status � 0.15*

Step 2 0.12*** 0.09** 3.97


Motivation 0.09

Years in profession 0.10

Subjective age � 0.05

Barriers to participation � 0.15*

Professional commitment � 0.01

Updating climate 0.04

Managerial support 0.17*

* p < .05.

** p < .01.

*** p < .001.


activities were managerial support and barriers to participation. Job status was also a

significant predictor of participation in formal activities. Managerial support had a positive

effect on participation, whereas barriers to participation and job status (part-time status) had a

negative effect on participation.

4.4.2. Participation in informal activities

Table 3 presents the results of the regression of participation in informal activities on the

control and independent variables. The standardized regression coefficients (h), R2, change

Table 3

Hierarchical regression of participation in informal activities on control and independent variables (N = 237)

Independent variable h R2 DR2 F

Step 1 0.01 0.01 3.44

Job status � 0.12

Step 2 0.12*** 0.11*** 3.91


Motivation 0.18*

Time to retirement � 0.02

Subjective age � 0.18**

Barriers to participation � 0.14*

Professional commitment � 0.07

Updating climate � 0.20*

Managerial support 0.17*

* p < .05.

** p < .01.

*** p < .001.


in R2, and the F value for the model are presented. At Step 1 of the regression, when only

job status was entered, the regression was not significant. In Step 2, the addition of the set

of independent variables was significant. The additional variance accounted for by the set

of independent variables was 11% (p < .001). Overall, the control and independent

variables accounted for 12% of the total variance of participation in formal activities

(F8,228) = 3.91, p < .001).

In this regression, the measures of age were time to retirement and subjective age.

Subjective age was a dichotomous variable. The reference category is ‘‘feel young compared

with others the same age.’’ Except for time to retirement and professional commitment, the

control and other independent variables were significant predictors of participation in

informal activities. Motivation and managerial support had a positive effect on participation

in informal activities, whereas job status, barriers to participation, subjective age, and

updating climate had a negative effect on participation.

5. Discussion

5.1. Model of participation in formal activities

Based on the previous analysis, the conceptual framework was revised. Figure 2 shows the

revised model of participation in formal updating activities. Participation in formal activities

was influenced by job status, barriers to participation, and managerial support. Job status and

barriers to participation had a negative influence on participation, whereas managerial support

had a positive influence.

The model of participation in formal updating is simple. For the librarians in the study,

only three factors played a role in their levels of participation. Having a supervisor or

manager who is supportive of career development efforts was a positive influence. One

Fig. 2. Model of participation in formal updating activities.


respondent wrote: ‘‘For some training and development activities or courses, the manager

chooses who can go and who cannot go.’’ Managers are the gatekeepers to formal training

opportunities. Unfortunately, managers seem to be operating in a policy vacuum. Only 1

library system of the 17 surveyed had a written policy on training. One respondent

commented: ‘‘The method of doling out funds is haphazard and many staff are unaware of

what is available and only hear about it after somebody else has been given a plum. There is

no formal application process in place.’’

For formal updating activities, the presence of situational barriers, such as lack of time or

family responsibilities, decreased participation levels. In addition, working part-time de-

creased a librarian’s participation in formal updating activities. In many cases, part-time

employees are denied the same professional development opportunities as full-time employ-

ees. In addition, part-time employees who work on an on-call basis are unable to commit to

the fixed schedule of formal courses.

5.2. Model of participation in informal activities

The model of participation in informal activities was revised (see Figure 3). Participation in

informal activities was influenced by job status, motivation, subjective age, barriers to

participation, updating climate, and managerial support. Job status, barriers to participation,

subjective age, and updating climate had a negative effect on participation, whereas

motivation and managerial support had a positive effect.

As expected, motivation had a positive influence on participation in informal activities.

Librarians in the study were found to value the intrinsic outcomes of updating, such as

personal satisfaction, over extrinsic outcomes, such as a promotion.

Managerial support was an important influence in participation in informal updating

activities, possibly through the manager’s functions of organizing, directing, and coordinating

Fig. 3. Model of participation in informal updating activities.


work. Respondents in the study mentioned the heavy workload of librarians. For example,

one librarian wrote: ‘‘There needs to be more encouragement from management to have

professionals take the time during the workday to explore new technologies on their own.’’

Another stated, ‘‘The workload of the reference librarian is very heavy. Any updating that

is offered results in a backlog of work that needs to be done in my absence. Any updating

needs practice and the workload does not allow time for practice.’’ Clearly, having a

supportive manager who enables practice and experimentation results in higher levels of

informal updating.

Updating climate had a negative influence on participation in informal updating

activities. This counterintuitive finding is more easily understood when the effects of the

four dimensions of updating climate on participation in informal activities are examined.

The four dimensions were updating support, minimal pressure, information exchange, and

innovative climate. The dimensions of updating support and minimal pressure were not

significant. The information exchange and innovative climate dimensions had a negative

effect on participation, however. In other words, the perception that information is shared

among peers and supervisors results in lower participation in informal activities. Dis-

cussions with colleagues is the largest component of informal updating activities. If

information is shared willingly, librarians do not need to consciously make efforts to learn

from others. One of the problems of measuring informal learning is that individuals need to

recognize that they are actually learning informally before they can report it (Livingstone,

1999). Thus, in organizations where information is freely shared, there may not be a

recognition that learning is occurring. The dimension of innovative climate reflects the fact

that the library has a progressive atmosphere, is viewed as an innovator, and provides

current equipment. The negative impact of this factor on participation in informal activities

suggests that where the library is seen as being up-to-date, librarians do not make a

conscious effort to engage in informal learning to keep their skills up-to-date, and hence

they report lower levels of participation.

Age in terms of years had no significant effect on participation in informal activities. Age

measured as psychosocial age, however, was a significant predictor of participation. This

suggests that what matters for keeping up-to-date is how old one feels. Those librarians who

felt older than others the same age or who felt older than co-workers were less likely to

attend conferences, learn from co-workers, read the professional literature, or carry out self-

directed projects.

Working as a part-time librarian had a negative effect on informal updating. Shorter hours

at work mean that librarians have less chance to learn from co-workers, either through

discussions with colleagues or through on-the-job training.

6. Implications

The results of this study lead to several suggestions for managers of information

organizations, particularly libraries. Simply providing opportunities for professional devel-

opment is not enough. Managers on their own and as administrators of library policy have


a great deal of influence on the amount of updating that is occurring in the organization.

Supportive managers are those who provide feedback on job performance, assign oppo-

rtunities to develop and strengthen new skills, and take an interest in the career goals of

their staff.

The organizational rewards for updating may be lacking. The librarians in this study

expected intrinsic rewards rather than extrinsic rewards, although both types were equally

valued by respondents. For example, recognition for professional development is one

extrinsic reward with a low expectation of being achieved (mean response of 2.39 on a

five-point scale) but was highly valued (mean response of 3.92 on a five-point scale).

Recognizing professional development efforts does not have to be complex or monetary.

Newsletter notices or postings on the Intranet or bulletin board can provide recognition and

signal that the organization values updating.

The updating efforts of part-time librarians are significantly less than those of full-

time librarians. This finding is not because of lack of motivation; the correlation

between motivation and job status is close to zero. The opportunities for part-time

librarians to participate in formal and informal updating are fewer. Increasingly, libraries

have turned to part-time librarians to provide service every day of the week and in the

evening, yet their training and development policies and practices do not seem to

accommodate the training needs of part-time staff to the same extent that they do full-

time staff.

In this study, reference librarians spent an average of 31.5 hours in formal updating

activities in the previous year, whereas in the general Canadian population in 1997, an

employed worker spent 158 hours in job-related adult education and training courses

(Statistics Canada & Human Resources Development Canada, 2001, Table 2.13a). The

reference librarians spent an average of 300.8 hours in informal activities compared with

an average of 312 hours spent by professional employees in Canada on informal work-

related learning (Livingstone, 1998, Table 1.8). Although librarians engage in informal

learning at a rate comparable to the general population, it seems that formal learning

efforts lag behind those of the general population. This finding may reflect simple lack

of interest, or it may reflect the lack of library-related formal updating opportunities.

Formal updating activities are provided by the employer, educational institutions, and

professional associations. Many of the libraries surveyed were located at a considerable

distance from an educational institution providing continuing professional education

courses. Enrollment in Web-based courses were not widely reported. Professional

association workshops are usually provided once a year in conjunction with the annual

conference and last only a day at most. Clearly, there are opportunities for educational

institutions and professional associations to develop and market distance education courses

to library staff.

This exploratory study focused on a selected group of librarians in public libraries in

a limited geographical region. Future research could expand the scope of coverage. A

case study of informal learning in the workplace would be of benefit. This would

allow a more in-depth examination of the factors found to be significant in this study

together with additional variables that might influence informal learning. Causal modeling


of the process of maintaining professional competence can be accomplished through

longitudinal studies.

7. Limitations

Only a few explanatory variables were included in the study. Given their low explanatory

power, as reflected by the model R2 of the regression equations, there are certainly other

variables that may influence participation. Self-efficacy had positive but weak effects on

participation in training and development (Maurer & Tarulli, 1994; Noe & Wilk, 1993). The

effect of co-worker support on participation in training and development has been included in

a few studies, but the results have been mixed (Birdi et al., 1997; Maurer & Tarulli, 1994).

This study found that professional commitment did not show any significant effects on

participation, but other studies have found that organizational commitment has an effect

(Dorsett, 1994; Facteau et al., 1995).

This study used self-reported data that are retrospective in nature. There is considerable

difference between self-reported data on participation in all types of training and development

activities and data obtained from administrative records of participation in formal training

(Noe & Wilk, 1993). There is much measurement error in on-the-job training measures, with

organizations reporting up to 25% more training on average than do workers (Barron, Berger,

& Black, 1997). In addition, it is unlikely that any documentation is kept with respect to

informal updating activities.

8. Summary

This research is the first to focus on factors influencing the process of maintaining

professional competence among librarians. Several studies of the process of maintaining

professional competence among professionals (e.g., engineers, nurses, and information

systems professionals) have been carried out, but none of these looked at librarians. Earlier

studies of continuing education activities of librarians have tended to be descriptive (Parson,

1988; Stone, 1969). Other research has studied informal learning activities (Varlejs, 1996,

1999), whereas this research looks at both formal and informal updating activities.

The aging of the workforce is raising awareness of issues of training and developing older

workers. Most professional librarians in this study are 45 years or older. This study allows an

examination of the effect of age, particularly attitudes of age, on the participation of these

older workers in updating activities.

Study results point to the important role that organizational factors play in the process of

maintaining professional competence. The analysis of the data suggests that a supportive

manager is key to librarians’ participation in formal and informal updating activities. The

study found that the links between updating and rewards need to be emphasized, because

certain rewards for updating were valued but were not expected to be achieved, despite

participation in updating activities. The study also showed that part-time status reduces


opportunities for updating; because libraries have come to rely on part-time librarians, the

updating needs of these part-time employees should be addressed. Professional librarians are

motivated to maintain their professional competence but more can be done to encourage and

facilitate their participation in updating activities.

Acknowledgment

This research was supported by a grant to Ethel Auster from the Social Sciences and

Humanities Research Council of Canada.

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Documents

Factors contributing to the professional development of reference librarians