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Page 1: Factor: Instructional Strategies - ASCD Instructional Strategies Section Strategies Focusing on Input Experiences Input-oriented strategies support students in understanding the content

Introduction ....................................................................................................1

Factor: Instructional Strategies ..................................................9

Strategies Used at Regular Intervals in a Unit ......................................13

Strategies Focusing on Input Experiences ............................................47

Strategies for Reviewing, Practicing, and Applying Content ................73

Factor: Classroom Management ..............................................97

Strategies for Managing an Effective Classroom Environment ..........101

Factor: Classroom Curriculum Design ..................................127

Strategies for Designing Curriculum Units ..........................................131

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Factor: Instructional Strategies

Strategies Used at Regular Intervals in a Unit ......................................13

Teacher Planning Guide for Establishing Clear Learning Goals ......27Identifying Your Unit Learning Goals: A Tool for Students..............29Monitoring Student Progress: A Teacher Tool ................................31Student Learning Goals Log............................................................33Student Learning Reflections ..........................................................35Balancing Individual and Group Work: A Teacher Tool ..................37Student Action Plan for Improving Understanding of Unit Concepts ..................................................................................39Celebrating Successful Attainment of Learning Goals:A Teacher Tool..................................................................................41

Putting It All Together ......................................................................43

Strategies Focusing on Input Experiences..............................................47

Planning for Input Experiences: A Teacher Tool ..............................57Three-Column Note-Taking Template..............................................59Think-Write-Pair-Share ....................................................................61Organizing My Thinking ..................................................................63Connecting My Learning: A Tool for Students ................................67Putting It All Together ......................................................................69

Strategies for Reviewing, Practicing, and Applying Content ................73Planning for Reviewing, Practicing, and Applying During a Unit:A Teacher Tool..................................................................................81Student Decision-Making Template: Applying My Knowledge ......83Classifying Content: A Tool for Students ........................................85Unit Homework Reflections ............................................................87Picturing What I’m Learning ............................................................89

Putting It All Together ......................................................................91

Resources for Instructional Strategies ....................................................92

9

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Factor: Instructional Strategies

SectionStrategies Focusing on Input ExperiencesInput-oriented strategies support students in understanding the content they

are about to study and serve two interrelated functions: (1) to “prime” stu-

dents for the learning experience before an activity and (2) to help students

synthesize new information.

Robert Marzano’s second approach to implementing research-based

instructional strategies involves what he calls “input” experiences. Edu-

cators use input-oriented strategies to frame students’ thinking, activate

prior learning, and focus their understanding of what they are to learn and

why they are expected to learn it. What Works in Schools has two inter-

related approaches to input strategies: (1) teaching and learning activities

that anticipate or occur immediately before other input activities in order

to “prime” students for learning experiences and (2) teaching and learning

activities that occur during and after learning experiences, requiring stu-

dents to synthesize knowledge in both linguistic and nonlinguistic ways.

Marzano suggests that the first type of input activity can range from

asking students questions to help them identify what they already think

they know about content to be studied to establishing direct links between

old and new content. Additionally, these anticipatory activities and strate-

gies can also provide students with ways to organize new content in antici-

pation of studying it.

47

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Marzano’s “during” and “after” input activities engage students in synthesizing new

knowledge in both linguistic and nonlinguistic ways. Such teaching and learning practices

can include asking students to take notes on the content and construct verbal and written

summaries of the content. Teachers can also ask students to represent content through

such nonlinguistic forms as pictures, pictographs, and graphic organizers. Marzano

emphasizes the power of input activities such as students’ creation of mental images.

Associated Problems

The suggested interventions in this section may help you to address problems such as

the following:

• Students don’t understand where they are headed and why they are going there

while learning about new content, especially content that requires inquiry beyond

their current range of knowledge or experience.

• Students demonstrate a widely divergent body of background knowledge and

experience, indicating the need to help them develop a sense of purpose, direc-

tion, and personal learning goals for new—and often difficult or demanding—

curriculum content.

Suggested Goals and Data Sources

Based on one or more of these problems, potential school improvement goals and related

confirming data sources might include those shown in the following chart:

Instructional Strategies48

Goals Results Data Sources

To activate prior student learningon which to build new learning

To increase student understand-ing of the purpose of the contentthey are studying

Greater student understanding ofcontent being taught

Gains in student achievement

Standardized and classroomassessments; studentreflections

Standardized and classroomassessments; student portfolios

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Suggested Strategies

If your school is experiencing any of the problems identified, you may wish to consider

one or more of the following strategies to address this issue:

❏ At the beginning of lessons and units, encourage students to articulate what they

wish to learn and why they wish to learn it.

❏ “Prime” student learning at the beginning of instruction by posing questions to

help students make linkages and connections between what they have learned

and experienced previously and what they are about to learn.

❏ Use linguistic and nonlinguistic representations, both teacher-generated and

student-generated, to encourage students to organize new content and to syn-

thesize connections between and among content elements.

Action Tools

The following action tools are included for this item:

• Planning for Input Experiences: A Teacher Tool

• Three-Column Note-Taking Template

• Think-Write-Pair-Share

• Organizing My Thinking

• Connecting My Learning: A Tool for Students

Making School Improvement Happen with What Works in Schools: Teacher-Level Factors 49

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“Priming” Students Before an Input ActivityInput strategies provide ways to “prime” students for learning experiences they are about

to undertake. The strategies and models presented here all reinforce the notion that stu-

dents must receive support to activate prior learning and to make connections between

their previous learning experiences and new learning activities.

Ideas to Consider

• Engage students in the K-W-L process—“What do you already know about the

content we are about to study? What do you wish to learn about the content?”

And, at the conclusion of the unit, “What have you learned?”

• Use “think-write-pair-share” to activate students’ prior knowledge, beginning with

a personal reflection “think-write,” moving on to paired discussion and whole-

group sharing.

• Ask students to generate guide questions that they wish to have answered, based

on their initial understanding of the content to be presented in an upcoming

lesson or unit.

• Engage students in a small-group discussion in which they respond to essential

questions that are at the core of an upcoming set of lessons or a unit.

• Begin the presentation of new content with some form of anticipatory set or

warm-up involving students’ brainstorming of key concepts, generalizations, rules,

and skills and procedures they associate with the upcoming unit topic or focus.

• Engage students in discussion of the horizontal elements of the curriculum they

are studying by asking them, “How is what you are learning connected to what

you are learning in other classes and subjects?”

• Engage students in discussion of the vertical elements of the curriculum they are

studying by asking them, “How is what you are learning now connected to what

you learned in earlier grade levels?”

• Present new curriculum elements in the form of an advance organizer such as an

outline, a syllabus, or an overview document.

Instructional Strategies50

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Using Advance OrganizersMarzano emphasizes the value of David Ausubel’s (1968) concept of the “advance orga-

nizer,” suggesting that students benefit from having a clear and focused picture of what

they will be doing, how they will be doing it, and why they will be doing it. Specifically,

Marzano suggests that instructors use a variety of such organizers—overviews, outlines,

and summaries—at the beginning of each instructional episode. Exploring this conceptual

roadmap with students will ensure that every learner has a clear cognitive map of the

purpose of what they are studying and why they are learning it.

Ideas to Consider

• Integrate into your instruction the David Ausabel concept of advance organizers—

some form of abstract overview, outline, or synthesis that can function as a “pre-

view” of content students are about to study—to reinforce for them the coherence

and connectivity within your curriculum.

• Ask students to revisit this advance organizer as they move through the unit to

reinforce their sense of connectivity and purpose.

• Employ big ideas, themes, and questions as forms of advance organizers, revisit-

ing these elements throughout the unit to reinforce coherence and connectivity.

• Provide students with a syllabus for the course, ensuring that they understand

where they are going, why they are going there, significant time lines and bench-

marks along the way, and ways in which they will be evaluated—and will evaluate

themselves.

• Ensure that all students understand the goals and objectives they are responsible

for mastering. Periodically, stop direct instruction and engage students in written

and oral discussions of the purposes of what they are doing in class, the reasons

for their studying the curriculum content, and their perceptions about how what

they are learning connects to the world beyond the classroom.

• Use bulletin boards, dry-erase boards, and other classroom resources to engage

students in a collaborative construction of advance organizers, visual and written

displays of unit and course “road maps.”

• Have students periodically create visual representations of key information (core

concepts, themes, big ideas, essential questions) from preceding units and course

modules in order to “foreshadow” connections and patterns of relationship to be

revisited in upcoming units and modules.

• Periodically, ask students to use cooperative learning structures (pair-share,

Jigsaws) to debrief on what they are learning and how current learning connects

to past learning experiences.

Making School Improvement Happen with What Works in Schools: Teacher-Level Factors 51

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Synthesizing Knowledge in Linguistic Ways According to Robert Marzano in What Works in Schools, students can receive support to

synthesize new knowledge both during and after learning experiences. Input strategies

can engage students using linguistic methods such as summarizing and note taking.

Ideas to Consider

• Teach students how to summarize material by modeling various approaches.

Emphasize to students that summarizing involves three interrelated processes:

(1) determining main ideas, big concepts, and related forms of information that

should be maintained in the summary; (2) deleting secondary material that

represents supporting or confirming evidence but does not express major ideas

or controlling themes; and (3) modifying certain information that is essential but

needs to be shortened or abbreviated in order to streamline the summary

process.

• Integrate paraphrasing activities into classroom discussions and inquiries. Revisit

the skills of verbal summarizing: the need to keep certain information, to delete

subordinate or secondary information, and to modify other information that can

be shortened or synthesized.

• Offer peer coaching and peer response group activities in which students review

and critique one another’s written and verbal summaries.

• Encourage students to use a variety of higher-order cognitive skills when summa-

rizing: comparison, classification, induction and deduction, constructing support,

pattern recognition, and prediction.

Instructional Strategies52

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Improving Students’ Note TakingMarzano emphasizes that students need much more experience and coaching in the

process of taking notes. He specifically asserts that notes should be viewed as a work in

progress, and students should be encouraged to revisit their notes to identify emergent

patterns as well as any misunderstandings and misconceptions they may reveal. Addition-

ally, he recommends that formal or verbatim notes be complemented by a wide range of

tools and strategies, including graphic representations and informal outlining. Notes, he

affirms, should reflect students’ growing ability to evaluate information and synthesize

key elements and patterns. Additionally, students should be asked to create nonlinguistic

representations (e.g., pictographs, graphic organizers, flow charts) in order to process

key elements and ideas.

Ideas to Consider

• Teach students multiple approaches to note taking, including the use of formal

notes, graphic representations, and informal outlining.

• Use a variation of the three-column approach (also known as the Cornell method)

to note taking, with students taking running notes in the center of their sheet of

paper, writing summaries of key concepts, ideas, and questions in the left margin,

and creating visual representations, pictographs, and other visual organizers in

the right column.

• Coach students in the process of determining which information to include in

their notes and which information to delete, modify, or synthesize.

• Reinforce the idea that notes are a work in progress, encouraging students to

revisit their notes and modify mistakes, errors, and misconceptions.

• Provide opportunities for students to review their notes and to discuss (as a

whole group or in small groups) the big ideas and significant material they should

thoroughly understand.

• Ask students to work collaboratively to create study guides and visual representa-

tions of information that they consider useful. Such student-generated products

can be extremely useful for peer coaching and study-group purposes, as well as

providing valuable resources for future classes to use.

• Model various note-taking strategies by listening to a lecture (audiotape or video-

tape versions or actual lectures) with students and then putting your lecture notes

on overhead transparencies or on PowerPoint slides. Ask students to compare

what they included (or deleted) with your version of the notes.

Making School Improvement Happen with What Works in Schools: Teacher-Level Factors 53

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• Invite college professors and students who have graduated to present their views

on the note-taking process to your students, including their observations on stu-

dents’ common mistakes and misconceptions.

• Post on bulletin boards examples of nonlinguistic representations and visual

organizers generated by students to express their understanding of how informa-

tion in the class is organized. Use conflicting or highly distinct examples to dis-

cuss class perceptions and understandings.

Instructional Strategies54

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Synthesizing Knowledge in Nonlinguistic Ways Robert Marzano suggests that educators frequently fail to take full advantage of students’

use of nonlinguistic representations as a vehicle for synthesizing knowledge during and

after learning experiences. This section offers a range of strategies related to the use of

nonlinguistic representations.

Ideas to Consider

• To help students “deep process” the information they are studying and learning,

ask them to form concrete mental images of key content.

• Before students engage in a complex procedure or process, ask them to visualize

themselves being successful at moving through all major phases or steps in that

process, just as Olympic athletes do before an athletic activity or competition.

• Have students create pictures and pictographs representing key concepts as part

of their processing of curriculum content.

• Use a variety of graphic organizers to reinforce students’ understanding of what

they are studying. Whenever possible, do not present these graphic organizers as

worksheet activities or fill-in-the-blank exercises; instead, have students play an

active role in creating graphic organizers that reflect how they understand content

connections and relationships.

• Just as in the note-taking process, require students to revisit their graphic organiz-

ers and other visual representations to identify errors and misconceptions.

• Use two- and three-dimensional models (for example, math manipulatives) to help

students develop a concrete knowledge of complex, abstract concepts.

• Teach using a multisensory approach, with physical models and simulation activi-

ties that require students to use all their senses.

• Make narratives (either fictional or historical) come alive for students by engaging

them in reenactments and dramatizations.

Making School Improvement Happen with What Works in Schools: Teacher-Level Factors 55

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Factor: Classroom Management

Strategies for Managing an Effective Classroom Environment ..........101

Classroom Management Planning Guide for Teachers ................111

Teacher Self-Assessment for Implementing Classroom Discipline ........................................................................................115

Suggestions for Discussions During Classroom Meetings:A Tool for Students ........................................................................117

Feedback for My Teacher ..............................................................119

Resources for Strategies for Managing an Effective Classroom Environment ................................................................121

Putting It All Together ..............................................................................123

97

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© 2005 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED®

Making School Improvement Happen with What Works in Schools: Teacher-Level Factors 119

Feedback for My Teacher

W H A T I T I S :

This is a tool for students to use to provide teachers with input on how

well they are managing the classroom.

H O W T O U S E :

Use this tool to gather honest input on how well you manage your class-

room and create a welcoming environment. Use this tool at the end of a

unit of study or periodically throughout the year to note changes in stu-

dent perceptions.

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© 2005 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED®

Classroom Management120

Directions: Let your teacher know your honest opinion about how your classroom is man-aged. Put an “X” in the appropriate box.

My teacher . . .

Feedback for My Teacher

1. Quickly identifies and stops problem behaviors in the classroom.

2. Stays calm even when rules are broken.

3. Makes sure he or she shares control of the classroom with students.

4. Makes sure students are involved in developing classroom rules andprocedures.

5. Has the same high expectations for everyone’s behavior.

6. Works well with students who have problems controlling their behavior.

7. Recognizes all students for their successes.

8. Makes me feel welcome in the classroom.

9. Makes sure that movement from one activity to another is orderly.

10. Makes sure I feel comfortable answering and asking questions, even when I don’t understand something.

Yes No

Yes No

Yes No

Yes No

Yes No

Yes No

Yes No

Yes No

Yes No

Yes No

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ReferencesEllis, A. (1977). The basic clinical theory of rational-emotive therapy. In A. Ellis and R. Grieger (Eds.),

Handbook of rational-emotive therapy (pp. 3–34). New York, Springer.Kounin, J. S. (1983). Classrooms: Individual or behavior settings? Micrographs in teaching and learning

(General Series, No. 1). Bloomington, IN: Indiana University, School of Education. (ERIC DocumentReproduction Service No. 240070)

Meichenbaum, D. (1977). Cognitive behavior modification. New York: Plenum Press.

Resources for Strategies for Managing an Effective ClassroomEnvironmentBear, G. G. (1998). School discipline in the United States: Prevention, correction, and long-term social

development. School Psychology Review, 27(1), 14–32.Blythe, T., & Associates. (1998). The teaching for understanding guide. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.Bransford, J. D., & Brown, A. L. (Cochairs and Eds., National Research Council). (1999). How people learn:

Brain, mind, experience, and school. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.Bruner, J. (1996). The culture of education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Elliott, J. (1991). Action research for educational change. Bristol, PA: Falmer.Glasser, W. (1969). Schools without failure. New York: Harper and Row.Glasser, W. (1986). Control theory in the classroom. New York: Harper and Row.Glasser, W. (1990). The quality school: Managing students without coercion. New York: Harper and Row.Gordon, T. (1970). Parent effectiveness training. New York: Wyden.Gordon, T. (1974). Teacher effectiveness training. New York: Wyden.Larson, J. (1998). Managing student aggression in high schools: Implications for practice. Psychology in

the Schools, 35(3), 283–295.Marzano, R. J. (1992). A different kind of classroom: Teaching with Dimensions of Learning. Alexandria, VA:

Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.Marzano, R. J. (1998). A theory-based meta-analysis of research on instruction. Aurora, CO: Mid-continent

Research for Education and Learning. (ERIC Document Reproduction No. ED 427087)Marzano, R. J. (2003). What works in schools: Translating research into action. Alexandria, VA: Association

for Supervision and Curriculum Development.Marzano, R. J., Pickering, D. J., & Pollock, J. E. (2001). Classroom instruction that works: Research-based

strategies for increasing student achievement. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curricu-lum Development.

McLean, J. E. (1995). Improving education through action research: A guide for administrators and teachers.Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.

McTighe, J., & Wiggins, G. (1999). Understanding by design. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervisionand Curriculum Development.

Perkins, D. (1991, October). Educating for insight. Educational Leadership, 49(2), 4–8.Perkins, D. (1992). Smart schools: From training memories to educating minds. New York: Free Press.Schmoker, M. (1996). Results: The key to continuous improvement. Alexandria, VA: Association for Super-

vision and Curriculum Development.Sheive, L. T., & Schoenheit, M. B. (Eds.). (1987). Leadership: Examining the elusive—1987 yearbook of the

Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervisionand Curriculum Development.

Smith, W. F., & Andrews, R. L. (1989). Instructional leadership: How principals make a difference. Alexan-dria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Teddlie, C., & Reynolds, D. (Eds.). (2000). The international handbook of school effectiveness research. New York: Falmer Press.

Tomlinson, C. A. (1999). The differentiated classroom: Responding to the needs of all learners. Alexandria,VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Making School Improvement Happen with What Works in Schools: Teacher-Level Factors 121

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Wang, M. C., Haertel, G. D., & Walberg, H. J. (1993). Toward a knowledge base for school learning. Reviewof Educational Research, 63(3), 249–294.

Wiske, M. S. (1997). Teaching for understanding: Linking research with practice. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Wlodkowski, R. J. (1982). Discipline: The great false hope. Milwaukee, WI: The University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. 224782)

Recommended ASCD ResourcesWhat Works in Schools. Tape 3: Student-Level Factors. This third tape of a three-tape series, which includesa facilitator’s guide with accompanying readings and overhead transparencies, reinforces the criticalneed for programs that help students to develop self-discipline and personal responsibility.

Classroom Management That Works. This three-tape series with accompanying facilitator’s guide presentsa systemwide solution for classroom management based upon Marzano’s ASCD publication of the sametitle. The tapes include exemplars for sharing rules and procedures, developing relationships, and foster-ing student self-management. The theme of promoting student responsibility and efficacy is especiallyevident in Tape 3.

How to Design Classroom Management to Enhance Learning. This video demonstrates how educators canstreamline tasks and engage students in managing their own learning environment, substantially enhanc-ing time for and underscoring the importance of student learning.

Classroom Management: An ASCD Professional Inquiry Kit. This resource will help teachers move beyondtraditional classroom management practices to incorporate strategies that lower stress and free up moretime for instruction. A series of eight folders emphasizes how to solve classroom management problemsand examines classroom routines that promote democratic values.

Qualities of Effective Teachers. This three-part video series with accompanying facilitator’s guide featuresthe work of effective teachers at elementary, middle, and high schools. Each of the tapes has particularrelevance for the issue of classroom management as Robert Marzano presents it. The set covers buildinga foundation, managing and organizing an effective class, and planning and delivering instruction.

Classroom Management122

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Factor: Classroom Curriculum Design

Strategies for Designing Curriculum Units............................................131

Teacher Planning Guide for Designing Classroom Curriculum ....143

Justifying My Conclusions: A Tool for Students............................145

Identifying Important Knowledge for Unit Focus:A Teacher Tool................................................................................147

Project Planner: A Teacher Tool ....................................................153

Resources for Strategies for Designing Curriculum Units ............155

Putting It All Together ..............................................................................156

127

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© 2005 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED®

Making School Improvement Happen with What Works in Schools: Teacher-Level Factors 145

Justifying My Conclusions: A Tool for Students

W H A T I T I S :

This tool is a form for students to use when justifying their decisions with

the reasoning they used to reach conclusions for a class assignment.

H O W T O U S E :

Students involved in decision-making tasks or performance-based assess-

ments or complex tasks can use this form to justify their reasoning as they

learn unit concepts. Revisit the results with students at the end of a unit or

later in the school year to see if their thinking has changed based on new

learning.

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© 2005 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED®

Classroom Curriculum Design146

Directions: Use this guide to explain and defend your conclusions on the assigned unit topic.

1. My conclusion:

2. Facts on which my conclusion is based:

3. Evidence that supports my conclusion:

4. Reasons why my evidence should be considered accurate:

5. Limitations to my evidence:

Justifying My Conclusions: A Tool for Students