Extracurricular Activity and Ethnicity: Creating Greater School Connection among Diverse Student Populations

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2002 37: 41Urban EducationRandall Brown and William P. Evans

PopulationsExtracurricular Activity and Ethnicity: Creating Greater School Connection among Diverse Student

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URBAN EDUATION / JANUARY 2002Brown, Evans / EXTRACURRICULAR ACTIVITY AND ETHNICITY

EXTRACURRICULARACTIVITY AND ETHNICITY

Creating Greater SchoolConnection Among Diverse

Student Populations

RANDALL BROWNWILLIAM P. EVANS

University of Nevada–Reno

A youth’s sense of connection to school has been theorized by several traditions tobe an important predictor of school success and student behavior inside and out-side of school. Using a diverse sample of adolescents (N=1,755), this studyfocuses on the relationship between youth participation in extracurricular activi-ties and a greater sense of school connection, particularly for non–EuropeanAmerican students. In addition, we examined differences in participation rates fordifferent categories of extracurricular activities. Results revealed that studentswho participated, regardless of ethnicity, had greater levels of school connection.Results also revealed that European American students had a significantly greaterlevel of involvement, whereas Hispanic American students had significantly lessinvolvement. These results are discussed in terms of creating accessible andattractive extracurricular activity opportunities for diverse students.

The school context is a primary social influence in the lives ofdeveloping youth. Indeed, a strong sense of connection1 to theschool context has been found to be highly related to school success(Hendrix, Sederberg, & Miller, 1990), decreased dropout(Calabrese & Poe, 1990), and decreased problem behaviors(Jenkins, 1997). Although many factors contribute to a student’ssense of school connection, student participation in extracurricularactivities has long been argued as a primary way in which toencourage a greater connection or attachment to school (Finn,

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1989). As urban schools and their districts become more ethnicallydiverse, a question emerges: Do students of non–European Ameri-can ethnic groups who participate in extracurricular activitiesreceive similar increases in a school connection? And, if so, are stu-dents from different ethnic backgrounds as equally likely to partici-pate in extracurricular activities? Little previous research hasaddressed these questions, but they are the focus of the currentinvestigation.

Several theoretical traditions have converged on the thesis that ayouth’s understanding of his or her connection to social contextscan be an important influence on social behavior (e.g., Goodenow,1993; Hirschi, 1969; Seeman, 1959). Fields as disparate as crimi-nology and organizational psychology have suggested that thegreater an individual’s sense of connection to a prosocial context,the more likely he or she is to behave prosocially (Hirschi, 1969;Kurango, 1979). For example, a youth’s sense of connection hasbeen found to be associated with a decreased likelihood of schoolmisbehavior (Jenkins, 1997), school dropout (Calabrese & Poe,1990), delinquency (Sankey & Huon, 1999), and substance use(Battistich & Hom, 1997), as well as an increased likelihood of aca-demic motivation (Goodenow & Grady, 1993) and academic per-formance (Hendrix et al., 1990; Roeser, Midgley, & Urdan, 1996).The importance of this psychosocial variable on prosocial behaviorhas been widely held, yet little research has examined the processby which youth, particularly minority youth, develop a sense ofconnection (Battistich & Hom, 1997).

Some authors have argued that this sense of connection isdirectly affected by a youth’s active participation in prosocial con-texts such as school (Finn, 1989; Hawkins & Weis, 1985). Extra-curricular activity participation (EAP) is a formalized opportunityfor youth to experience such active involvement with school. Aconsiderable amount of research using both cross-sectional andlongitudinal samples has found important relationships betweenEAP and a decreased likelihood of drop out (Mahoney & Cairns,1997) and substance use (Cooley, Henriksen, Nelson, & Thomp-son, 1995), as well as an increased likelihood of academic achieve-ment (Gerber, 1996) and prosocial behavior (Marsh, 1992). Addi-

42 URBAN EDUATION / JANUARY 2002



tionally, some authors have suggested that EAP can encourageyouth to view their relationship with school more positively (Finn,1989; Nover, 1981).

Although these relationships seem to be widely held, little dis-cussion has focused on how these relationships might differ amongethnic groups. In fact, many of these EAP studies have been limitedto largely European American samples (e.g., Cooley et al., 1995;Steinberg, Cider, Kaczmarek, & Lazzavo, 1988). Further study isneeded to test whether the relationship between youth participationin extracurricular activities and a greater sense of school connec-tion is found among a wide range of ethnic groups.

At the same time, others have suggested that participation ratesin extracurricular activities might vary by ethnicity, with someminorities being significantly less likely to be involved than others(Gerber, 1996; Parish, 1985). These findings suggest that particularethnic groups might not be receiving the benefits that extracurricu-lar involvement appears to offer. As diversity increases and immi-gration patterns and population trends reinforce achievement andretention disparities among ethnic groups, schools need to beincreasingly concerned about enhancing school attachment amongminority students (Davalos, Chavez, & Guardiola, 1999; Vernez,Krop, & Rydell, 1999).

Using an ethically diverse sample, this study factored ethnicityinto an analysis of the relationship between EAP and school con-nection. Following this examination, participation rates among dif-ferent ethnic groups for several categories of extracurricular activi-ties were explored.

METHOD

PROCEDURE AND SAMPLE

Data for this study were drawn from two district-wide, yearlyassessments, which sampled two large, California–East Bay Areaschool districts. The sample was intended to represent a cross-section of students from a large metropolitan setting. The schools inthese two school districts have students who come from inner city,

Brown, Evans / EXTRACURRICULAR ACTIVITY AND ETHNICITY 43



urban, and suburban neighborhoods. The students from theseschools also vary in socioeconomic status, ranging from very low tohigh. For example, the schools sampled ranged from having 5% tomore than 90% of their populations coming from families whoreceive Temporary Assistance to Needy Families.

In gathering the data, District 1 of the two participating districts(the more socioeconomically diverse district) used an active con-sent procedure in which students who completed a consent formwere allowed to participate in the assessment. Students were con-tacted through their instructors and were given individual and par-ent consent forms. Those who returned both forms were allowed toparticipate in the yearly assessment. The participation rate variedfrom school to school, ranging from 97% to 30%. The second dis-trict (the more affluent one) used a passive consent procedure.Administrators sent home a letter to parents with students thatasked them to contact the district if they were opposed to havingtheir child participate in the yearly assessment. If they wereopposed, parents were asked to contact a district representative.Only 8% of the parents who were sent the letter requested that theirchild not participate in the assessment.

Clearly, this administration difference shaped the compositionof the sample. District 2, which used passive consent, had a muchgreater participation rate. Each district, however, assessed a similarnumber of students, 802 from District 1 and 953 from District 2,which represented about 8% of each district’s total secondary stu-dent population.

Interns from a local community counseling agency administeredthe survey. The interns were trained in the survey administrationprotocol by the lead author. The surveys were scanned into a databank using Teleform (version 5.0 survey processing software). Forall tables and analysis, Statistical Package for Social Sciences(SPSS) version 9.0 was used.

The sample of 1,739 secondary students (Grades 7-12, includingalternative school students) was composed of Hispanic American(18%), African American (17%), European American (22%), AsianAmerican (15%), Native American (3%), Pacific Islander Ameri-can (4%), and mixed ethnicity/other (22%).




MEASURES

The survey instrument measured EAP, ethnicity, school connec-tion, demographics, and substance use. Items for the instrumentwere developed based on theory, prior research, focus group dis-cussions, and concerns of district administration staff. The originalsurvey in its draft form was reviewed, critiqued, and finalized byteachers, students, university academics, and school district staff.Each year following its administration, focus groups were con-ducted with youth to help interpret the results and refine the survey.These focus group discussions also provided an opportunity to vali-date each year’s results. Before each yearly administration, theinstrument was again reviewed (for a more detailed description ofthe design procedure see Brown & Dean, 1997). This sample wasobtained from the fourth year of the survey’s administration.

School connection. To merge these divergent yet similar theoret-ical constructs, it became necessary to include commonalties andimportant aspects of divergence. We have drawn from the alien-ation literature to include power and commitment (Seeman, 1959).Dworkin (1987), Finn (1989), and Hirschi (1969) have definedsimilar constructs. Social control theory (Hirschi, 1969) alsoadvances the need for the individual to have a belief that the socialinstitution is a valid one. Lastly, Goodenow (1993) focuses on thebelonging one perceives to others in the school setting. This con-struct, although not the singular focus, has been posited by otherperspectives as well (Finn, 1989; Hirschi, 1969; Seeman, 1959).Together, these elements of connection (commitment, power,belief, and belonging) form a more comprehensive and cohesiveconstruct for the purposes of the current study. The appendix liststhe items used to measure these elements of school connection.

To test internal reliability of the proposed school connectionconstruct, a Cronbach’s alpha analysis was conducted using thetwo-district sample. The analysis revealed an alpha level of .855 forthe school connection scale (for a more detailed discussion of theformulation and psychometric properties of this scale see Brown,1999).




Extracurricular activity participation. EAP was measured byfour items. Although much of the research conducted on this topichas used a yes/no format (e.g., Cooley et al., 1995; Landers &Landers, 1978), several scholars have found that the level of partici-pation is an important variable to consider (Holland & Andre,1987; Marsh, 1992; McNeal, 1995). An hourly participation format(no hours, 1-5, 6-10, and more than 10 hours per week) was chosento gain consistency of effect across activity categories (Nover,1981). Research has also suggested that different categories ofactivities seem to show different patterns of influence (Holland &Andre, 1987; Landers & Landers, 1978; McNeal, 1995). The cate-gories used in this study were (a) sports activities (playing sports onan organized team like track, softball, baseball, football, basketball,and so forth); (b) fine arts activities (participating in band, dance,music, or other art activities in or out of school); (c) in-school activ-ities (participating in school activities and clubs like drama, cheer-leading, leadership, and student government); and (d) out-of-school activities (including clubs and organizations such as BoyScouts or Girl Scouts, youth groups, 4-H, and boys and girls clubs).

Ethnicity. Ethnicity was assessed by one self-report item on eachstudent survey. For the regression analysis, ethnicity was dividedinto a series of dummy variables. The dummy variable for each eth-nic group was coded with 1 being “of the ethnicity” and 0, “not ofthe ethnicity.”

Background. Sociodemographic variables used were gender,grade level, and socioeconomic status (measured with three items:free lunch eligibility, and mother’s and father’s educational levels).These variables were chosen based on past research, which has sug-gested that each of these variables might be a significant moderatorof the impact of EAP (Steinberg et al., 1988).

ANALYSIS

To examine the relationship between EAP and school connec-tion, the data was analyzed with a series of multiple regressionequations. School connection was regressed on a summed total




activity score and on all of the extracurricular activity categories.To test whether ethnicity affected this relationship, all of the ethnic-group dummy variables were added into the regression equations todetermine whether they eliminated the relationship between EAPand school connection. In addition to these analyses, school con-nection was separately regressed upon EAP using each ethnicgroup as a subsample.

A series of analysis of variance procedures were used to test fordifferences between ethnic groups and their rates of participation inactivities. Post hoc examinations were used to determine the sourceof the ethnic group differences.

RESULTS

EAP AND SCHOOL CONNECTION

To test the robustness of the relationship between EAP andschool connection, two sets of multiple regression equations wereconducted. First, school connection was regressed on total extra-curricular activity participation (TEAP) while controlling for back-ground variables including ethnicity (see Table 1). TEAP (asummed score of all participation categories) was indeed signifi-cantly associated with greater school connection (β = .085, t[1625] =3.446, p < .001) despite controlling for ethnicity. School connec-tion also was regressed on TEAP for each of the ethnic groups. Therelationship between greater school connection and TEAP wasfound with Hispanic, African, and European American students(see Table 2). Hispanic American students maintained the strongestrelationship between TEAP and school connection (β = .138,t[285] = 2.371, p <.01).

EAP CATEGORIES

The second set of equations regressed school connection indi-vidually upon each extracurricular activity category, while againcontrolling for ethnicity. As separate categories of activities,only sports (β = .069, t[1567] = 2.752, p < .006) and outside-of-school




(β = .051], t[1567] = 2.076, p <.038) participation were signifi-cantly related to greater school connection. Although the other cat-egories approached significant levels, inside-of-school activityparticipation and fine arts participation were not significant at thep < .01 level.

PARTICIPATION RATES

The second set of analyses compared the reported hourly partici-pation rates of students from several ethnic categories (see Table 3).


TABLE 1Multiple Regression Equation Predicting School Connection

from TEAP After Controlling Background Variables

Variable School Connection

TEAP (β) .085**Grade (β) –.197**SES (β) .039Gender (β) .077*African American(β) .040Asian American (β) .072*Hispanic American (β) .056Other (β) .036

NOTE: Gender is coded male = 0, female = 1; ethnicity is coded as follows: not of theethnicity = 0, of the ethnicity = 1 (e.g., non-Hispanic = 0; Hispanic = 1. TEAP = totalextracurricular activity participation, SES = socioeconomic status. Adjusted R 2 =.052.*p < .05. **p < .005.

TABLE 2Multiple Regression Equations Predicting School

Connection Conducted SeparatelyWith Each Ethnic Group

Individual Regression School Connection (β)

TEAP/Hispanic American .138*TEAP/African American .102*TEAP/European American .090*TEAP/Asian American .107TEAP/Native American –.213TEAP/Pacific Islander American .023TEAP/other/mixed .049

TEAP = total extracurricular activity participation.*p < .01.



The participation rates were tested using the four categories ofactivity (sports, inside-of-school, outside-of-school, and fine arts)and a summed scale (TEAP). Analysis of variance proceduresrevealed significant differences between ethnic groups in each ofthe activity categories except sports: inside of school activities(F[1623] = 3.548, p < .002), outside-of-school (F[1638] = .6.621,p < .000), and fine arts(F[1625] = 7.716, p < .000). Significantparticipation rate differences also were found for TEAP (F[1658] =10.148, p < .000). Bonferroni post hoc analyses suggested that thesource of the differences were differences between Hispanic Amer-ican and European American students and other ethnic group stu-dents (see Table 4).

DISCUSSION

These results replicate previous findings regarding the impor-tance of EAP: Those students reporting higher levels of extracurric-ular activity also reported higher levels of school connection. Thisrelationship was found while controlling for ethnicity. Furtheranalyses using subsamples of each ethnic group found the relation-ship between EAP and school connection to be particularly strongamong Hispanic American, African American, and EuropeanAmerican students. These results in part answer one of the ques-tions posed at the beginning of this article: Do students of non–European American ethnic groups who participate in extracurricu-lar activities receive similar increases in a sense of connection toschool?

EAP can be an important strategy for school attachment and per-haps the primary nonacademic activity available to educators andschools to enhance school connection. Because the prevailing val-ues in our educational system reflect the dominant European Amer-ican majority, minority students may feel isolated and not sup-ported in the school setting. Inclusion in extracurricular activitiesmay facilitate inclusion in peer groups, positive school-relatedexperiences, and a sense of belonging, all of which may contributeto greater school connectivity and retention. Such involvement isparticularly critical given that the students most at risk for school




failure may be the ones who benefit the most from the enhancedschool connectivity associated with EAP (Mahoney & Cairns, 1997;McNeal, 1995).


TABLE 3Participation Rates of Different Ethnic Groups

(in percentages)

No 1-5 6-10 More ThanEthnicity/Variable Hours Hours Hours 10 Hours

EthnicityHispanic American

Playing sports 48.6 32.2 10.5 8.5Outside-of-school activities 80.1 15.5 3.1 1.4In-school activities 77.3 18.6 1.7 2.4Fine arts 73.7 18.0 5.9 2.4

African AmericanPlaying sports 44.8 33.0 14.4 7.8Outside-of-school activities 67.3 26.8 3.3 2.6In-school activities 63.3 27.3 8.3 1.1Fine arts 52.3 33.3 9.1 5.3

European AmericanPlaying sports 46.7 25.3 12.9 15.1Outside-of-school activities 56.9 32.6 6.4 4.1In-school activities 69.5 18.1 6.5 5.9Fine arts 49.7 27.8 13.3 9.2

Asian AmericanPlaying sports 42.2 41.8 11.1 4.9Outside-of-school activities 69.5 25.1 3.7 1.6In-school activities 74.9 21.4 2.5 1.2Fine arts 57.0 30.7 9.8 2.5

Native AmericanPlaying sports 28.9 44.4 8.9 17.8Outside-of-school activities 63.0 21.7 13.0 2.2In-school activities 69.8 23.3 4.7 2.3Fine arts 57.8 24.4 11.1 6.7

Pacific Islander AmericanPlaying sports 47.0 28.8 16.7 7.6Outside-of-school activities 65.2 28.8 3.0 3.0In-school activities 70.3 18.8 4.7 6.3Fine arts 54.5 34.8 6.1 4.5

Mixed EthnicityPlaying sports 45.3 34.0 10.2 10.5Outside-of-school activities 68.5 24.9 3.9 2.8In-school activities 75.3 17.2 4.4 3.0Fine arts 56.4 29.3 7.8 6.4



TABLE 4Significant Results from Post Hoc Comparisons of Ethnic Groups and Their Participation Rates

PacificHispanic African European Asian Native Islander Mixed/American American American American American American Other

African American Fine arts .304**TEAP .690**

European American Outside .320**Inside .197*Fine arts .449**TEAP 1.180**

Asian America Outside –.203*Inside –.188*Fine arts –.242*TEAP –.801**

Native American TEAP .986*

Pacific Islander American

Mixed/Other Fine arts .272** Outside –.169*TEAP .555* TEAP –.625**

NOTE: Mean differences listed with notations for p levels;TEAP = total extracurricular activity participation;Outside = outside of school activity participation; Inside = inside of school activity participation.*p < .05. **p < .005.

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In contrast to previous research, however, we did find somemodifications of this relationship. Total EAP, sports, and interest-ingly, out-of-school activities all were significantly associated withincreased school connection, whereas the other activity categoriesdid not reach significant levels. The finding that out-of-schoolactivities such as boys and girls clubs, 4-H, youth groups, andscouts are more significantly related to school connection than in-school or fine arts extracurricular activities is somewhat surprising.Many of these programs attempt to enhance life skills that mayincrease the likelihood of attachment to a variety of social activi-ties, including school. In addition, these programs typically attemptto engage youth during after-school hours, a critical period duringwhich the majority of risky adolescent behaviors occur (Snyder &Sickmund, 1997). Engagement in such out-of-school activities,particularly those that reinforce socially acceptable behaviors, thusmay help protect many youth from at-risk developmental trajecto-ries (including school failure) and promote social attachments(Zill, 1995).

As urban communities and schools become increasinglydiverse, extracurricular activities that involve students from differ-ent ethnic backgrounds become critically important. Unfortu-nately, these analyses revealed that ethnic student groups differen-tially participate in extracurricular activities. European Americanstudents were significantly more likely to participate, whereas His-panic American students were significantly less likely to partici-pate in activities. Interestingly, ethnic group differences were notfound for sports participation. Participation in sports appears to cutacross ethnic boundaries and seems to have greater attraction andretention for minority students. Other categories did not reflect thesame diversity of participation and may not maintain the sameaccess or appeal as sports.

As others have noted, the availability of extracurricular activitiesdoes not ensure equal access or participation (Mahoney & Cairns,1997). Issues of expertise and individual talent; popularity, status,and election procedures to offices and certain clubs; and minimumacademic performance requirements all influence participation insports, fine arts, and other in-school extracurricular activities.




These potential barriers and the different participation rates foundamong the ethnic student groups of this study suggest that schoolsand communities need to do a better job of creating extracurricularprograms that are inclusive and attractive to all students.

In a broader sense, we recognize that structural factors such associal and school environments play critical roles in academicattachment, and ultimately, academic success. For example, aca-demic failure in the form of dropping out of school has fallen prin-cipally under two categorical influences known as the “push andpull effects” (Jorden, Lara, & McPartland, 1996; McNeal, 1995).Push effects are those factors located within the school environ-ment itself that negatively impact a student and result in their rejec-tion of the school experience. Pull effects recognize that school isonly one segment of the student’s social arena. Other factors suchas cultural expectations, parental influences, employment, and inti-mate relationships may affect school attachment and school suc-cess or failure. Together, such factors and their effects almost cer-tainly influence the ethnicity–EAP relationship.

Specific cultural forces also can play an important role inwhether students succeed or fail academically. Documented gapsexist in the academic failure rates between European American andminority students and between affluent and poor students. A por-tion of the gap is due to familial and cultural expectations. Forexample, some Hispanic females may not be expected to completehigh school due to the familial/cultural emphasis on their roles asmother and wife (Valdivieso & Nicolau, 1994) and some AfricanAmerican youth may view unemployment as their fate regardlessof the educational attainment they achieve (Ogbu, 1990). This mayin turn hinder school attachment/performance and pose a major dis-traction from completing or succeeding in school (Ekstrom,Goertz, Pollack, & Rock, 1987). In addition, in southwestern stateslike California, immigration patterns pose special challenges forschools attempting to meet the diverse needs of some minority stu-dents. Hispanics are particularly at risk given present results andtrends indicating that increased immigration from countries withlimited access to education will widen the achievement gapsamong minorities (Vernez et al., 1999).




Although modified by these issues, these results do not contra-dict the stream of literature linking EAP to enhanced school con-nection and school success (e.g. Gerber, 1996). EAP, then, shouldbe a high priority for urban schools and communities hoping toaddress truancy, declining academic achievement, and drop out,particularly with diverse student groups.

What can be done to encourage involvement and reduce barriersto participation among diverse students? Promising strategies thatcan help enhance involvement in extracurricular activities includeglobal strategies that increase parental and community involve-ment with schools and specific strategies that relate to the inclusive-ness, attractiveness, and accessibility of school and community-based extracurricular activities.

An important way to encourage the development of and greaterparticipation in youth activities is to involve students, their fami-lies, and the community in seeking solutions. Increasingly diversecommunities surrounding schools in many sections of the countryhave begun to play a more influential role in the education of chil-dren. Promoting the value of cultural diversity, enhancing inclu-siveness, and addressing the individual, family, and group concernsabout education are but a few of the expectations that communitiesincreasingly have of their schools (Adelman, 1996; Friesen &Osher, 1996; Ralph, Colopy, McRae, & Daniel, 1995). Global bar-riers to diverse family and community involvement with schoolshave been numerous and varied and include differing cultural val-ues and expectations, language barriers, a lack of user-friendlycommunication linkages, and disparate views of education andeducational reform (Chaskin & Richman, 1992; Freisen & Osher,1996). Educators and administrators need to be proactive inaddressing these challenges.

Schools can use a variety of methods to engage the surroundingcommunity. Multicultural awareness weeks or events, parent-teacher nights with particular outreach activities relating to minor-ity families, culturally sensitive curricula, and parent in-school vol-unteer programs are all methods schools can use to address barriersto family and community involvement. Some schools have outreachworkers who are from a particular community and who are familiar




with a community’s social networks. These outreach workers canassist in garnering input and participation in activities and events.

One theme in any successful outreach or involvement effort isthe quality and sensitivity of staff. Staff development in the area ofclimate/culture, diversity, and inclusively can help to support amulticultural and accessible school.

Schools, school districts, and communities need to examinewhat extracurricular activities are available to students. Who is par-ticipating? Are there enough activities? Do these activities attractand retain all students? Are the culture and curricula of these activi-ties sensitive and attractive to young people of all cultures? And,most important, are there other appealing activities that a school ora community can offer to youth?

Many of these questions can be answered by youths themselves.Adults frequently forget that youths often have an insightful anduseful understanding of solutions to youth problems. Students needto be a part of the planning of existing extracurricular activities anddeveloping of new opportunities (Brown & Dean, 1997).

Although reaching out to parents, the community, and studentsis not a simple matter, these efforts are crucial to creating more rele-vant and well-supported activities. The current study reemphasizesthe importance of ensuring that these activities are available,equally accessible, and attractive.

There are limitations to any findings generated by the currentstudy. The most fundamental limitation is the cross-sectionaldesign of our study. Longitudinal studies are needed to betterunderstand the relationships among ethnicity, EAP, and schoolconnection over time for various levels of participation and studentpopulations.

In addition, many other research questions need to be answeredto understand fully how to create greater student school connection.Future research questions include: Why do some students joinextracurricular activities? Why do students maintain participationover time? How do differing levels of ethnic identification relate toEAP? What type of EAP is most conducive to promoting schoolconnection in urban settings? What strategies best increase partici-pation among particular ethnic groups?




In the meantime, these findings underscore the need for educa-tors to target underrepresented student groups for extracurricularactivities and to increase efforts directed at creating more inclusiveand supportive programs.

APPENDIX

CommitmentI can be a success at this school.It pays to follow the rules at my school.My schoolwork helps in things that I do outside of school.I can reach my goals through this school.

PowerAdults at this school listen to students’ concerns.Adults at this school act on students’ concerns.The principal at this school asks students about their ideas.I have many opportunities to make decisions at my school.

BelongingI can be myself at this school.I feel like I belong at this school.I have friends at this school.I am comfortable talking to teachers at this school about problems.

BeliefThe rules at my school are fair.We do not waste time in my classes.Students of all racial and ethnic groups are respected at my school.When students have an emergency someone is there to help.

NOTE

1. Although connection is a term that is not present in the primary literature referencedhere, most authors have conceptualized a continuum of perceived psychosocial linkage thatranges from alienation to connection (Newman, 1981).




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Extracurricular Activity and Ethnicity: Creating Greater School Connection among Diverse Student Populations