Extracurricular activities and the adjustment of Asian international students: A study of Japanese students

International Journal of Intercultural Relations

26 (2002) 363–379

Extracurricular activities and the adjustmentof Asian international students: A study

of Japanese students

Teru Toyokawaa,*, Noriko Toyokawab

aCenter for Human Growth and Development, University of Michigan, 300 N. Ingalls Building 10th Level,

Ann Arbor, MI 48109-0406, USAbTokyo International University of America, OR, USA

Abstract

The association between the engagement of Japanese students in extracurricular activities

and the students’ adjustment to American campus life was examined. The participants were 84

Japanese students studying in a 10-month program in the United States. The study found that

engagement in extracurricular activities was positively related to students’ general life

satisfaction, benefits drawn from academics and extracurricular activities, and levels of

academic involvement. Implications for program development for Asian international

students are discussed. r 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Extracurricular activities; Adjustment; Involvement; International students; Japanese students;

Within-group difference

1. The Adjustments of International Student

International students encounter many challenges in the process of theiradjustment to their host country (Barker, Child, Gallois, Jones, & Collan, 1991;Church, 1982; Leong & Chou, 1996; Westwood & Barker, 1990). During their schoolyears, college students deal with stress from academic life and issues stemming fromnormal development, such as psychological autonomy, economic independence, andidentity formation. Compared to host national counterparts, however, internationalstudents experience added difficulty in that they must cope with other forms of stress.

*Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-734-764-2443; fax: +1-734-936-9288.

E-mail address: [email protected] (T. Toyokawa).

0147-1767/02/$ - see front matter r 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

PII: S 0 1 4 7 - 1 7 6 7 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 0 1 0 - X

This difficulty includes culture shock, language difficulties, adjustment to unfamiliarsocial norms, eating habits, customs and values, differences in education systems,isolation and loneliness, homesickness, and a loss of established social networks(Church, 1982; Furnham & Tresize, 1983; Jensen & Jensen, 1983; Leong & Chou,1996).

Previous studies identified a number of variables to predict how successfullyinternational students adjust to a foreign environment. These predictors includedemographic variables, such as age, sex, marital status and country of origin;individual factors such as language proficiency (Poyrazli, Arbona, Bullington, &Pisecco, 2001; Surdam & Collins, 1984); level of preparedness (e.g., previousexperience living in foreign cultures, knowledge of the host culture); purposes andgoals for staying in the host country, acculturation level; personality characteristics,including sensitivity, flexibility and assertiveness; contextual factors such as theavailability of resources (e.g., counseling services, social support network) (Hayes &Lin, 1994), size of community (Sellitz, Hopson, & Cook, 1956), and racial and ethnicdiversity on campus and discrimination (Heikinheimo & Shute, 1986) (also see Brein& David, 1971; Church, 1982; and Leong & Chou, 1996, for reviews).

Despite the cumulative knowledge of factors contributing to internationalstudents’ adjustment, little is known about the dynamic nature of adjustmentprocesses through which the students make transitions to the new environment(Church, 1982; Cui & Awa, 1992; Ying & Liese, 1990). U-curve theory (Gullahorn &Gullahorn, 1963; Lysgaard, 1955; Oberg, 1960) illustrates some aspects of theadjustment process of international sojourners and students. Indeed, U-curve theoryhas good descriptive value (Thomas & Harrell, 1994), and the theory has guidedresearchers in their studies on this process. Nevertheless, the validity of the theory iscriticized mainly because the theory neither provides much information on themechanisms of adjustment nor explains why each of the different stages ofadjustment starts and ends (Furnham & Bochner, 1982; Thomas & Harrell, 1994)and that the theory is overgeneralized to explain diverse experiences amongsojourners regarding how they adjust to the host country (see Black & Mendenhall,1990; Thomas & Harrell, 1994, for more detail discussion on U-curve theory).

1.1. International students’ social interactions and adjustment

As a factor contributing to the adjustment process of international students, thestudents’ social interactions with host nationals have also been examined. It isassumed that through interacting with host national friends, these students obtainsocial support, enhance language proficiency, and become familiar with the hostsociety’s custom and values. Thus, international students who have more chances tointeract with host nationals adjust to the host society better than students who havefewer chances. Previous studies have reported a positive relationship between theamount and frequency of international students’ social interactions with hostnationals, and their adjustment to the host country (Furnham & Bochner, 1982;Heikinheimo & Shute, 1986; Perkins, Perkins, Guglielmino, & Reiff, 1977; Sellitz &Cook, 1962). Surdam and Collins (1984), for example, reported that the more time

T. Toyokawa, N. Toyokawa / International Journal of Intercultural Relations 26 (2002) 363–379364

international students spent with friends from the host country, the better theiradjustment to the host culture. Another study found that international students whomade at least one close friend from the host nation felt a stronger connection withthe United States than students who had no such friends (Sellitz & Cook, 1962).Studying 170 foreign medical residents in the United States, Antler (1970) also foundthat those who had frequent contact with host nationals viewed themselves as moreactive and assertive in their interpersonal relationships, and more satisfied with life,in general, than students who had less contact with host nationals.

These studies provide evidence that social interactions of international studentswith host national friends may enhance international students’ adjustment. Tofurther understand the positive effects of social interactions of international studentson their adjustment, however, in addition to the presence of interactions with hostnationals or the frequency of interactions, studies also need to examine through whatkinds of activities and on which occasion international students encounter hostnationals. The information on these aspects may be particularly useful for those whoare interested in planning or designing programs targeted for enhancing interna-tional students’ level of social interactions with host nationals.

1.2. Extracurricular activities and the adjustment of international students

For international students, engaging in extracurricular activities is considered avaluable opportunity to meet with host nationals. Among various reasons forinternational students’ sojourning in the host country, academics are one of the toppriorities (Heikinheimo & Shute, 1986; Yang, Teraoka, Eichenfield, & Audas, 1994).Because of students’ emphasis of academic-related goals, it is often assumed thatinternational students spend much time involved in academic activities. However,these students also have non-academic goals, motivations, and interests. Forexample, international students are interested in exploring a new culture and societyor making friends in the host country (Barratt & Huba, 1994; Toyokawa, Toyokawa,& Matsudaira, 1998). Furthermore, these students generally spend a great deal oftime engaging in various types of activities outside the classroom, includingattending cultural events, participating in sports, socializing with friends and diningout. Through these activities, students may have a chance to make host nationalfriends. They may also learn social skills for interacting with host nationals andsocial customs and values in the host culture.

In addition, international students’ interests in activities on and off campus mayfacilitate the development of their social support networks and social competence(Hayes & Lin, 1994). Previous work has reported a positive influence of out-of-classexperiences on students’ adjustment and development in college student populations(Astin, 1993; Kuh, 1995; Whitt, Edison, Pascarella, Nora, & Terenzini, 1999; also seeKuh et al., 1991; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991; Terenzini, Pascarella, & Blimling,1996, for reviews). To date, however, most studies on this topic have been conductedwith Caucasian, full-time students in four year colleges (Terenzini et al., 1996);indeed, few studies have examined other groups of students, including internationalstudents, regarding activities and life in out-of-class contexts.

T. Toyokawa, N. Toyokawa / International Journal of Intercultural Relations 26 (2002) 363–379 365

One of few exceptions is a study conducted by Bochner, McLeod, and Lin (1977).Using a functional model, Bochner and his colleagues found associations betweenvarious out-of-class activities in which international students engaged and threedistinct interpersonal networks formed by the students, namely, mono-cultural, bi-cultural and multi-cultural networks. The study illustrated that the networks thatinternational students formed with friends from the host country (i.e., bi-culturalnetworks) had an instrumental function such as seeking help for language oracademic work. In contrast, the function of the networks that international studentsformed with co-national friends (i.e., mono-cultural networks) was to rehearse andaffirm cultural identity and national loyalties through activities such as cooking andshopping. Co-national friends are also selected when international students need totalk about their personal problems. Regarding international students’ networks withother international students (i.e., multi-cultural networks), their function was morerecreational. For example, international students engaged in going to cultural eventsand picnics with friends from this type of network. Moreover, findings suggest thatthe different needs of international students are met through various activities withfriends from functionally distinct social networks. A few other studies, althoughtheir main focus was not on out-of-class experiences, per se, also provide support forthe assumption that international students’ engagement in out-of-class activities hasa positive effect on their adjustment (Barratt & Huba, 1994; Surdam & Collins,1984).

In sum, for international students engagement in extracurricular activities isconsidered an important social context in which they may develop social networksand learn social skills, values and customs in the host society. In addition, the studiesreviewed above suggest that there exist a positive link between internationalstudents’ engagement in out-of-class experiences and their adjustment to the hostcountry. Nevertheless, few studies have directly investigated this link. The currentstudy is an attempt to focus on this neglected aspect of international students’adjustment.

1.3. The current study

The purpose of the present study was to explore the relation between the level ofengagement in extracurricular activities of Japanese students studying in the UnitedStates and the students’ academic involvement, psychological health, social sup-port from friends and active use of leisure time. The conceptualization of the re-search question in the present investigation was mainly guided by Astin’s (1984)involvement theory. According to the involvement principle, the amount of benefitsthat students can obtain from college and university attendance is a function of timethat students spend involved not only in academic-related activities, but also in out-of-class activities such as socializing with friends and engaging in cultural events andin volunteer activities on and off campus (Astin, 1984). This basic postulate ofinvolvement theory leads to the assumption that engagement in out-of-class activitiesinfluences students’ cognitive and social development. The present study alsoconsidered the notion that student adjustment to a new culture should be


conceptualized as multidimensional, as opposed to focusing mainly on psychologicalfunctioning (Church, 1982; Thomas & Harrell, 1994). Baker and Siryk (1984) assertthat student adjustment to college is multifaceted; therefore, it should be measuredby multidimensional indices, including academic, social and psychological adjust-ment, and institutional and goal commitment. The current study echoed theseresearchers’ assertions by examining Japanese students’ adjustment not only onpsychological indices (i.e., psychological health and general life satisfaction) but alsoon academic and social dimensions.

For academic adjustment, a positive relation between students’ level ofengagement in extracurricular activities and their learning and cognitive develop-ment has been reported (Kuh, 1995; Terenzini et al., 1996; Whitt et al., 1999).Students who engaged more in extracurricular activities are expected to show higherlevel of academic involvement. Regarding the social dimension, engaging in variousout-of-class activities may facilitate students’ social interactions, through whichstudents may develop new peer relations and social support networks in a newenvironment (Bochner et al., 1977). Therefore, the current investigation examinedthe association between students’ level of engagement in extracurricular activitiesand their academic involvement and perceived social support from friends as part ofstudents’ adjustment to American campus life.

The present study also examined the relation between students’ engagement inextracurricular activities, and active use of leisure time and perceived benefits fromleisure activities. Individuals who actively engage in leisure activities tend to beintrinsically motivated and perceive leisure as exciting and challenging. In contrast,those who engage less in leisure are more likely to feel bored and to perceive leisuretime as not exciting and involving (Iso-Ahola & Weissinger, 1990). In addition,students who actively participate in out-of-class activities may perceive the activitiesto be useful and beneficial (Astin, 1984).

A sex difference in the relation between students’ engagement in extracurricularactivities and their adjustment was also explored. Research on sex differences in theadjustment of international students is sparse (Church, 1982). However, previousstudies have reported sex differences in social activities (Fitzgerald, Joseph, Hayes, &O’Regan, 1995; Trice & Elliott, 1993). For example, Trice and Elliott (1993) foundthat female Japanese students were more likely than male students to engage inactivities such as discussing personal problems and campus social activities withAmerican students. Yang et al. (1994) also reported that female university studentsfrom Asian countries, including Japan, were more likely to have meaningfulrelationships with US students than did their male counterparts. These studies implythat Japanese female students may be more active in engaging in extracurricularactivities and social interactions with host nationals than did Japanese male students.

The present study focused on Japanese students studying on an American campusfor several reasons. First, among Asian international students, Japanese studentscomprise a significant percentage of the international students studying in the UnitedSates. In fact, Japanese students comprised the largest and second largest group ofinternational students in the United States during the academic years of 1997–98 and1998–99 (9.8% and 9.5%, respectively) (Davis, 1999). Second, because of a large


cultural disparity in terms of language, educational systems, and communicationstyle, Japanese students, and Asian students in general, tend to experience moredifficulty in social interactions and adjustment on American campuses than theirEuropean counterparts (Abe, Talbot, & Geelhoed, 1998; Barker et al., 1991;Kinoshita & Bowman, 1998; Perkins et al., 1977; Schram & Lauver, 1988; Sheehan &Pearson, 1995; Surdam & Collins, 1984; Trice & Elliott, 1993; Yang et al., 1994).Third, although Asian students as a whole tend to be treated as one group, the groupof Asian students on US campuses consists of students from different countries inwhich people’s uses of languages, values, life styles and customs vary to a greatextent. Moreover, even a group of Japanese students may consist of students withdifferent characteristics, including their goals, level of motivation to study, length ofstay and type of study program in the host country (Tanno, Hamazaki, Mogi-Hein,& Takahashi, 1995; Toyokawa et al., 1998). Thus, it is important to appreciate thewithin-group variability among Asian students (Abe et al., 1998; Sodowsky & Plake,1992).

2. Method

2.1. Participants and characteristics of the program

Participants in this study were the entire cohort of 85 Japanese students (41 malesand 44 females) who were in a 10-month study abroad program in the western partof the United States in 1997 and 1998. The average age of the participants was 20.98years (SD=1.64; range=19–30). Before coming to the United States, a majority ofthe students had finished their first year in majors such as business and commerce,international relations, and social welfare. For most of the students, the programwas their first experience living in a foreign country for more than 6 months. Duringtheir stay in the United States, all participants lived in residence halls at oneAmerican university, which has established a close relationship with its Japanesecounterpart.

To apply for this program, students were not required to demonstrate a specificlevel of English language ability; they were not expected to submit Test of English asa Foreign Language (TOEFL) scores. In fact, the program was designed to bring thelanguage ability of students starting at the very beginning to the level at which theywere able to take courses with regular American students. Because of the nature ofthe program, therefore, students’ levels of English varied, although no objectiveindex for representing students’ English language abilities was available.

In addition to academic courses, engagement in out-of-class activities wasencouraged in the present program. One of the unique aspects of the program wasthat, while in the program, students were encouraged to engage in different types ofvolunteer activities such as volunteer services in the local community and culturalexchange activities on campus (e.g., introducing Japanese culture to local people). Inaddition to volunteer activities, the program offered students various opportunitiesto engage in extracurricular activities with American students such as serving on the


student board, planning events in residence halls, and becoming involved in music,arts and sports. They were able to engage in as many different types of activities asthey desired while in the program.

2.2. Procedure

Data used in the current study came from a survey conducted in November 1998.The survey was originally designed and developed for an administrative purpose,namely, to collect information on the degree to which the students in the programadjusted to life on an American campus. At the time the survey was conducted, thestudents had spent approximately 9 months in the program. During a mandatoryweekly meeting that was used for a discussion of various issues of student life, thestudents were asked to respond to the survey. The survey consisted of severalsections, including students’ academic and out-of-class experiences, relationshipswith friends, and physical and mental health. Out of 85, one student’s response wasexcluded from analysis because of missing data.

2.3. Measures

Because the survey was conducted, due in part, for an administrative purpose,some limitations were imposed on the current study’s data collection procedure,including the selection of survey items. Due to time constraints and the schooladministrators’ intention to collect information on a wide range of students’behaviors and experiences, most concepts of interest were measured by relatively fewitems. Because of these constraints, the reliability of some measures was less thandesirable. Despite these limitations, all reliability coefficients of the scales weremoderate to high. In addition, items selected for the present study were stated in arelatively straightforward manner. This increased the scales’ face validity.

The data also have some advantages for the exploratory purpose of the currentstudy. One advantage is that the information on international students’ engagementin out-of-class activities is quite rare. Another advantage is that the current study’ssample is Japanese students who studied in the same program. Therefore, factorsthat may influence students’ level of engagement in extracurricular activities, such asthe size and geographical location of the school and differences across programs, arecontrolled.

Engagement in extracurricular activities. The degree of students’ engagement inextracurricular activities was assessed by a two-item scale. Students were asked torespond to the items on how actively they pursued opportunities to engage inactivities outside the classroom, using a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 ¼not at all

applicable; 5 ¼highly applicable). (The same anchors were used for all the items usedin the study.) Sample items for this scale include: ‘‘I have made an effort to becomeinvolved in various extracurricular activities’’ and ‘‘I have extracurricular activitiesthat I have particularly become involved in.’’ The average scores were computed toserve as the index of students’ engagement in extracurricular activities. Higher scores


indicated higher degrees to which students engaged in extracurricular activities.Cronbach’s alpha for this scale was 0.91.

Academic adjustment. The construct of academic adjustment was assessed by twomeasures: (1) academic involvement and (2) academic benefit. Academic involvement

was a three-item scale that tapped students’ perceptions of their levels of activeinvolvement in academic life. Sample items used in this scale were: ‘‘I had coursesthat I especially became involved in’’ and ‘‘I engaged in courses that I was interestedin.’’ The mean scores of the three items were computed as the index of academicinvolvement. Higher scores indicated more active involvement on the part ofstudents in courses taken. The internal consistency reliability coefficient, orCronbach’s alpha, was 0.72. Academic benefit, a five-item scale, was also createdas an index of students’ academic adjustment. Sample items for this measure were:‘‘Taking courses broadened my perspective,’’ and ‘‘Courses helped me to clarify myfuture goals.’’ The average scores for five items were computed to serve as the indexof students’ perceptions of the benefits of their course work. Higher scores indicatedthat students perceived greater benefits from their academic activities. Cronbach’salpha of the scale was 0.85.

Psychological adjustment. The construct of psychological adjustment was assessedby two measures. The first measure assessed students’ psychological health. Thismeasure consisted of five items, which tapped the degree to which studentsexperienced feelings of loneliness and stress in the last 30 days. Sample itemsincluded: ‘‘I am lonely,’’ ‘‘I feel depressed,’’ and ‘‘I am stressed out.’’ The averagescores of the responses were computed to serve as the index of psychological health.Lower scores indicated better psychological health. Cronbach’s alpha for this scalewas 0.85. The second scale that was used to assess psychological adjustment wasgeneral life satisfaction. The measure consisted of two items. A sample item is: ‘‘Ingeneral I am satisfied with my life here.’’ The mean scores were computed for theindex of general life satisfaction. Higher scores indicated that students had higherlevels of satisfaction with life on campus. Cronbach’s alpha was 0.88.

Social support. The measure on perceived social support from friends was based ontwo items, which directly asked students about the degree to which support wasavailable from friends. The items used were: ‘‘I have friends whom I can comfortablyask about things’’ and ‘‘I have friends in whom I have confidence.’’ The mean scoresof the responses to the two items served as the index of social support. Higher scoresindicated students’ higher level of perceived social support. Cronbach’s alpha for thisscale was 0.76.

Active use of leisure time. The measure of students’ active use of their leisuretime consisted of four items, which capture how much the students in theprogram enjoyed time outside the classroom. To develop the items, the constructof leisure boredom (Iso-Ahola & Weissinger, 1990) was used. Sample items used inthis scale were: ‘‘I use my leisure time actively,’’ ‘‘I do not know what to do duringmy leisure time’’(reverse coded item), and ‘‘Leisure time is a very important part ofmy life.’’ Mean scores across the four items were calculated. Higher scores indicatedstudents’ relatively active and meaningful use of leisure time. Cronbach’s alphawas 0.75.


Extracurricular activity benefit. Students’ perceptions regarding how beneficialextracurricular activity engagement was for personal development was assessed witha five-item scale. Sample items from this measure were: ‘‘Extracurricular activitieshelped me to clarify my future goals’’ and ‘‘Extracurricular activities helped me tolearn how to organize events.’’ A higher score indicated that the student perceivedmore benefits in engaging in extracurricular activities. Cronbach’s alpha for thisscale was 0.90.

Background characteristics. In addition to the major variables described above,students were asked to provide their background information. The informationincluded age, sex, and academic standing.

3. Results

3.1. Data analysis strategy

First, descriptive statistics of the variables used in the study were obtained. Next, a2� 2 (Extracurricular Activity Engagement� Sex) multivariate analysis of variance(MANOVA) was performed to examine differences in degree of engagement inextracurricular activities and sex differences in students’ adjustment to campus life.Because multiple univariate ANOVAs were conducted for the study, Bonferroni typeadjustment was made for inflated Type I error. We assigned alpha=0.005 for sevendependent variables so that the overall alpha level did not exceed 0.05.

3.2. Descriptive statistics

Means and the standard deviations for the major variables used in the study werecalculated. Then, the participants were divided into two groups based upon theirlevels of engagement in extracurricular activities: high versus low activityengagement. To divide the sample, median score on engagement in extracurricularactivities (Mdn=3.00) was used. Table 1 summarizes the means and standarddeviations of students’ scores on the dependent variables by sex and level ofengagement in activities.

3.3. Effects of level of activity engagement and sex

To investigate the effect of both students’ levels of engagement in extracurricularactivities and sex on adjustment outcomes, a 2� 2 (Extracurricular ActivityEngagement� Sex) MANOVA was conducted. Type III sums of squares wereutilized in this analysis because of unequal cell sizes (Lewis & Keren, 1977). With theuse of Wilks’ criterion, the analyses revealed an overall effect of extracurricularactivity engagement, F ð7; 74Þ ¼ 6:46; p ¼ 0:0001; Wilks’ Lambda=0.62. However,no overall effect was detected for sex nor for the interaction of sex and engagementin extracurricular activities, F ð7; 74Þ ¼ 1:38; p ¼ 0:23; Wilks’ Lambda=0.89, andF ð7; 74Þ ¼ 0:33; p ¼ 0:94; Wilks’ Lambda=0.97, respectively.


To investigate the effect of activity engagement on each dependent variable, aunivariate ANOVA was performed. Results showed that four out of seven univariateeffects were significant (see Table 1). For general life satisfaction, as expected,students who engaged in more extracurricular activities reported higher levels ofgeneral life satisfaction, F ð1; 80Þ ¼ 12:57; p ¼ 0:0007: Similarly, for academic life,students who highly engaged in extracurricular activities were more likely to beenthusiastic about academic courses than students who did not spend time involvedin out-of-class activities, F ð1; 80Þ ¼ 9:71; p ¼ 0:0025: In addition, students who wereactively involved in extracurricular activities tended to perceive studying as useful forexploring their future goals, F ð1; 80Þ ¼ 17:09; p ¼ 0:0001: Finally, students whoactively engaged in activities perceived significantly greater benefits from extra-curricular activities than those students who were less engaged in activities,F ð1; 80Þ ¼ 35:60; p ¼ 0:0001:

For the rest of the independent variables, mean scores differed between high andlow groups in the expected direction for both males and females. In other words,

Table 1

Means and standard deviations of variables on students’ adjustment

Activity Engagement

Male Female

Variables High (n ¼ 19) Low (n ¼ 20) High (n ¼ 21) Low (n ¼ 24) Univariate effectsa

Life satisfaction

M 4.11 3.30 4.07 3.13 F ¼ 12:57 **

SD 0.94 1.45 0.95 1.10

Psychological health

M 2.98 3.34 3.01 3.46 F ¼ 3:44SD 0.95 1.10 1.10 0.84

Use of leisure time

M 3.92 3.65 3.85 3.51 F ¼ 2:64SD 0.75 0.95 0.73 0.93

Social support

M 3.92 3.75 4.26 4.23 F ¼ 0:21SD 1.18 1.33 0.70 0.75

Academic involvement

M 4.03 3.20 4.21 3.83 F ¼ 9:71*SD 0.94 0.97 0.75 0.88

Academic benefit

M 4.09 3.29 3.98 3.51 F ¼ 17:09***SD 0.79 0.89 0.58 0.53

Extracurricular activity benefit

M 4.12 3.10 4.06 3.00 F ¼ 35:60***SD 0.71 1.06 0.62 0.73

aUnivariate effects of extracurricular activity engagement.

Note. High—high engagement in extracurricular activities. Low—low engagement in extracurricular

activities.

*pp0.01. **pp0.001. ***pp0.0001.


students in the high engagement group scored higher on active use of leisure time andsocial support from friends, and scored lower on psychological health than studentsin the low engagement group. However, these mean score differences did not reachstatistical significance.

4. Discussion

The present investigation explored the relationship between level of engagement inextracurricular activities and the degree to which Japanese students participating in anon-degree program adjusted to campus life in the United States, as measured byseveral dimensions. The results showed that those students who were more engagedin extracurricular activities reported higher scores on satisfaction with life in general,in the host country than students who were not as engaged. The students in the highactivity engagement group were also more involved in academics and perceived morebenefits from both academic and extracurricular activities.

Regarding the positive association between engagement in extracurricularactivities and academic involvement, one possible explanation may be that students’engagement in extracurricular activities and academic involvement are reciprocallyinfluenced by each other (Bergin, 1992). For example, extracurricular activities mayhelp students to explore or broaden their interests. Once they develop an interest in acertain activity, they may become more motivated to take courses related to theactivity in question, and to obtain more knowledge and skills related to that activity.At the same time, taking courses may lead students to strengthen their interests incertain activities. Since the students are able to use the knowledge and skills theyhave gained in class when they return to their out-of-class activities, they may reapan immediate reward for their learning. This reciprocal relationship, therefore, mayencourage students to maintain their levels of motivation to learn in courses, as wellas encouraging them to engage in out-of-class activities.

The reciprocal effect of engagement in extracurricular activities and academicinvolvement can be further illustrated by an anecdotal example of one studentwe advised in the present program. This female student in the program, whowas involved in childcare as a volunteer in the local community, gradually developedan interest in music therapy for children. She conducted some library researchbecause of her own interest in the subject, and eventually took a course on musictherapy at the affiliated American university. Furthermore, she began to considerpursuing a career in psychology. This example may demonstrate the link betweenstudents’ engagement in out-of-class activities, academic involvement, and clarifica-tion of career goals. Future research should further examine this mechanismempirically.

It is also assumed that students are more likely to perceive benefits in takingcourses and engaging in activities if their interests and the contents of the coursesmatch. One such benefit is that international students may encounter variousopportunities to learn the values and customs of the host country, as well as topractice social skills and the English that they have learned in the classroom. In


particular, this holds true when the activities are interactive in nature. Hood,Riahinejad and White (1986) reported the positive relationship between collegestudents’ participation in campus activities and confidence. Interacting with hostnationals through out-of-class activities may enhance international students’confidence in social settings. Previous work also suggests that international studentswith poor English language skills tend to have lower self-esteem (Barratt & Huba,1994). Moreover, better language skills, and spoken language skills in particular, areconsidered to be associated with better social interactions. From the perspective ofan educational model (Furnham & Bochner, 1982), the process of learning values,customs, and social skills through interactions with people in the host country is acrucial aspect of international students’ adjustment. Therefore, gaining socialcompetence through participating in extracurricular activities may help internationalstudents to enhance their levels of self-esteem and confidence, which may in turn leadto their active involvement in academics, including the benefits that accrue throughsuch involvement.

The study hypothesized that students in the high extracurricular activityengagement group would report higher levels of psychological adjustment, socialsupport, and active use of their leisure time than students in the low engagementgroup. Contrary to our expectation, this hypothesis was not supported. Oneexplanation may lie in the small sample size of the current study. Anotherexplanation may be that for students’ psychological adjustment, the scale onpsychological health was not significantly associated with levels of extracurricularactivity engagement, while the other scale on general life satisfaction was. Since someof the items in the former measure tap a serious psychological maladjustment ofrespondents (e.g., depression, loneliness and anxiety), considering the non-clinicalsample of this study, significant variability might not be observed. A scale such assatisfaction in life or everyday life stress may be more useful in measuringpsychological adjustment in the current study’s participants.

Regarding level of support from friends and the active use of leisure time, the nullfindings can be explained by how the present study measured students’ engagementin extracurricular activities. The measurements used in the present study did notconsider the nature of activities (e.g., content, type, quality, co-national versus host-national companions of activities). Not all out-of-class activities may equally becomebeneficial for student adjustment (Kuh, 1995). In addition, different types ofactivities may function differentially in that international students are connectedwith different kinds of networks through different types of activities (Bochner et al.,1977; Furnham & Alibhai, 1985). Moreover, a lack of distinction among activitytypes may have masked sex differences in extracurricular activity engagement, whichother studies found. As Trice and Elliott (1993) and other studies reported, femalestend to engage in social activities more than males do. However, the global measurethat we used in the present study cannot capture whether female students in thecurrent study showed higher levels of engagement in social activities, in the firstplace. With the information from this measure, any judgement cannot be maderegarding whether or not students spent time with co-nationals or host nationals,either. Depending upon the nature of activities involved, students may or may not


gain a sense of satisfaction, or more chances of social interactions with host nationalsthrough out-of-class experiences.

It is also plausible that Japanese students’ engagement in out-of-class activitiescould be the result of satisfying others’ needs or of a fear of losing groupmembership. This could easily occur in the context of the current program, in whichthe Japanese students had to spend a great deal of time with other Japanese studentsduring their stay in the United States. Considering the collectivistic nature ofJapanese culture (Markus & Kitayama, 1991), in order to maintain their groupmembership, some students, and female students in particular, might have feltcompelled to spend time engaging in activities with other group members, eventhough they did not wish to do so. In this situation, engagement in out-of-classactivities might not help Japanese students to develop support networks or to havesatisfying leisure time. Instead, participating in such activities might have become asource of stress for some students.

Although the present study found some support for a positive link betweenJapanese students’ engagement in extracurricular activities and their levels ofadjustment to campus life, this finding should be interpreted with caution because ofseveral limitations. First, the most obvious is that the measures used in the presentstudy were not psychometrically well established. In addition, the study used arelatively small sample from a single institution. Contextual factors such as thepercentage of international and minority students on campus and location of campus(i.e., urban versus rural area) may influence the kinds of activities and events thatinternational students can engage in. Thus, further research is needed to replicate thecurrent study’s findings, using measures with better psychometric properties and alarger sample from multiple institutions. Second, because the present study is cross-sectional in design, we cannot make any conclusion regarding causal directionsbetween Japanese students’ engagement in out-of-class activities and theiradjustment. It is not difficult to assume the reverse causal direction; namely,students who adjust themselves to a new environment are more likely to engage inextracurricular activities than those who do not.

Third, as already commented briefly, the present study did not examine either thenature of activities that the Japanese students engaged in or the companions withwhom they engaged in the activities. Studies in international sojourners’ socialinteractions would provide more useful information if the content and the process ofinternational students’ interactions, students’ perceived importance of the interac-tions, and contexts in which effective social interactions occur are investigated (Brein& David, 1971; Church, 1982). Likewise, to facilitate Japanese students’ adjustment,future research needs to identify what types of activities these students engage in withwhom and where.

Finally, the current study did not allow the researchers to control for severalfactors that might influence the relationship between engagement in activities andadjustment, such as personality characteristics (e.g., introverted versus extroverted),and levels of motivation, English proficiency and social skills, and acculturation. Onemight assume that Japanese students engage more in out-of-class activities if theypossess characteristics, such as being high in extraversion, motivation regarding


exploring a new environment and self, acculturation, and social and language skillsthan students who were lower in these aspects.

Despite these limitations, results of this study have some implications for thosewho organize and implement programs for facilitating social interactions ofJapanese and other Asian international students with host nationals. Oneimplication is that for Japanese students extracurricular activities may serve as apotential window for the exploration of various opportunities to socialize withmembers of the host country. Therefore, facilitating the engagement of Japanesestudents and other Asian international students in out-of-class activities may be asimportant as supporting their successful performance in the classroom. To facilitatethe students’ engagement in out-of-class activities, providing them with informationon both the academic aspects of their program and opportunities for off-campusactivities may be useful.

Another implication is that, in order to achieve the first point, program organizersneed to understand the preferences, interests and needs of Japanese and perhapsother international students regarding out-of-class experiences. From the perspectiveof a developmental goodness-of-fit-model (Lerner, 1986), students can manifestadaptive outcomes, including successful academic achievement and social interac-tion, when their needs and resources that the program can provide for the studentsmatch. Program organizers and staff should evaluate their programs to understandhow effectively the programs have met students’ needs and pursue congruencebetween students’ needs and program resources. Without careful assessment ofstudents’ interests and needs, programs developed for students after expending agreat deal of time and money could have a high attrition rate or inadequateparticipation.

Today, studying abroad is no longer a privilege for Japanese students, which usedto be limited to the highly educated elite with a strong motivation to earn a degree aquarter century ago. It is apparent that more opportunities to study in the UnitedStates are available for many Japanese students. As the opportunities have increased,the goals and needs of those students have become more diverse. Indeed, manystudents seek out the experience of studying abroad because they expect that it mayprovide valuable opportunities to broaden their worldviews, to search for identity, toexplore abilities and interests, or to clarify future goals. Because students encounterthese opportunities not only in classroom settings but also in out-of-classroomcontexts, exploring the relations between academic activities and out-of-classactivities may provide a new perspective for understanding Japanese and otherinternational students studying in the United States.

Acknowledgements

We thank students who participated in the study. We are also grateful to Fred W.Vondracek and two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments to an earlierversion of the manuscript.


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Extracurricular activities and the adjustment of Asian international students: A study of Japanese students