Explicit Reading Instruction: Important Features and Findings

Explicit Reading Instruction: Important Features and Findings

Nancy E. Marchand-Martella, Ph.D., and

Ronald C. Martella, Ph.D.

2 SRA FLEX Literacy™

The purpose of this paper is to describe the tenets of explicit instruction, an important instructional approach to ensure the success of students who struggle in reading in grades 3-8. An overview of the topic is provided along with a discussion of current reading statistics; best practices in reading; what explicit instruction is and what it is not; lesson planning, delivery, and assessment; the stages of learning; and the research supporting the use of explicit instruction.

3Explicit Reading Instruction: Important Features and Findings

Overview “Atnoothertimeinourhistoryhastheabilitytoreadbeensoimportanttoallmembersofsociety”(Coyne,Kame’enui,&Carnine,2011,p.50).Infact,learningtoreadisthemostimportantskillourstudentscanlearninschool,servingastheveryfoundationofallotheracademicsubjects.AccordingtoHulmeandSnowling(2011),

Teachingchildrentoreadaccurately,fluently,andwithadequatecomprehensionisoneofthemaingoalsofearlyeducation.Readingiscriticalbecauseagreatdealofformaleducationdependsuponbeingabletoreadwithunderstanding(p.139).

Thinkofallthetimeswereadduringtheday.Wemayhavereadthenewspaperinthemorning,readtypedtextatthebottomofatelevisionscreenlaterintheafternoon,followedarecipetomakedinner,readaquicke-mailortextfromafriend,studiedfromatextbookforahighschoolquiz,orenjoyedanovelbeforebed.“Readingisoneofthefundamentalskillsforthe21stcentury”(Lenski,Wham,Johns,&Caskey,2007,p.1).

Theevidenceonwhyreadingshouldbeakeyinstructionalfocalpointinourschoolsisindeedstriking.Studentswhoreadathighlevelsaremorelikelytostayinschool,gradu-atefromhighschool,accesscollegeortechnicalschools,andbegainfullyemployed.(SeeAllianceforExcellentEducation,2011;Hempenstall,2004;andLyon,2001forimportantstatistics.)Unfortunately,manyofourstudentsarenotonapositivetrajectorytoachievethesemilestones.Collegesmustnowofferremedialreadingclassesforanalarminglyhighpercentageofstudents(Snow&Moje,2010).Considerthatasmanyas90percentofstudentswithlearningdisabilitiesinourelementaryandsecondaryschoolshaveproblemsinreading(Bender,2008).Additionally,highpercentagesofournation’sstudentsstrugglewithreadinggrade-levelandmoreadvancedtext,plac-ingthematadisadvantageinmathandscienceanddecreasingtheirabilitytocom-peteformoretechnologically-orientedjobs(Kamiletal.,2008).

Theprognosisisespeciallydireforstudentsinpoverty.Thelowestperformersinreadingarestudentsfromfamilieswhoarethelowestwageearners(Carnine,Silbert,Kame’enui,&Tarver,2010).Ifthesestudentsarenotabletoacquirecriticalreadingskills,theywillbeunlikelytoachievetheirfullpotentialineducationandinearningpower.Thus,theseindividualsmayberelegatedtoalifeofpoverty,aswillfuturefamilialgenerations.Whenstudentshavefewerandfeweroptionsinlife,theyoftenbecomejuvenileoffenders.Interestingly,Vacca(2008)wentsofarastosaythatcrimecouldbepreventedifschoolstaughttheseindividualshowtoread.Therefore,weshouldputthehighestpriorityonbestpracticesinreadinginstruction,particularlyforthemostvulnerablestudents,includingthosewhoareatriskforschoolfailureorwhoreceivespecialeducationservices.

Interestingly,SnowandMoje(2010)describedthewidespreadandmisguidedassumptionthatweshouldfinishreadinginstructionbytheendofthirdgrade.Theyusedtheterm“inoculationfallacy”toillustratethenotionthatanearlyvaccinationofreadinginstruc-tion,especiallyingradesK–3,doesnotprotectpermanentlyagainstreadingfailure.Wemustcontinuetoprovidereadinginstructionbeyondthirdgrade.


How do our students perform in reading? The2011NationalAssessmentofEducationalProgressfindingsinreadingwererecentlyreleasedforstudentsingrades4and8(NationalCenterforEducationStatistics[NCES],2011).Thisassessmentfocusesonreadingforunderstandingandincludesliteraryandinformationaltextwithanemphasisonvocabularyknowledge.Studentswererequiredtolocateandrecallinformation,integrateandinterpretwhattheyhadread,andcritiqueandevaluatewhattheyhadread.Threeachievementlevelsarenotedontheassessment:basic(denotes“partialmasteryofprerequisiteknowledgeandskillsthatarefundamentalforproficientworkateachgrade”),proficient(“representssolidacademicperformance”with“demonstratedcompetencyoverchallengingsubjectmatter”),andadvanced(“superiorper-formance”)(NCES,2011,p.6).(Note:Theterm“belowbasic”isnotdefinedinthereportbutwouldbeconsideredlessthan“partialmasteryofprerequisiteknowledgeandskillsthatarefundamentalforproficientworkateachgrade.”)TheNationalCenterforEducationStatistics(2011)reportedthefollowingfindingsforfourthgraders:

• Theaveragereadingscorewasunchangedfrom2009.

• Amongstudentswhoscoredbelowthe25thpercentile,74percentwereeligibleforfree/reducedpriceschoollunch.

• Amongstudentswhoscoredabovethe75thpercentile,71percentwerewhite,while7percent,11percent,and8percentwereblack,Hispanic,andAsian,respectively.

• Only34percentofstudentsscoredatorabovetheproficientlevelwith67percentscoringatorabovethebasiclevel.Thus,33percentscoredbelowthebasiclevel.

• Studentswhoreportedreadingforfunalmosteverydayscoredhigherthanthosewhodidnotreadasfrequently;thosewhoscoredthelowestinreadingreportedneverorhardlyeverreading.

TheNationalCenterforEducationStatistics(2011)reportedthefollowingfindingsforeighthgraders:

• Theaveragereadingscorewashigherthanin2009.

• Amongstudentswhoscoredbelowthe25thpercentile,67percentwereeligibleforfreeorreduced-priceschoollunch.

• Amongstudentswhoscoredabovethe75thpercentile,72percentwerewhite,6percentblack,11percentHispanic,and8percentAsian.

• Only34percentofstudentsscoredatorabovetheproficientlevel,with76percentscoringatorabovethebasiclevel.Thus,24percentscoredbelowthebasiclevel.

• Studentswhoreportedfrequentclassdiscussionsaboutsomethingthewholeclasshadreadscoredhigherthanthosewhoreporteddoingsolessfrequently.


Thesedataspeaktotheimportanceofeffectiveandefficientreadinginstructionbeyondgrade3.Theyalsoshouldhelpeducatorspinpointspecificdeficitareastostrengthenforstudents.BasedontheNCES(2011)findings,itappearsstudentsneedfocusedinstructioninreadingliteraryandinformationaltext.Further,thesestudentsneedincreasedopportunitiestoexaminetextwithacriticaleye,todiscusstextwithinawhole-classsetting,andtolearnimportantfoundationalreadingskillssotheymaylocateandrecallimportantinformation,integrateandinterpretfindingsfromwhattheyread,andcritiqueandevaluatetext,viewingitfromvariousperspectives.Studentsalsoneedtoreadmore—simplyreadingmoretextisassociatedwithbetterreadingperformance.

What are best practices in reading instruction? Thecongressionally-mandatedNationalReadingPanelReport(NationalInstituteofChildHealthandHumanDevelopment[NICHD],2000)changedthedirectionofreadinginstructioninourschoolsingradesK–3.Nowafocusisplacedonthefiveelementsofreading,includingphonemicawareness,phonics,fluency,vocabulary,andtextcomprehension(Armbruster,Lehr,&Osborn,2006).Comprehensivecorereadingprogramsprovidedingeneraleducationclassroomstypicallyincludetheseimportantelements.

Further,BiancarosaandSnow(2006)notedtheimportanceofadolescentliteracyinstructionintheirReading Nextdocumentforstudentsingrades4–12.Thisdocu-mentwasfollowedbyapracticebriefbyBoardmanetal.(2008)describingthefiveelementsofreadingforstrugglingadolescentreaders,includingwordstudy,fluency,vocabulary,comprehension,andmotivation.

Comprehensivecorereadingprogramsprovideafoundationfortheresponsetointervention(RTI)model.InRTI,anemphasisisplacedonscientifically-basedinstructionandprogramsingeneraleducationtoensureallstudentsreceivebestpracticesinreading.Thegoalistopreventreadingdifficultiesfromoccurringinthefirstplace.RTIwasdevelopedinparttoavoidthenegativeaspectsofthewait-to-failmodelofspecialeducation;giventhismodel,schoolsarenowprovidingcomprehensivecore(Tier1),strategicintervention(Tier2),andintensiveintervention(Tier3)instructionandpro-gramstobettermeettheneedsofallstudents.Studentscanbequalifiedmuchearlierbasedontheirfailuretorespondtoempiricallysupportedinterventionsdeliveredwithintegrityinourschools(Marchand-Martella,Ruby,&Martella,2007).ProgressmonitoringandbenchmarkassessmentsarekeyaspectsofanRTIframework.Ifstudentsarefailinginthismodel,theyareassumedtohavelegitimatedisabilitiesandarenotconsidered“curriculumcasualties.”InterventionsaretargetedtoaddressdeficitsinthefiveelementsofreadingforgradesK–3and4–12.

Nomatterwhatgradelevel,whetherthestudentisingradesK–3or4–12,aninstruc-tionaltermappearsrepeatedlywhenitcomestohowreadinginstructionshouldbeprovided.Thistermisexplicit.Explicitinstructionwillbedescribedindetailinthesectionsthatfollow.


What is explicit instruction? Teachershaveaprofoundimpactonhowmuchtheirstudentslearn.“Althoughitseemssimplisticandobvious,teachersofreading‘teach’;thatis,studentsdonotbecomeindependentlearnersthroughmaturation”(Rupley,Blair,&Nichols,2009,p.126).Studentsdonotlearnsimplybythepassageoftime—theymustreceiveinstruction.Teachingrequirescarefullyplannedteacherandstudentinteractions.Studentsqualifyforreadingremediationbecausetheyareacademicallybehindtheirpeers.Theirlearningmustbeacceleratedinorderforthemtocatchup,soteachersmustdomoreinlesstime.Themosteffectiveandefficientwayofshorteningthelearningtimeforthesestudentsisthroughthedirectandexplicitteach-ingofskills.Considerthefollowing:

Aseducators,weallhavethesamegoal:tohelpourstudentsmakethemaximumpossibleacademicgainsinapositive,respectfulenvironmentthatpromotestheirsuccessandnurturestheirdesiretolearn.Oneofthegreatesttoolsavailabletousinthispursuitisexplicitinstruction—instructionthatissystematic,direct,engaging,andsuccessoriented...explicitinstructionishelpfulnotonlywhendiscoveryisimpos-sible,butwhendiscoverymaybeinaccurate,inadequate,incomplete,orinefficient(Archer&Hughes,2011,p.vii).

Therefore,inexplicitinstruction,teachersbecomefullyresponsibleforstudentlearningbutgraduallyrelinquishthisresponsibilitytostudentsastheybecomesuccessful(Marchand-Martella&Martella,2009).Teachersprogramforstudentsuccessandareintentionalwiththeirinstructionratherthanleavingstudentstodiscoverwhattodoontheirown.Thus,instruction“movesfromteachermodeling,throughguidedpracticeusingpromptsandcues,toindependentandfluentperformancebythelearner”(Rosenshine,1986,p.69).

Definition

Explicit,ordirect,instructionis“asystematicmethodofteachingwithemphasisonproceedinginsmallsteps,checkingforstudentunderstanding,andachievingactiveandsuccessfulparticipationbyallstudents”(Rosenshine,1987,p.34).Systematicinstructionisakeyaspectofexplicitinstruction.Itreferstoaplanorlogicalsequenceofteachingusedtodecreasestudentconfusionanderrors.Forexample,teachinglettersoundsinaspecifiedandlogicalorder(e.g.,separatingtheteachingofbanddandfocusingonhigh-utilitysoundssuchasaandsamongthosetaughtfirst)isahallmarkofeffectivephonicsinstruction.Whenacurricularprogramincludesadetailedscopeandsequenceshowingalogicalorderofskills,systematicinstructionisevident.Thatis,prerequisiteskillsaretaughtinastep-wisefash-ionbeforemorecomplexskillsandstrategiesaretaught.Forexample,reciprocalteachinginvolvesteachingskillsinprediction,summarization,questiongeneration,andclarification.Eachoftheseimportantcomponentskillscouldbetaughtseparatelyandthenintegratedintoalargerreciprocalteachingstrategyformaximumbenefit(Marchand-Martella&Martella,2010).Thisapproachwouldensurethatthosestudentswhoneedhelpthemostcouldbeactiveparticipantsinthelearningprocess.

Explicitordirectinstructioncanalsobereferredtoas“demonstration-prompt-practice”(Stevens&Rosenshine,1981),“antecedentpromptandtest”(Martella,Nelson,Marchand-Martella,&O’Reilly,2012),or“Ido,wedo,youdo”(Archer&Hughes,2011).Inthistypeofinstruction,studentsareshownhowtoperformataskbeforebeingexpectedtodoitontheirown.


Lesson Planning, Lesson Delivery, and Lesson Assessment

Explicitinstructioninvolvesclassroomexperiencesthatmovestudentsfromlittletonoknowledgetomasterywherestudentsperformskillsandstrategiesathighlevels(Mar-tellaetal.,2012;Rosenshine,2008).Explicitinstructioninvolvescarefullessonplanning,intentionallessondelivery,andalignedlessonassessment.Hunter(1982)andRosenshineandStevens(1986)describedthecriticalfeaturesofexplicitinstructionmorethanthirtyyearsago.ThesecriticalfeaturesareshowninFigure1andincludethefollowing:

• Lesson Planning(learningobjectivesandprerequisiteskills)

• Lesson Delivery(opening,model,guidedpractice,independentpractice,andclosing)

• Lesson Assessment(mastery,maintenance,andgeneralization)

Lesson Planning

Lesson Delivery

Lesson Assessment

Independent Practice

(Monitor)

LearningObjectives

PrerequisiteSkills

GuidedPractice(Guide)

Opening

Closing

MaintenanceMastery Generalization

Model

Figure 1.Criticalfeaturesofexplicitinstruction


Explicitinstructionaffectsstudentachievementinapositivemanner(Archer&Hughes,2011;Hall,2002;Carnineetal.,2010;Sabornie&deBettencourt,2009)andisconsidered“helpfultoallstudentslearningnewskillsandcontent,andisabsolutelyessentialforstrug-glingordisadvantagedlearners”(Archer&Hughes,2011,p.17).Lessonplanning,lessondelivery,andlessonassessmentaredescribedbelow. Lesson planning.Twoessentialaspectsoflessonplanningarelearningobjectivesandprerequisiteskills. Learning objectives.Explicitinstructionbeginswiththeendinmind;thatis,wemustknowwherewewantourstudentstoendup beforewebegininstruction.Weaskour-selves,“Whatdoweultimatelywantourstudentstodo,andwhatisthemosteffectiveandefficientwayofgettingthemthere?”Determiningwhatweultimatelywantourstudentstodoshouldbeclearlylinkedtostandards.CurrentbestpracticesininstructionalignwhatweexpectourstudentstolearnwiththeCommonCoreStateStandards(seewww.corestandards.orgformoredetails).

TheCommonCoreStateStandardsprovideaconsistent,clearunderstandingofwhatstudentsareexpectedtolearn,soteachersandparentsknowwhattheyneedtodotohelpthem.TheStandardsaredesignedtoberobustandrelevanttotherealworld,reflectingtheknowledgeandskillsthatouryoungpeopleneedforsuccessincollegeandcareers(CommonCoreStateStandardsInitiative,2010,p.1).

FocusedreadingstandardsincludethoseforEnglishlanguageartsandliteracyinhistory/socialstudies,science,andtechnicalsubjects.Readingstandardsaregroupedbasedontheirrelevancytoliterature,informationaltext,andfoundationalskills.StandardsaredevelopedforstudentsineachofgradesK–5and6–12. AligningourinstructionwiththeCommonCoreStateStandardshelpsuspinpointthe“bigideas”ofinstruction.Bigideasarethemostimportantskillsweexpectourstudentstolearn.Theyarethoseskillsthatcarrythemostinstructionalhorsepower—studentscanusetheseimportantskillsinamyriadofways.Forexample,determiningthemainideaisanimportantinformationaltextbigideafoundintheStandards.Studentsareoftenaskedtopinpointthe“gist”ofasampleoftext,whetherastudentisreadingoneparagraph,severalparagraphs,oranentirechapter.Derivingamainideaappearsonclassroom,school,district,state,andnationalassessmentsaswell.TheseskillsmayservetooasthefoundationformorecomplexstrategiessuchasSQ3R(Survey,Question,Read,Recite,Review). OncewehavetargetedthebigideasthataligntotheCommonCoreStateStandards,wecanplanunits(largerchunksoflearning)andlessons(activitieswehopetoaccomplishinaninstructionalsession).Theseunitsandlessonsformthebasisofadetailedscopeandsequence.Ascopeandsequenceisaroadmapforlearning,showingalltheskillsandstrate-giesweexpectourstudentstolearnovertime.Itdeterminestheorderofwhenskillsaretaught;itshowstheoverlapofsomeskillswithothers;itensuresprerequisiteskills(seebelow)aremasteredbeforetheyarefoldedintootherskillsorstrategies.Ascopeandsequencecontainsahorizontalandaverticalprogression.Ahorizontalprogressionshowsthedevelopmentofasingleskillfrominitialinstructiontostudentmasteryandbeyondacrosslessons.Averticalprogressionshowstheskillsthatappearinasinglelesson. Explicitinstructionalprogramsarebuiltonthefoundationofcarefulcontentanalysis;skillsarepiecedtogethertoensureastep-wiseprogressiontoexpectedoutcomesorobjec-tives.Throughthiscarefulcontentanalysis,weensurethatthemostimportantskillsaretaught.Sequencingguidelinesarefollowedtoensuremaximumstudentperformance(Carnineetal.,2010).Theseguidelinesinclude(a)teachingpreskillsbeforeaskillispre-sented,(b)presentingexamplesbeforeintroducingexceptionsofaskill,(c)teachinghigh-


utilityskillsbeforelow-utilityones,(d)teachingeasyskillsbeforemoredifficultones,and(e)separatingtheteachingofsimilarskillstoavoidconfusion. Prerequisite skills.Explicitinstructionpromoteserrorlesslearningtothemaximumextentpossible;thatis,studentsaremorelikelytorespondcorrectlythantomakeerrors.Ratherthanputtingstudentsinsituationswheretheymaynotknowhowtoperformatask,weaskourselves,“Doourstudentshavetherequiredbackgroundknowledgeorskillsneed-edtolearnthisnewinformation?”Iftheydonothavethenecessarybackgroundtobegininstruction,wecannotpresentnewmaterialinaneffectiveandefficientmanner.Wemustattendtothedetailsofinstructionbecausetheydomakeadifferenceinhowthestudentslearntheinformation. Thinkabouttheskillofblendingsoundstogethertoformaword.Ifstudentsdonotknowtheindividualsoundsthatcomprisetheword,theyprobablywillnotbeabletoblendthesoundseffectively.Theywillmakeneedlesserrors.Errorsgetinthewayofefficientlearning.Theycloudstudents’responding.Whenconfrontedwiththesametaskinthefu-ture,studentswilllikelysecond-guessthemselvesastheyperformthetask.Ifstudentsmakeerrors,wewouldnotknowiftheyneedmoreinstructionwithblendingoriftheyrequiremorepracticeontheindividualsounds.Wewanttocontrolinstructiontotheextentthatwecanruleoutotherexplanations;thatis,ifastudentishavingdifficultywithblending,itisnotbecauseheorshehasnotlearnedthesounds.Heorshemayneedmorerepetitionsinblendingormayneedtobetaughtastrategytoidentifywhatblendingisandwhatitisn’t(e.g.,“Watch.Icansoundthiswordoutwithoutstoppingbetweenthesoundslikethis”or“ThisiswhatIhearyousaying.m…a…n.ButthisiswhatIwanttohear.mmmaaannn.Nowyoutryitwithoutstoppingbetweenthesounds”). Inexplicitinstruction,acarefulanalysisofallskillsthatwillbetaughtisconductedtoensurestudentshavetheprerequisitesorentry-levelskillsneededtolearnthenewmaterialinthetargetedlesson.Wedonotaskstudents,“Doyouunderstandthis?”,becauseitisnotadirecttestofwhetherornottheprerequisiteskillsareso-lidified.Instead,explicitinstructionincludescarefullyplacedinstructionalquestionsorpracticeopportunitieswherestudentscandemonstratetheirknowledge.Coyneetal.(2011)refertothisinstructionalfeatureasprimedbackgroundknowledge.Thistypeofprerequisitecheckallowsteacherstoverifytheimportantbackgroundknowledgeneededtoensuresuccessintheupcominglesson.Forexample,ifweaskstudentstodescribeimportantdetailsaboutcharactersandsetting,theyfirstmustknowwhatmajorandminorcharactersareandwhatasettingis.Explicitinstructionwouldincludefocusedquestionsontheseimportantprerequisites.Again,wewouldnotaskstudents,“Doyouunderstandwhatcharactersare?”,butwemightask,“Whatisthemostimportantpersoninastorycalled?”or“Whatisasetting?” Prerequisitechecksmayreviewmaterialcoveredinpreviouslessons,reviewhome-workcompletedthenightbefore,checkontheprerequisiteskillsneededfortheupcominglesson,and/orreteach,ifnecessary(Hofmeister&Lubke,1990;Sabornie&deBettencourt,2009).Whenwerevieworreteachinformation,wepinpointtheareasthatproduceddiffi-culty.Studentsmayhavehaddifficultyontheirhomework,notrespondedinunisonduringteacherquestioning,oraskedquestionsshowingtheywerenotfirmontheskills.Thebestapproachistousefirming—havestudentssayitliketheyknowit.Firminginvolvesrepeat-ingthetaskbyshowingstudentshowtoperformtheskillandthenrequiringthemtorepeatwhatwasdone.Ifstudentsarefirmontheprerequisiteskillsofthelesson,theywillbemoresuccessfulinlearningthenewinformationtobepresentedduringlessondelivery.


Lesson delivery.Whenwedeliverexplicitlessons,fiveaspectsmustbeincluded.Theseaspectsareopening,model,guidedpractice,independentpractice,andclosing. Opening.Beforeinitialinstructionbegins,weshouldprovideaclearlessonopener.Thislessonopenershouldmotivatestudentstoattendtothelesson.Itincludesthreeparts.First,weshouldgainstudents’attentiontomotivatethemtolearntheskill.Gainingattentioncanbeaccomplishedthroughinterestingvideoorfilmclips,focuseddiscussionaboutthetopic(e.g.,“Let’stalkaboutwhatweknowabouttheDepression”),simpledirectivestoalertstudentstothetask(e.g.,“Turntopage19inyourinteractivereader,andwe’llreadaloudthestoryaboutHelenKeller”),ormini-activitiesthatprovideabasisforinitialinstruction(e.g.,“Readthepoemtoyourself,andthenwe’lldiscussit”).Thekeyistogainstudents’attentionforwhattheyareabouttolearn.Second,weshouldcommunicatethegoalofthelesson.Thegoalofthelessoniswhatstudentswilllearnafterparticipatinginthelessonactivity.Wordingmaybeasspecificas“Thegoaloftoday’slessonistolearnhowtosum-marize”or“Today,you’regoingtolearnhowtosummarize.”Thesestatementshelpstudentsfocusonthecontentofthelesson.Theyknowwhattheywillbelearning.Sometimes,pastlearningisconnectedtothegoal.Forexample,“You’velearnedhowtogenerateliteralques-tions.Today,you’regoingtolearnhowtogenerateinferentialquestions.”Third,weshouldensurestudentsknowtherelevanceofthelesson.Thisrelevancemaybepointedoutspecifi-callyforstudents(e.g.,“Knowingpast,present,andfuturetensehelpsusunderstandwhensomethingtakesplace.Weusedifferentverbtenseswhenwewriteaboutwhensomethinghappens”).Lessonopenerssetthestageforlearning.Theygetstudentsengagedandthinkingbeforethenewinformationispresented. Model.Thehallmarkofexplicitinstructionisaclearmodelofwhatstudentsareexpectedtolearn.Amodelisthestrongestlevelofteachersupport.Coyneetal.(2011)refertomodelingasestablishingconspicuousstrategies.ArcherandHughes(2011)refertothispartofthelessonas“Ido.”Duringthemodelor“Ido,”weshouldprovideademonstrationoftheskillalongwithanexplanationofwhatisbeingdone,oftenreferredtoasathink-aloud.Inthisway,studentsnotonlyseehowtodosomethingbuthearaboutitaswell.Wemightuseacatchyteachingtiptohelpstudentsrememberwhattosayordo.Thistipshouldbesaidusingstudent-friendlylanguage.Forexample,toteachstudentshowtosummarize,wecouldusetheGISTstrategy.Wecouldsayandwritethethreepartsofthegist(“Remem-ber,findwhomorwhatthepassageismostlyabout;findwhatisthemostimportantthingaboutthewhomorwhat;andputthetwotogetherin12wordsorless”).Manyexamplesofdevelopingagistwouldbeshownandexplainedtothestudentstomakesurethecompleterangeofpossibilitiesiscovered.Wordingmayincludesuchstatementsas“WatchasIshowyou,”“Myturntoshowyou,”“Listen,”or“Watchme.”Weshouldbecarefultocontrolhowmuchinformationisprovidedinthemodel;ifthetaskappearstoocomplex,itisfarbettertobreaktheskilldownintopartsthataretaughtseparately.Weshouldalwaysbemindfulofwhatthestudentscanhandlefromaninstructionalperspective.Ifnot,studentswillexperi-enceinstructionaloverload.Theywillmakeincreasederrorsduringguidedpractice. Guided practice.Followingthemodel,wemustprovidestudentsopportunitiestorespondwhileweguidetheminthoseresponses.Inguidedpractice,theteacherprovidesamoderatelevelofsupport,servingasaguideforthestudents.Thisguidedpracticeisalsocalledpromptedpractice(Meese,2001),guidedrehearsal(Sabornie&deBettencourt,2009),orthe“wedo”ofinstruction(Archer&Hughes,2011),becausestudentsareactivelyparticipatinginthelearning(“Let’sdosometogether”).Guidedpracticelinksthepresenta-tionofnewinformationwithindependentpracticeinaprocesscalledmediatedscaffolding.


Mediatedscaffoldingensuresthattheresponseopportunitiesarecarefullycontrolledtopromotemaximumstudentsuccess.Atfirst,studentsmaybeaskedtocompleteonlypartofaskilloronetrial.Overtime,thesupportisfaded,allowingstudentsachancetocompletetheentireskillormultipletrials.Lower-performingstudentsmayrequiremorescaffolding;higher-performingstudentsmayrequirelessassistance.Ifthemodelwasclearandunam-biguous,studentsshouldcompletetheresponseopportunitieswithfew,ifany,errors.Iftheirresponsesarecorrect,studentsshouldbevalidated.Specificpraisetypicallypairsapositivestatementwithwhateverthestudentsaidordid.Forexample,“Yes.Thatisthecorrectmainideaoftheparagraph”isspecifictothetaskascontrastedwith“Goodjob.”Ifstudentssayorselectanincorrectanswer,itisviewedasalearningopportunity.Anerrormeansthattheirlearningisnotfirm.Foranyerror,weprovideaquickandimmediateerrorcorrectionpro-cedure.Thiserrorcorrectionprocedureusuallyincludesa“myturn,yourturn”format.Weshowthestudentswhattodoandmayremindthemoftheteachingtiptheylearned,usingtheword“remember”followedbythetip.Next,weaskthestudentstotryitontheirown.Finally,weprovideadelayedtesttoensuretheycanperformtheskillafterashortamountoftimewithoutourhelp. Thekeytoeffectiveguidedpracticeistohavestudentspracticetheskillovermultiplelessonswithcarefulguidance.Oncesuccessfulinguidedpractice,thestudentsmovetoindependentpracticeactivities. Independent practice. Afterguidedpractice,weshouldgivestudentsopportunitiestopracticetheskillontheirown,withoutguidancefromtheteacher.Duringindependentpractice,theleastamountofteachersupportisprovided;theteachermonitorsthestudentsastheypracticeontheirown.AccordingtoHofmeisterandLubke(1990),“Thetransitionfromguidedpracticetoindependentpracticeshouldnotoccuruntilstudentsareatleast80%successfulintheirguidedpractice”(p.61).Thatis,studentsshouldnotreceiveindependentpracticeopportunitiesuntiltheycandemonstratesuccesswiththeteacher.Wemuststillactivelymonitorstudentperfor-manceandreteachifnecessaryduringindependentpractice(Sabornie&deBettencourt,2009).Again,ifourmodelingwasclearandunambiguousandweprovidedpracticeopportunitiesofsufficientqualityandquantity,thenstudentsshouldcompleteindependentpracticeopportunitieswithhighlevelsofsuccess.AccordingtoEngelmann(1999),attheendofalesson,studentsshouldbe“virtually100percentfirmonalltasksandactivities”(p.6). Independentpracticeopportunitiesshouldbealignedtowhatwasmodeledandpracticed.Errorcorrectionproceduresagainfollowa“myturn,yourturn”format.Lessexplanationistypicallyneededduringthe“myturn”portionoftheerrorcorrection. Homeworkcanbeassignedduringindependentpracticeifstudentsaresuccessfulintheclassroom.Successfulperformancemeansatleast90percentorhigheronindependentpracticeactivities;ofcourse,100percentisbest.A.Martella(2009)providedahighschoolstudent’sperspectiveontheuseofhomework.Shenotedthreeimportantpointstocon-siderthatprovehelpfulinassigninghomeworkevenforyoungerstudents;thesepointsarebasedonafoundationalpaperonhomeworkbyCooper,1989.First,homeworkshouldbesenthomeonlyafterstudentshavemasteredtheinformation(aspreviouslynoted).Second,homeworkshouldnotexceedtwohourspernight(recommendationisnomorethantenmin-utespernightpergradelevel).Finally,homeworkshouldnotbeassignedbeforeatestday. Closing.Afterindependentpractice,thereshouldbeabriefrevieworstatementofwhatwaslearnedduringtheinstructionalsession(“Youlearnedhowtosummarizeusing


theGISTstrategy.Remember,findwhomorwhatthepassageismostlyabout;findwhatisthemostimportantthingaboutthewhomorwhat;andputthetwotogetherin12wordsorless”).Thisbriefstatementmightbefollowedbyadescriptionofwhatwillbelearnedtomorrow(“Tomorrow,you’llpracticeusingtheGISTstrategy”).Studentsmightbethankedfortheirparticipationaswellduringthelessonclosing. Lesson Assessment. Whenweassessexplicitlessons,threeaspectsmustbeconsid-ered.Theseincludemastery,maintenance,andgeneralization. Mastery. Weshouldassessstudents’performanceduringguidedandindependentpracticetodetermineifstudentsarelearningandifreteachingisneeded.Generally,wegaugeoursuccessasteachersbytheperformanceofthelowest-performingstudentsinthegroup;iftheyhavemasteredthematerial,wecanbeconfidentthatothershavemasteredtheinformationaswell(Watkins&Slocum,2004).Beforemovingtoindependentpractice,studentsshouldbeatleast80percentcorrectduringguidedpractice(Hofmeister&Lubke,1990),virtually100percentcorrectoninformationtaughtinacurrentlesson,andatleast90percentcorrectonskillstaughtearlierintheprogram(reviewopportunities)(Engelmann,1999). Maintenance. Maintenancechecksprovidereviewopportunitiestoensurestudentsdonotforgethowtoperformtheskill.Thesemayoccuronceaweekforseveralweeks,fadingtoonceeverytwoweeks,andthenonceamonth.Coyneetal.(2011)refertothistypeofmaintenancecheckasjudiciousreview.Maintenancechecksshouldbe90percentcorrectorhigher.Ifperformancedoesnotreachthislevel,reteachingisneeded. Generalization.Generalizationchecksareconductedtodetermineifstudentscantransfertheirnewlylearnedskillstonovelsituationsorexamples.Studentsmaybeaskedtoshowwhattheyknowonassessmentprobesthatmirrorstandardizedtests,applytheirskillstonoveltext,orexpandontheirskillknowledgeinuniqueways(e.g.,developabookcoverthatillustratesmajorandminorcharactersandthesettingofyournovelaftermasteringthosestoryelements).Performanceshouldbeatleast80percentcorrect;ifgeneralizationhasnotoccurred,specificteachingisneededtoensureskilltransferoccurs.Unlike“trainandhope,”explicitinstructionisprogrammedforinstructionalsuccess.Thatis,whenmasteryisdem-onstratedbasedonrelevantskills(e.g.,alignedtoCommonCoreStateStandards),transfershouldoccur.

What is and isn’t explicit instruction? Someconsiderexplicitinstructiontobeasimplestrategy,becausetheteacherjustneedstoshowstudentshowtodosomethingandthenaskthemtodoit.However,aswehaveshown,explicitinstructionisfarfromsimple.Itrequiresacarefulanalysisofskillsandtheprerequisitebuildingblocksthatensuresuccess.Explicitinstructionrequiresatten-tiontohowalessonisopened,howtheskillistaught,howguidedpracticeopportunitiesareprovidedandhowsuccessfulstudentsare,howstudentsrespondduringalignedindependentpracticeopportunities,andhowstudentsmaintainperformanceovertimeandingeneral-izationprobes.Explicitinstructionworksbecauseofitscarefulattentiontothedetailsofinstruction.Itisnottrial-and-errorlearning,discovery,exploration,facilitatedlearning,orsomeotherteachingapproachwhereteachersassistorfacilitatestudentlearning;rathertheteacher’s“directactionshaveadirectandinstructionalinfluenceonstudents’learning”(Carnineetal.,2010,p.5). Wecandetermineifalessonisexplicitornotbyexaminingteacherwordinginthelesson“script.”Explicitprogramsaremorelikelytousephrasessuchas“Myturn,”“Watch


asIshowyou,”“Listenandwatch,”“Thisishowyoudo_____,”and“Let’sdosometogether.”Asyouhavenowlearned,explicitprogramsandinstructionrequireteacherstomodelorshowstudentshowtodosomething,providestudentswithpracticeandfeedback,andincludeindependentactivitiesforstudentstopracticeontheirown. Ifstudentsareexpectedtofindanswersontheirownwithoutpreviousinstruction,thelessonisprobablynotexplicit.Phrasessuchas“encouragechildrentoexplore,”“challengechildrenbysaying,”“helpchildrenfocusby,”“workwithchildrentobuildanunderstandingof,”“helpthemdiscoverby,”and“facilitatelearningby”areusedinnonexplicitprograms.Inthisapproach,teachersserveasfacilitators.Theyprovidequestioningstrategiestoleadstudentsastheyexplore;errorcorrectionsmayinclude“Tryagain”or“Doyouthinkthatmakessense?Let’ssee.”Explicitinstructionismuchmoreefficientinthatitattackstheerrorandfixesitimmediately.Errorsareseenasteachingprocedureerrors;wedonotblamestudentsfortheirlackofskillperformance.

What are the stages of learning? Explicitinstructionisanimportantpartofthefivestagesoflearning.Theselearningstagesincludeacquisition,proficiency,maintenance,generalization,andadaptation(Gargiulo&Metcalf,2010).

Acquisition Stage

Theacquisitionstageiswhenstudentsarefirstlearningaskill.Inthisstageoflearning,assessmentscorestypicallyrangefrom0percentto80percent(Gargiulo&Metcalf,2010).Studentshavelittletonoknowledgeaboutwhattheyarelearningandneedstrongteachersupport(Meese,2001).Aspreviouslystated,explicitinstructionisthemosteffectiveandefficientwaywecanpromotestudentlearning.Whenexplicitinstructionisdeliveredduringacquisition,errorsarediminished,andthechancesoffuturemaintenanceandgeneralizationoftheskillareenhanced.Theacquisitionstagefocusesonteachingtheskill;thus,emphasisisplacedonthemodel,guidedpractice(guide),andindependentprac-tice(monitor)aspectsoflessondelivery.Attheendoftheacquisitionstage,students’responsesshouldbehighlyaccurate,usually80–90percentcorrect(Wolery,Bailey,&Sugai,1988).Thecompletionoftheacquisitionstagedoesnotensurethefluentperformanceoftheskillnortheabilitytogeneralizetodifferentsituations.Therefore,oncetheacquisitionstageiscompleted,studentsprogresstotheproficiencystageoflearning.

Proficiency Stage

Intheproficiencystageoflearning,studentspracticetheskilluntiltheyarefluentorautomaticintheirresponding(Gargiulo&Metcalf,2010;Meese,2001).Studentsbecomeproficientwhentheylearntorespondquicklygivenrepeatedopportunitiestopracticetheskillontheirown.Thisquickresponsetypicallybeginstooccurafterstudentshavedemon-

Acquisition Proficiency Maintenance Generalization Adaptation


stratedskillacquisitionduringindependentpractice.Weshouldprovidepracticeopportuni-tiesincludingdrill-and-practiceandtimedtrialsontargetedskills.Studentsmayrepeatedlyreadastorytoimprovetheirreadingspeed,forexample.

Maintenance Stage

Themaintenancestageoflearninginvolvesperiodicpracticeandreviewopportuni-tiestoensureskillmasteryovertimefollowingindependentpractice.AccordingtoMeese(2001),“Asstudentsbecomeproficientwithanewskillorconcept,teachersmusthelpthemretainthematerialovertime”(p.178).Studentsdonotneedinstructioninthisstageoflearning.Weshouldprovidehomework,seatwork,orreviewactivitiestokeepstudentsprac-ticingandfamiliarwiththetask.Studentsmusthaveopportunitiestocontinuetoperformtheskillovertime;ifnot,theskillmayatrophy(Gargiulo&Metcalf,2010).

Generalization Stage

Thegeneralizationstagerequiresstudentstousetheirskillsinnovelsituations.Thisstageoflearningisalsoreferredtoasthetransferoflearning(Gargiulo&Metcalf,2010).Weshouldsurveywhatstudentswillbeexpectedtodointhefuture.Wecouldincludeassessmentexamplesthatrequireextendedskillapplicationsuchaswhatmightbefoundonstandardizedtests.Further,wecouldhavestudentsusetheirskillswithnovelorexpandedstoriesusingmorecomplextext.

Adaptation Stage

Thelaststageoflearningistheadaptationstagewherestudents“categorize,makedecisions,seerelationships/analogies,analyze,estimate,compare/contrast,showflexibility,andidentifyitemsthatareirrelevant”(Gargiulo&Metcalf,2010,p.237).Studentslearntoexpandorextendtheirknowledgetodothesehigher-orderthinkingskills.Atthisstage,studentsshouldreflectorthinkaboutwhattheyaredoingandconnecttheirlearningtopreviousexperiences(Gargiulo&Metcalf,2010).Theycompletecriticalthinkingactivitieswheretheyarerequiredtocompareandcontraststories,digdeeperintotextmeaning,andanalyzeliteraryandinformationaltextastheycomplete,forexample,bookreportsorstorymaps.

What is the research base for the use of explicit instruction? Numerousreviewsandmeta-analyseshavereportedtheeffectivenessofexplicitinstruction.Forexample,Swanson(1999)conductedameta-analysisofinterventionoutcomesforchildrenandadolescentswithlearningdisabilities(LD).Largeeffectsizes(ES)(usingCohen’s1988criterionofsubstantivefindings—.80orhigher)werenotedforwordrecogni-tionwhendirect(explicit)instructionwasused(ES=1.06)andforreadingcomprehensionwhendirect(explicit)instructionwascoupledwithstrategy-basedinstruction(ES=1.15).Swanson(2001)alsoreportedthebestmodelforinstructingstudentswithlearningdisabili-tiesaftercompletingameta-analysisoftheresearchliteratureoneffectiveteaching.Explicitstrategyinstructionincludingexplicitpractice,strategycues(think-aloudmodels),andelab-oration(explanations)wasshowntohavethelargesteffectsize(ES=.84).Further,Vaughn,Gersten,andChard(2000)reviewedfindingsofresearchsynthesesfundedbytheOfficeofSpecialEducationProgramsandtheNationalCenterforLearningDisabilities.Theynoted,amongotherfindings,that“makinginstructionvisibleandexplicitisanessentialfeature


ofeffectiveinterventionsforstudentswithLD”(p.108).Further,theseauthorsnotedthat“teachersneedtoplanandreflectontheirinstructiontoassurethatitisexplicitandintensivesothatstudentswithLDarenotrobbedofvaluablelearningtime”(p.111).Finally,KavaleandSpaulding(inpress)conductedamega-analysis(ameta-analysisofothermeta-analyses)ofeffectiveinstructionalpracticesandcalculatedthefollowingmeaneffectsizes:direct(explicit)instruction.93;systematicinstruction2.18;drillandpractice.99;feedback.97;strategy-basedinstruction.98.Theseelementsareseeninexplicitinstructionalprograms. ExplicitinstructionwasconsistentlyidentifiedasaneffectivepracticeintheNationalReadingPanelReport(NICHD,2000);Armbrusteretal.(2006)notedtheimportanceofexplicitinstructionintheirdiscussionofresearchbuildingblocksforteachingchildrentoread.Explicitinstructionwasnotedasimportantforallareasofeffectivereadinginstruc-tionforstudentsingradesK–3.Further,SwansonandDeshler(2003),Biancarosa(2005),BiancarosaandSnow(2006),Boardmanetal.(2008),andKamiletal.(2008)reportedtheeffectivenessofexplicitinstructionforthosestudentsingrades4–12whenitcametoteach-ingimportantskillsinsuchareasaswordstudy,fluency,vocabularydevelopment,andtextcomprehension. VaughnandLinan-Thompson(2003)answeredthequestion,“SowhatisspecialaboutspecialeducationforstudentswithLD?”Theiranswer,againbasedonathoroughreviewoftheresearchliterature,noted“studentswithLDbenefitfromexplicitandsystem-aticinstructionthatiscloselyrelatedtotheirareaofinstructionalneed”(p.145).BurnsandYsseldyke(2009)examinedthefrequencywithwhichevidence-basedpracticeswereusedwithstudentswithdisabilities.Theyfounddirect(explicit)instructionwasthemostfrequentlyusedinstructionalmethodologyintheirsurveyofspecialeducationteachersandschoolpsychologists.Nomatterwhatresearchsynthesiswasreviewed,“theconclusionswereclear:Explicitinstructionshouldbeaconsistentmainstayofworkingwithstudentsbothwithandwithoutlearningdifficulties”(Archer&Hughes,2011,p.17).

SUMMARY

Largepercentagesofstudentsinourcountryarefailingtolearntoreadathighlevels.Thisskilldeficitaffectsthesestudentsfortherestoftheirlives.Explicitinstruc-tionwascitedasthemosteffectiveandefficientwayofshorteningthelearningtimeforstudents.Explicitinstructionisconsideredasystematicapproachofteachingthatproceedsinsmallsteps,constantlychecksforstudentunderstanding,andachievessuccessfulstudentparticipation.Itisalsocalleddemonstration-prompt-practice,antecedentpromptandtest,or“Ido,wedo,youdo.”Nomatterwhatlabelthistypeofinstructionisgiven,studentsareshownhowtoperformataskbeforetheyareexpectedtodoitontheirown. Effectiveandefficientexplicitinstructionincludesthreekeyaspects.Theseincludelessonplanning(learningobjectivesandprerequisiteskills),lessondelivery(opener,model,guidedpractice,independentpractice,andclosing),andlessonassessment(mastery,maintenance,andgeneralization).Explicitinstructionmaybeconsideredsimple,butitisdeceptivelyso.Explicitinstructioniscomplexinitsattentiontoinstructionaldetail.Itcanbedistinguishedfromnonexplicitapproacheswhereteachersserveasfacilitators,guidingstudentsinthelearningprocess. Explicitinstructionisanimportantfactorinthestagesoflearning.Thesestagesin-cludeacquisition,proficiency,maintenance,generalization,andadaptation.Finally,withoutadoubt,theresearchbaseisstrongforimplementingexplicitinstructionalpracticeswithstudentswithorwithoutlearningdifficulties.


ReferencesAllianceforExcellentEducation.(2011,November). The high cost of high school dropouts:

What the nation pays for inadequate high schools.Washington,DC.

Archer,A.L.,&Hughes,C.A.(2011).Explicit instruction: Effective and efficient teaching. NewYork,NY:TheGuilfordPress.

Armbruster,B.B.,Lehr,F.,&Osborn,J.(2006).Put reading first: The research building blocks for teaching children to read(3rded.).Jessup,MD:CenterfortheImprove-mentofEarlyReadingAchievement.

Bender,W.N.(2008). Learning disabilities: Characteristics, identification, and teaching strategies(6thed.).Boston,MA:Pearson.

Biancarosa,C.(2005,October).Afterthirdgrade.Educational Leadership,16–22.

Biancarosa,C.,&Snow,C.E.(2006).Readingnext:Avisionforactionandresearchinmiddleandhighschoolliteracy.A report to Carnegie Corporation of New York(2nded.).Washington,DC:AllianceforExcellentEducation.

Boardman,A.G.,Roberts,G.,Vaughn,S.,Wexler,J.,Murray,C.S.,&Kosanovich,M.(2008). Effective instruction for adolescent struggling readers: A practice brief.Portsmouth,NH:RMCResearchCorporation,CenteronInstruction.

Burns,M.K.,&Ysseldyke,J.E.(2009).Reportedprevalenceofevidence-basedinstructionalpracticesinspecialeducation.The Journal of Special Education,43(1),3–11.

Carnine,D.W.,Silbert,J.,Kame’enui,E.J.,&Tarver,S.G.(2010).Direct Instruction reading(5thed.).Boston,MA:Merrill.

Cohen,J.(1988).Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences(2nded.).NewYork,NY:AcademicPress.

CommonCoreStateStandardsInitiative.(2010).Retrievedfromhttp://www.corestandards.org/

Cooper,H.(1989).Synthesisofresearchonhomework.Educational Leadership,47(3),85-91.

Coyne,M.D.,Kame’enui,E.J.,&Carnine,D.W.(2011). Effective teaching strategies that accommodate diverse learners(4thed.).Boston,MA:Pearson.

Engelmann,S.(1999). Student-program alignment and teaching to mastery.Paperpresentedatthe25thNationalDirectInstructionConference,Eugene,OR.

Gargiulo,R.M.,&Metcalf,D.(2010).Teaching in today’s inclusive classrooms: A universal design for learning approach.Belmont,CA:Wadsworth.

Hall,T.(2002).Explicitinstruction.Wakefield,MA.NationalCenteronAccessingtheGeneralCurriculum.

Hempenstall,K.(2004).Theimportanceofeffectiveinstruction.InN.E.Marchand-Martella,T.A.Slocum,&R.C.Martella(Eds.),Introduction to Direct Instruction(pp.1–27).Boston,MA:Allyn&Bacon.

Hofmeister,A.,&Lubke,M.(1990).Research into practice: Implementing effective teaching strategies.Boston,MA:Allyn&Bacon.


Hulme,C.,&Snowling,M.J.(2011).Children’sreadingcomprehensiondifficulties:Nature,causes,andtreatments.Current Directions in Psychological Science,20,139–142.doi:10.1177/0963721411408673

Hunter,M.(1982).Mastery teaching.ElSegundo,CA:TIPPublications.

Kamil,M.L.,Borman,G.D.,Dole,J.,Kral,C.C.,Salinger,T.,&Torgesen,J.(2008).Improving adolescent literacy: Effective classroom and intervention practices: A practice guide. (NCEE#2008-4027). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Evaluation andRegionalAssistance,InstituteofEducationSciences,U.S.DepartmentofEducation.Retrievedfromhttp://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc

Kavale,L.A.,&Spaulding,L.S.(inpress).Theefficacyofspecialeducation.InM.A.Bray&T.J.Kehle(Eds.),Oxford Handbook of School Psychology.NewYork,NY:OxfordUniversityPress.

Lenski,S.D.,Wham,M.A.,Johns,J.L.,Caskey,M.M.(2007).Readingandlearningstrategies:Middle grades through high school(3rded.).Dubuque,IA:Kendall/Hunt.

Lyon,G.R.(2001,March8).Measuring success: Using assessment and accountability to raise student achievement.SubcommitteeonEducationReform,CommitteeonEducationandtheWorkforce.DeliveredtotheU.S.HouseofRepresentatives.Washington,DC:NationalInstituteofChildHealthandHumanDevelopment/NationalInstitutesofHealth.

Marchand-Martella,N.E.,&Martella,R.C.(2009).Explicitinstruction.InW.L.Heward(Ed.),Exceptional children (9thed.)(pp.196–198).Columbus,OH:Pearson/Merrill.

Marchand-Martella,N.E.,&Martella,R.C.(2010).Read to Achieve: Comprehending Narrative Text.Columbus,OH:SRA/McGraw-Hill.

Marchand-Martella,N.E.,Ruby,S.F.,&Martella,R.C.(2007).Intensifyingreadinginstructionforstudentswithinathree-tiermodel:Standard-protocolandproblemsolvingapproacheswithinaresponse-to-intervention(RTI)sys-tem.TEACHING Exceptional Children Plus,3(5),1–11.

Martella,A.M.(2009).Ahighschoolstudent’sperspectiveonhomework.ASCDExpress,4.Retrievedfromhttp://www.ascd.org/ascd_express/vol4/426_newvoices.aspx

Martella,R.C.,Nelson,J.R.,Marchand-Martella,N.E.,&O’Reilly,M.(2012).Comprehensive behavior management: Individualized, classroom, and schoolwide approaches(2nded.).ThousandOaks,CA:Sage.

Meese,R.L.(2001).Teaching learners with mild disabilities: Integrating research and practice(2nded.).Belmont,CA:Wadsworth/ThomsonLearning.

NationalCenterforEducationStatistics.(2011).The nation’s report card: Reading 2011(NCES2012-457).Washington,DC:InstituteofEducationSciences.U.S.DepartmentofEducation.

NationalInstituteofChildHealthandHumanDevelopment(NICHD).(2000).ReportoftheNationalReadingPanel. Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruc-tion: Reports of the subgroups(NIHPublicationNo.00-4754).Retrievedfromhttp://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/nrp/smallbook.cfm


Rosenshine,B.V.(1986).Synthesisofresearchonexplicitteaching.Educational Leadership, 43(7), 60–69.

Rosenshine,B.V.(1987).Explicitteachingandteachertraining.Journal of Teacher Education,38(3),34–36.

Rosenshine,B.V.(2008).Five meanings of Direct Instruction.Lincoln,IL:CenteronInnovation&Improvement.

Rosenshine,B.V.,&Stevens,R.(1986).Teachingfunctions.InM.C.Wittrock(Ed.),Handbook of research on teaching(3rded.,pp.326–391).NewYork,NY:Macmillan.

Rupley,W.H.,Blair,T.,R.&Nichols,W.D.(2009).Effectivereadinginstructionforstrugglingreaders:Theroleofdirect/explicitteaching.Reading & Writing Quarterly,25(2),125–138.

Sabornie,E.J.,&deBettencourt,L.U.(2009).Teaching students with mild and high-incidence disabilities at the secondary level(3rded.).UpperSaddleRiver,NJ:Merrill.

Snow,C.,&Moje,E.(2010).Whyiseveryonetalkingaboutadolescentliteracy?Phi Delta Kappan,91(6),66–69.

Stevens,R.,&Rosenshine,B.V.(1981).Advancesinresearchonteaching.Exceptional Education Quarterly,2,1–9.

Swanson,H.L.(1999).ReadingresearchforstudentswithLD:Ameta-analysisofinterventionoutcomes. Journal of Learning Disabilities,32,504–532.

Swanson,H.L.(2001).Searchingforthebestmodelforinstructingstudentswithlearningdisabilities.Focus on Exceptional Children,34(2),1–14.

Swanson,H.L.,&Deshler,D.(2003).Instructingadolescentswithlearningdisabilities:Convertingameta-analysistopractice. Journal of Learning Disabilities,36,124–135.

Vacca,J.S.(2008).Crimecanbepreventedifschoolsteachjuvenileoffenderstoread.Children and Youth Services Review,30(9)1055–1062.

Vaughn,S.,Gersten,R.,&Chard,D.(2000).TheunderlyingmessageinLDinterventionresearch:Findingsfromresearchsyntheses.Exceptional Children,67(1),99–114.

Vaughn,S.,&Linan-Thompson,S.(2003).Whatisspecialaboutspecialeducationforstudentswithlearningdisabilities? The Journal of Special Education,37,140–147.

Watkins,C.L.,&Slocum,T.A.(2004).ThecomponentsofDirectInstruction.InN.E.Marchand-Martella,T.A.Slocum,&R.C.Martella(Eds.),Introduction to Direct Instruction(pp.28–65).Boston,MA:Allyn&Bacon.

Wolery,M.,Bailey,D.B.,&Sugai,G.M.(1988).Effective teaching: Principles and procedures of applied behavior analysis with exceptional students.Boston,MA:Allyn&Bacon.

Documents

Explicit Reading Instruction: Important Features and Findings