Experiential Learning in Public Administration Education

lWhidey (1981) finds 110

causalaJrIIIel1iCII~

acquiWooci ~bodies ci knoII.iedge aOO

superior perl'onnances MIl

managerial~

jPAE,3 (1997):2:219-227

Experiential Learning inPublic Administration Education

Bob Cunningham

universityofTennessee-Knoxville

The equilibrium stale of the learner is disequilibrium.(Implied in Hopkins, 1994)

The challenge to prepare public administtation students for the newworkplace environment is obvious. Opinion poUs, politicians, and talkshows denigrate the performance of public administtators; the PastOffice seeks a profit; government buildings contract for maintenanceservices; health care and corrections services are sliding toward .privatedelive1y.Unless public managers can provide services efficientlyandeffectively, the private sector will take over these functions. How wellare we preparing students to manage the public's business?

The product d our teaching is the practice of our graduates (O'Hare,1991).MPAprograms are criticized for training people fortechnicaVprofessional positions rather than for management (Cox, 1990;Ventriss, 1991).1Experientialleaming can help to redress the tilt towardtechnique in management education. ~ paper introduces theexperiential learning perspective, describes the experientialleamingprocess, and offers a changed role for the teacher.

The PerspectiveAn experientialleaming (EL)perspective recognizes the classroom as aplace for interactive leaming, where teacher and students learn bysharing knowledge and experiences. EL~hasizes professoriallectures, memorization/regurgitation of t3as and theories, and the five-hundred-page text. ELpriorities are people, emphasizing the sntden1;passion, emotion as well as cognition in the lesson; and pragmatism,integrating theory and practice.

People: emphasizing the studentELfocuses on the indMduaI seeking knowledge, the student, ratherthan on the instructor. Learning is more important than teaching.Andragogy, aduh learning, is the model rather than pedagogy, childleaming (Balfourand Marini, 1991). Experientialleaming is not the"mug and jug" traditional model where the student is the empty muginto which knowledge is poured from the teacher's jug. Students learn

Journal of Public Administration Education/219

,

better when they are activelyinvolved in discovering for themselves theinformation or theory or significant questions. The teacher frames theenvirorunent, offers a starting point, suggests a direction, and invites thestudent into the learning process. Learningflows from informationbrought by both teacher and students. The teacher does not have toknow the answers (Horton, 1990).Just as communications is defined bywhat is received, not what is sent; education should be evaluated whatis learned by the student, not what is done or said by the teacher.

Pdssion: emotion as wen as cognitionMoffett (1994) states that social responsibilityand peISOOaldevelopment,both emotiorHlriven, are two of the three common aims of education.

Experiencing a situation blends cognitioo and emotion. PassionstimuJates learning and is produced by learning. Teams, often used inexperiential learning, stir emotional commitment to learning anddevelop a willingness to share and saai6ce. Experientialclassroom tasksand homework assignments can motivare because they deal withpeople as well as things, a feature often aho;entin studying budgetreports, statistical f1ndin~, and the aitical paths of operations research.

ELincorporates intelledUaland emotional challenges, which work intandem to leverage the learning. Because public administration issuesare consciously prescriptive (Behn, 1995),the artful administrator needsmoral support and normaIive guidance (Goodsell, 1992).Addressingcases involving ethical problems within the confines of a classroomoffers a safe environment for exploring alternativesolutions to difficultproblems.

Pr.Igmatism

Pragmatism emphasizes 00ing what works, achieving a practical result.ating the WillJames dictum that theories are instruments rather thananswers, Nohria and Berkley (1994) describe the pragmatic manager as(l) sensitive to context, (2) willing to make do with the resourcesavailable, (3) focused on outromes, and (4) open to uncertainty. ELseeks to explore patterns and wholes rad1erthan memorizingsegmented parts. For example, the fust-grader looks for simiJarmarkin~and colors on the backs ci b.1rtles,iguanas, and other crawlingcreatures. Facts provide the stimulus for pursuing differences,similarities,and relationships among wholes. The MPAstudent learnspublic aclmirUstrationpragmaticallyby observing the driver's licenseoffice when obtaining that document, the bursars office as fees arepaid, the library in checking out books, and the food stamp programfrom the line at Kroger. Exemplary and unworthy practices are noted,systems are analyzed, patterns and relationshipsare reflected upon.


.,. - --

I Experientialists encourage pragmatic learning such as the following:

. thinking outside the existing framework (storytelling is important inhelping learners break traditional frames Uusticeand Marienau,1988D

. looking for relationships and composing wholes rather thanemphasizing pieces and parts

. creating new infonnation by exploring the new and combiningnew and old, rather than imitating the old

. emphasizing direct, hands-on contact with phenomena.

Experientialleaming demonstrates its pragmabsm by resonating withphrases like "reinventing government" (Ai Gore), "if it ain't broke, fix itanyway" cram Peters), and "doing thin~ differently" (Peter Drucker).

These three elements-people, passion, and pr.lgmatism-<lescribe theexperiential perspective.

TheProcessThe openness of perspeaive funnels into the discipline of process. Eachstep of the process is irnportan~ skipping steps rewds the learningpace. The ELprocess is conceptualized as a cycle incorporating sensingthe em-ironment, reflecting on the sensed infonnation, and acting onthe reflections.

Exhibit 1. Experiential learning Process Model

Sensing" . Reflecting

/Acting

SensingThe learning cycle begins with sensing the environment-aca.unulatingdisparate bits of infonnation by attending to what one ah5orh5 fromseeing, hearing, touching, smelling, or tasting. Learners vary in whatthey perceive in a situation because what one perceives is influenced bywhat has been previously learned. Unfortunately, our "theories in use"(Argym, 1976) provide a ~e picture of the world and are resistant tochange (Weick. 1995). learning requires challenging these "theories inuse."

To sense, one attends to the specific by entering concrete situations,then absorbing new infonnation or looking at old information in a new

Journal of Public Administration Educationl221

2James Car.;e (I994)

emphasizes learning from

ordin:uy experience.

way. Driving to work by a different roote, going to a new restaurant,

visiting a new city, or reading a book (X articl~ery activity of lifeoffers the opportunity for engaging the specific. Looking at one's filetfromthe perspectiveof the COW;seeing the Internal RevenueSeMcefrom the perspective of an IRS employee; or the pressuresof the

marketplace as the owner of a small businessrather than as aconsumer-such experiences can offeropportunities to engage the

specific and to gain new insights by seeing experiences from multipleperspectives.

Every experience offers the opportunjly fa learning, but being exposedto variety does not mean that one senses the significantqualitiesof anenvironment The variety present in a siIuation has failed to register on

people who visit exotic places but remark only on the McDonald's

hamburgers or the inadequate hOtels that they characterizeas not up toHoliday Inn standards. Learning begins by attending to what one

senses, whether the experience is ordinary or exotic.2

Reflecting

In reflecting, one ponders what has hem sensed, then distillstheexperiencesintopatterns,theories,or pjncipIesfor action.Reflectionturns experience into learning (Baud er a1.1985).Reading,listening,anddiscussing help the learner link sensed experiences to generalprinciples.

KarlWeickfrequentlyopens hiswri~ by allowingthe readertoseru;e a situation, and then he proceeds k>reflect on the situation.In hisreflecting, Weick challenges assu.rnpti<D about causal paths amongvariables and asks the reader to decoo1pose and recompose linkages

among parts and wholes of organizatiom. Overlooking the reflectingstage by skipping from sensing to acting is analogous to revving the carmotor while the dutch is depressed--a b of vibration and noise, butthe vehicle doesn't go anywhere.

-. ActingActing tests the reflections. Acting is fcI me manager as theory-testing is

for the scientist. Reading or thinking C3IJIO substitute for action.

Reading about management is as diffeRft from implementingmanagementdedsionsasknowingabcu basketballis fromplayingbasketball.

The practicing manager is constantly acting. For the scholar, "acting"

may involve not dramatic arts or the ~ arena, but, rather,writing

and exposingone's reflectionsto the marlcetplaceof scholarly ideasinbooks and journals, and at academic cooferences (Hopkins, 1994).Ateacher tests reflections in the classroom.a politicianuses the electoral


I/

Icampaign, an entrepreneur creates or markets a product. Some fail intheir "acting.' Perhaps they erred in the inferences they drew from thereflecting stage; perhaps they implemented poorly. Managementquestions do not have right and wrong answers (Elmore,1986);actingprovides feedback.

Although sensing, reflecting, and acting are conceptualized as distinctstages, the learner can engage all stages simultaneously,'or shiftrandomly among the stages. When ligtu bulb; go on insideone's head,it is the result of seeing commonalities among things categorizedseparately, or differences between things previously thooght to be thesame. The brain processes the stages both sequentiallyandsimultaneously.

The teacher's role in the experientialleaming process ~ to present aninitial situation for sensing, to ask students to study and reflect on whatis sensed from that initial situation, to challenge each student to distilltheories or principles that can be applied to analogous situations, and toallow students an opportunity to pracdce their learning.

Using the experientialleaming model in the classroomrequires that thestudent carry out assignments, then reflect on what happened in orderto distill principles or theories for action. Practicingthe theories orprinciples in the c1assroomsetting or society at large allows a spiralingof the learning process to a higher level of wxJerstanding.

AlteJ:native e:xperientialleaming moddsThe sensing-retlectcting model.is one of several ways to frame theprocess. Koib (1984) offers a four-stage model; Hutchingsand Wurtzdorf(1988) use a "knowing-doing" spiral, a tMrstage model. The issue isnot whether the process is conceptualized in two, three, or four stages.Each model reflects experientialleaming. Allare based on the followingprinciples:

. Sensing is selective.

. Retlecting involves distilling rather than inferring.

. Acting rather than thinking is the appropdate test ci one'sretleaions.

. The process is both simultaneous and cootinuous.,

The 01anged Role of the TeacherNot only does the student's role change, the teacher has a new role aswell. Lecturing from yellowed notes gives way to guiding and coaching,which are more motivating to students and fulfillingto teachers thaninstructing and dira1ing. Yet there is discipline, for the teacher ischallenged to adhere to the same sensing/reflecting/actingregime

journal of Public Administration Education/223

,

demanded of the students. The following points describe changes fromthe traditional~room and reflect the increased diversity inassumptions, materials,methods, and evaluation.

1. Because the theories or prindples learned emerge from one'sexperience, and each student's experience is different, even whenthe situation is a written scenario identical for all, the learning fromthe scenario will differ among the various partidpants in class.

2. Because management situations usually involve single, uniquecases, intuitionand specific knowledge are more useful to themanager than statisticalgeneralizations.

3. Because ci point two above, a student's answers are usually"better"or "worse" rather than "right"or "wrong." The rationale isas important as the answer, and the ability to appredate andconsidermultipleperspeaivesand ~ reflectsskillatsensing.

4. To get comfortable with the uncertainties ci multiple scenarios andincalcuJableproOObilities,teachers and students need practice. Irequire group work and regular writing assignments, and I respondby electronic mail with comments, n« grades. The computerpreserves my comments on every written assignment A mid-terrnconference lays out my evaluation ci the group's performance, andI must justifymy assessment

S. CJa&5materialsand exemplary syUabiare 00( readily available atpresent, with the exception ci an cxganizationalbehavior text byKolb et at (1995),which is more oriented to business than to the

public seaor. Some experientialleaming ideas and exercises can befound in the journal of PublicAdminisIratian Education, thejournal of Management Education, and in the Proaedings ci theannual Public Administration Teaching Conference.

6. The work world ci organizations is becoming a collaborative

environment where people share challenges or work on

complementary parts ci a task. Meaningful work assignments arebest dQne in a group (O'Hare, 1991). Success in collaborationrequires integration ci effort, and the whole can be either more

than or less than the sum ci its parts. In building an educationenvironment analogous to the wOtk world, teachers should invent

ways for students to work with each other in order to experience

the synergies that emerge from a team challenge. Facing challengesin small groups simulates the workplace.

l'"'"

~

journal of Public Administration Education/224

J

. laendana:is~ fa-<:.'CI1ISewe wait in groups

~ class, a 51Udem 'll>iIo skips

nis5es0eI:Iai00 ~~!he divme

1( COIIIII:Iem, Ibe summary

pies afered, and Ibeltion from Ibe enviJaunett.

Hard Things

Adjustingto doing things differentlyin the dassroom may be a greaterchallenge for teachers than for students. Students face immediatepenalties for failure to change; teachers generally do not Are we honestwith ourselves aboot the ineffectivenessof our pet strategies, stories,jokes, and Jectures?We can be snared by the foUowingrraps.

The&cttrap .Believingis seeing (Weick,1979);facts are created by one's perspective.Facts are easy to learn and test, yet in themselves have limited valuebecause they are easily retrieved from print or electronic data bases.Expand your repertoire of petspeaives by visualizing every situationfrom mukipIe points of view. ExpcR yourself to different stimuli; lookat the familiarfrom a differentviewpoint Be playful wiIh ideas. Think"what if?",think paradox, disbelieve your :'facts."

The -fed good.ttap

Oeativity, a cenIr.I1value of experientialleaming, is encooraged byfreedom. But the relaxed environment condudve to aeativity must beaccompanied by a few roles strictlyenforced, to ensure fairness.5n1dentswho do not perform or share the work load shoold receiveappropriate counseling and evaluation. Becoming studen1<entered doesnot throw roles and sanctions out the window. If class attendance is

irIlp<>rtm,attendance must be taken and students or groop5 must bepenalized for excessive aIRnces. If the few roles are 10 enfoo:ed,freedom degenerates into chaos, which erodes the hospitableenvironment and mocivationfor exploring beyond exisdng boundaries.3Fnforcing rules returns teachers to the adjudication role they are tryingto abaIxb1 by partnering with students in problem-soMng. Welcome tothe dilemma a manager faces every day-motivating and discipliningsubordinates simuhaneously. "Feelinggood" must be accompanied by"seeking ~.'

The -playing to 5Irength. trapCover aDstages of the learning qde. Emphasizing only what we like orare good at is a trap because it is comfortable and easy. I enjoy sensing,and must force myself to reflecl The typical city manager probablyenjoys aaing. Know ywrseIf; do a seIf-evaluation.,The comroI trapGet cooiOItabie with ambiguity.The manager doesn't conttol theorgani1mJnal environment; and the teacher doesn't oontroI theexpeIieotiaIlearning dassroom. Some days I feel I have lost controlover what students are learning; so I trust the system, and so far I havenot been disappointed. To maximize creativity and effectiveness, a


~

teacher should prepare for the new and unexpected and shouldappreciate multiple perspectives and crazy, creative ideas. Doingdifferently means living on the edge, not being in control. Seek stabilityin private life rather than in the classroom.

Conclusion

The empowerment movement, which dominates management thinkingtcxlay, argues that devolving decisionmaking responsibility increasesemployee satisfadion and produ<.1ivityin the organization. Theempowerment idea is transferable to the classroom, where experientiallearning unleashes creativity into the learning process. Experientiallearning integrates theoretical issues into simulated workplace problemsand offers a challenging, motivating approach to public administrationeducation.

,


ArgyrIs, <Jvis

1976 /namsing LeadershipEffediveness. New York:Wiley.

Balfour,Danny and Marini, Frank1991 "Child and Adult. X and Y:

Rd1eaions on the Processof Public AdministrationEducation." PublicAdministration R£view,51(6):4'78-485.

Bchn, Robert

1995 "The Big Questions c:iPublic Management"PuWt: J4dministration

Review, 55<4}.313-324.

Baud,David,~ Rosemaryand~David1985RejIection:Turning. bperlence intolearning.

New York: N"JChoIs

PubIDIg Company.

Carse,James1994 BreaJ(ass at the \IidQry.'

The Mysticism of Ordinarybperlence. San F1'3fl<i;co:Harper.

Cox, RicbanI1m "MPAas Management

Education." 1nJematicnaJ

fwmaJ of Publickhninistnltion,13(1-2):1-20.

Cunningham, Bob. "MeetDr.Oay and Dr.Glass: A I.eadeJship

Exercise." journal ofManagement EducaJionOn press).

Drukcr, Marvin, 5tef.mavic,

Dragan. and Cnnnif1gJ12m. Bob1996 "Studem Teams srudying

~ Connec.1ing

the Classroom ThrwghFJeld Experience." joumaJof PuWt: AdministrationFducaOOn 2(2):131-142.

Rdetenccs

Elmore. Richard1~ "Graduate EduC2tion in

Public Management:~ in the SeamsofGovernment." journal ofPolicyA~ andMtlnagemenl,6(l):~3.

GoodscD,awtcs1992"ThePublicAdministrator

as Artisan."PublicAdmintstmtion Review,52(3):246-253.

Hopkins, RicbanI.1994 NamlIive Schooling. New

York: Teachers College,Cdumbia UniveJsity.

Horton, Myles, with KDbI,}udithand Herbert1m TheLongHaul.An

A~. New York:DoobIcday.

Hw:IJinp,Pat and~Allen,cds.191ti KnouJin&and Doing:

Learning 7brougbExperience. San ~jossey:-Bass.

jmtice. Dmd and M3rincm,Catherine191ti "Self-Assessment: EssenDal

Skills for Adult Leamers,"in H~ PatandWutzdodI, AlIen, em.KnouJin&and Doing:/..earning 7brougbbperlence. San ~}ossey-Bass. .

KDIb. David

1984 Experiential Learning.Englewood Qiffi;: Prentice-HaD.

KDIb,David, OsIaod,]oyce, andRubin,Irwin '1995 0tganizati0naJ Behavior.

An bperienJiaJ~.Englewood Oiffs, NJ:Prendce-HaIL

Moffett,James1994 The UntwnaJ ScbooIbouse:

spiritual Auua.ningThrough Education. SanFrancisco:)as.sey-Bass.

Nohria, Nitin and BcrkJey,.Jamcs1994 "Whatever Happened to

the Tak~ Manager?"HaroarrJ Business Ret'iew,72(1):128-137.

01hre, M.1991 "Formal ModeLo;and

Governmem: Teaching toDo." fwlTllll of PolicyA~and~1(X3):519-541.

Scoge, Peter1m TheFtflb DisdpIine. New

York: DoobIeday.

Vcotti1s, Curtis1991 "Cootemporary Issues in

Arrerican PublicAdmini<itr.uioo frb JCltion:The Search b anEducation Focus.. PuWt:

MnrilliSbt/tion A'Uiew,51(1):4-14. .

Weick,IWf1995Sensemaktngin

Organizations.Thousando.iks, CA:Sage.

Weick,IWf1979 TheSodaJ~of

Organizing. New York:McGraw HiD.

Whitley,R.1989 "On the Nature c:i

Managerial Tasks andSkills:Their~01aracterNics and

0Iganizati00. "joumaJ ofManogement~26(3):209-224.


Documents

Experiential Learning in Public Administration Education