Expanding EmpiresFive empires expanded dramatically after 1500 so that, by 1775, all of Eurasia, except for the European far west, was under control of one or the other of these empires:

1) China2) Russia3) Mughal India4) Safavid Iran5) Ottoman

ChinaHad the world’s longest tradition of empire, with a 2,000 years stretch from 200 B.C. to the early 20th century. China more than doubled in size from 1500 to 1800. The Ming dynasty had ruled China since 1368, but they were conquered in the mid-17th century by Manchus who started the Qing dynasty. The Qianlong emperor set out on a series of military campaigns from 1736-1795, conquering the Tibetans and Muslim Uigurs.

Tribute Trade SystemPeople in neighboring areas to China paid tribute to China’s emperor by sending periodic missions to Beijing. This included Vietnam, Korea, Java, and even Japan.This provided lucrative official and private trade opportunities linking China to the tributary states.China thus exercised direct and indirect influence over a territory much greater than it directly governed.

RussiaMoscow in 1300 was little more than a stockade, or “kremlin”, surrounded by a 3,000 miles of forest interspersed with farms.Rulers such as Ivan “the Terrible” expanded their territory over the next 150 years. In the mid-16th century, he pushed N, S, & E. The Romanov dynasty later continued the eastward push into Siberia all the way to the Pacific.Peter the Great and Catherine the Great pushed west into Eastern Europe.

Mughal, Safavid, & Ottoman EmpiresWere similar in a number of ways:

1) All had Turkish ruling dynastiesTurks had originally been nomads

2) All embraced Islam1st was tolerant of various branches, 2nd was Shiite, 3rd was Sunni.

3) Had similar political & economic structuresAll were dynasties in which power passed from father to son. All were ruled by a bureaucracy of officials posted throughout the realm. All rested on agricultural economy

Dynamics of EmpireThese empires soon extinguished one of the major threats to the governments of that day: nomadic invasions causing collapse or strain.Ironically, four of the five were established by conquers from the steppe.In India, various Indian princes challenged Mughal rule after the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, fragmenting the political power and leaving an opening for Europeans to take over.Two powerful empires had arisen in the Americas: the Aztecs (Mexico) and the Incas (Peru & Chile).

Aztecs1500 B.C. The Olmecs ruled Mexico.600-900 A.D. Mayans on Yucatan peninsula.1100- Toltecs had a capital in the valley of Mexico at Tula.1350- Mexica (Aztecs), as relatively late-comers to the valley of Mexico, were shunted off into the worst land- swamps & a lake.They dredged up muck from the lake into small floating plots called chinampa.They created an island upon which they built the city of Tenochtitlán.

Rise of an EmpireBy 1400, the valley of Mexico was studded with many warring city-states.The Aztec were minor players until they established a triple alliance with 2 other groups in 1428.The Aztecs soon came to control the entire valley of Mexico and beyond- including 489 subject territories totaling 25 million people.The Aztec ruled their empire not through bureaucracy, but through terror, not the best foundation for an empire.

IncasIn the mid-1200s, the Incas settled in the highlands of Peru around Lake Titicaca.In the 1400s, they launched military campaigns that created a huge empire which stretched for 2,500 miles.Unlike the Aztecs, the Incas incorporated conquered peoples into their culture and governed them using professional administrators.The Incas soon ruled over 16 million people.

Vertically Challenged?In addition to being spread out horizontally, the Incan empire was separated by vertical space as well.Some cities sat as high as 9,000 feet, while villages often lay in the valley.Because of changes in ecosystems, different crops had to be grown at different locals.The Incas paved mountain roads with cut stone for use by imperial runners and armies.

CommunicationAlthough they had a common language, Quechua, the Incas did not develop a writing system.They kept tract of vital information (population, taxes, & labor) using a system of colored, knotted cords.Most of what we know about this empire comes from accounts compiled in the early 1500s by European conquerors.

Imperial ExpansionThe Inca believed their ruler was descended from the sun god. After he died, he was mummified and his descendents were given his lands and possessions. Therefore. new rulers came to power poor and had to conquer new lands to start their reign. As available lands disappeared, this became a more difficult task.When the emperor died in 1525, a succession crisis ensued as two half brothers fought for the crown. Things would soon change there forever.

TenochtitlánIn 1500, the Aztec capital was a city of 250,000, one of the largest cities in the world.It had pyramids, botanical gardens, canals, zoos, a sewage system, and streets which were cleaned daily.Yet this large, complex, and powerful empire was brought down by 600 Spanish conquistadors under the command of Hernan Cortéz.

Coming of Cortéz

be a god, sent Cortéz gifts of gold to appease him. This approach backfired.The Spaniards enlisting the conquered peoples to help them find Tenochtitlán as well as to defeat the Aztecs.

Cortéz landed in Mexico in 1519 and heard stories of vast amounts of gold inland.The Aztec emperor, Moctezuma II, believing him to

Over half of the residents of Tenochtitlán died of smallpox, leaving the remaining warriors demoralized.

Spaniards Aztec

Steel swords Bronze weaponsSteel armor Cloth armorCannons No cannonsWheels No wheelsHorses No horsesDogs No dogsFought to kill Did not kill enemiesResistant to smallpox Susceptible to smallpox

Pizarro and the IncasBy the time Francisco Pizarro came to Peru, smallpox had already decimated many of the Incas.Pizarro exploited differences between claimants to the throne to lure them into a trap, killing all but one Incan ruler.He then forced this ruler to deliver a large amount of gold to the conquistador before strangling and decapitating him.

Fair exchange?Conquest of the Americas lead to a global exchange on New World products: maize, potatoes, tomatoes, chiles, and other foods spread rapidly throughout Eurasia.Something spread throughout the Americas as well: disease. In addition to small pox-chicken pox, influenza, measles, plague, cholera, whooping cough, diphtheria, and malaria spread to the New World, killing 90% of the population within 80 years.

Labor Supply ProblemThe Spaniards soon had a problem on their hands. They were not inclined to do manual labor, but the native Americans that had survived the “Great Dying” were not eager to work for them.Enslaving them outright was ruled out when the Catholic church ruled that they had soulsTwo systems were developed to get labor:

1) encomienda- provided food, shelter, and Christianity in exchange for work.

2) repartimento- forced Indians into small towns

Silver MinesFor several decades the Spanish approach to a New World economy did not require much labor, they simply looted the riches of the vanquished civilizations.Soon, however, huge deposits of silver were found in Mexico and what is now Bolivia.The biggest strike was found in Potosí in 1545Even though the town was at 11,000 feet, the population grew to 150,000 by 1570.The mine continued to operate for 300 years.

A European Empire?Spain’s newfound wealth made it possible for them to attempt to establish an empire which united Europe.Charles V, son of Ferdinand and Isabella inherited Spain, Austria, the Netherlands, Sicily, Sardinia, Mexico, and Peru from his parents.France, England, and Protestants living in the Netherlands were the main forces stopping Spain from establishing their empire.

The Cost of WarA number of costly defeats sapped both Spanish strength and resources:

1) War between Spain and France2) Dutch war of independence3) English defeat of the Spanish Armada4) Further European defeats (30 Years’ War)

These defeats served to bankrupt Spain and put an end to the last real possibility for Europe to be ruled as an empire.

Silver ProductionFrom 1503 to 1660: 32,000,000 pounds of silver (half of it from Potosí) and 360,000 pounds of gold were exported from the New World.To increase production, the Spaniards introduced a mercury-based refining process, mining was already dangerous but mercury is poisonous.During its operation, it is estimated that 8 million workers lost their lives at Potosí, about 7 out of 10 workers who worked there.

Where Did The Silver Go?About 3/4 of the New World silver produced over 3 centuries ended up in China.Spain, however, did not trade much of it with China since they did not have access there.Instead, silver was traded to Dutch arms traders as well as French and English financiers in order to fund their war efforts.These groups then financed trade missions to China through the Indian Ocean.It was not until Spain seized Manila that they could send silver directly from Mexico.

China’s Appetite for SilverSilver served as both the basis of the monetary system for China as well as facilitating its economic growth. China at this time was the largest and most productive economy in the world.Silver was expensive in China but very cheap in America. If China’s demand for silver was not so high- there wouldn’t have been such incentive to mine it.Silver “went around the world and made the world go round”.

China’s EconomyChina’s population continued to climb:

1500- 60% of world’s population1750- 66%1800- 67%

Around this time, China produced 80% of the world’s goods. The quantity was impressive but the quality was superior as well.For instance, Chinese silk and other textiles were soon worn across Central and South America.

China poblana

Indian TextilesChina was not the only country with sought after goods.The English found the cheap cotton textiles from India superior to anything they could buy locally. The British textile manufacturers were concerned that their industry was doomed. In 1707, they pressured the government to embargo the importation of Indian cotton. In 1717, laws were passed against wearing Indian cotton or Chinese silk.

Slavery and the New World Economy

Imported African slave labor was used in the New World for the production of:

1) sugar (16th century)2) tobacco (17th century)3) cotton (18th century

Three steps to slave labor:1) cut down forests and turn into plantations2) exterminate native peoples3) import African slaves to work the plantations

Portuguese and SlaveryThe Portuguese were the first to use slave labor in the New World. They had already worked out a system for slave-based sugar production on islands off the coast of Africa that they had conquered looking for a sea route to Asia.The Portuguese imported their system of slavery to their colony in Brazil. The native Taino people had no interest in working for them, those that did not succumb to disease fled into the rain forest for the most part.

Slavery in the CaribbeanThe French and English soon started their own sugar plantations in the Caribbean using the Portuguese system.The British took Barbados in 1640 and then took Jamaica from the Spanish. The French colonized Martinique. Both deforested their respective possessions, wrecking the fertility of the soil and changing the local climate.Soon, Caribbean sugar competed with Brazilian sugar, driving it from Northern Europe.

Extent of SlaveryBy 1650, Africans were the majority of new settlers in the New World.For nearly 300 years, Europeans (first the Portuguese & Dutch, but eventually mostly the British) took thousands of African slaves every year to the Americas.By the time slave trade ended in the 1800s, over 9 million slaves were taken to the New World, leaving a lasting impact on American society.

Triangles of TradeOne direction:

1) Sugar, timber and fish were sent from the Americas to England.

2) Cotton textiles were sent from England to Africa.

3) Slaves were taken from Africa to America.The other direction:

1) Rum went from America to Africa.2) Slaves went from Africa to the Caribbean.3) Molasses went from the Caribbean to

England.

European State SystemAs Spain’s power waned, first France and then England rose to power following a series of wars. These wars involved not only these “major” players but included virtually all European states. Warfare led to a consolidation of these states into increasingly fewer political units.In 1500, Europe was divided into about 500 different states, now that number has reduced to 30.

Financing WarsWar greatly affected the internal evolution of European states. War is expensive and there were two main ways to finance it:

1) taxation2) loans

The former met resistance from landowners so rulers had to negotiate with the rich.The latter involves borrowing $ from bankers that may live outside of your country, or will lead to “national debt” if borrowed from within.

Characteristics of European States:1) standing armies and navies2) populations large enough to support them3) cities with accumulation of capital4) taxation and bureaucracies to collect them5) representative assemblies (so subjects

could influence the level of taxation)6) public indebtedness7) a national debt

MercantilismSince wars were expensive and required the purchasing of arms, often from other countries, stockpiles of precious metals could give a country the edge it needed. European states began competing to attract and retain as much silver and gold bullion as possible.States, therefore, imposed duties on imported goods, required that all goods be transported in their ships, and forced colonists to trade only with their motherland.

The Seven Years’ WarBritain and France soon became the dominant forces in Europe and fought between themselves for supremacy.Between 1689 and 1815, the two countries fought five wars, only one of which was started by the French.The most significant of these was the Seven Years’ War of 1756-1763 (called French & Indian War in America). This was the first real world war, and involved America, Africa, India, and Europe. France lost colonial claims to Canada as well as India when Britain won.