Examining Teacher Effectiveness Between Preschool and Third Grade

8/20/2019 Examining Teacher Effectiveness Between Preschool and Third Grade

1/34 WWW.AMERICANPROGRESS.O

Examining Teacher Effectiveness

Between Preschool and Third GradeBy Rachel Herzfeldt-Kamprath and Rebecca Ullrich January 2016


2/34

Examining TeacherEffectiveness BetweenPreschool and Third Grade

By Rachel Herzfeldt-Kamprath and Rebecca Ullrich January 2016


3/34

1 Introduction and summary

3 Measuring teacher effectiveness and child outcomes

5 Children’s access to teachers with key factors of effective

from preschool to third grade

20 Teachers need support to be effective

22 Policy priorities

25 Conclusion

26 Methodology and description of data

27 About the authors

28 Endnotes

Contents


4/34

1 Center for American Progress | Examining Teacher Effectiveness Between Preschool and Third Grade

Introduction and summary

eachers play a criical role in a child’s developmen. Recognizing ha he earlies

years o a child’s lie are some o he mos ormaive, children should have access

o high-qualiy eachers as early as possible. Research suggess ha when eachers

are well-equipped o provide children wih simulaing classroom environmens

and supporive relaionships, childrenespecially hose rom disadvanaged

backgroundsexperience beter academic oucomes and improved social-emo-

ional developmen.1 Providing he necessary suppor or eachers o be effecive

is a crucial sep in closing he persisen achievemen gap and seting children ona pah oward success.

Gaps in opporuniy and achievemen beween children rom varying racial and

socio-economic backgrounds begin beore children ener he K-12 educaion sys-

em and appear as early as 9 monhs old.2 While high-qualiy early educaion has

been shown o close gaps in achievemen a kindergaren enry, some sudies have

ound ha cogniive skills converge wih hose o children who did no atend pre-

school in he early elemenary years. However, he posiive long-erm oucomes

paricularly gains in social-emoional learningconinue.3 In order o ensure ha

he developmenal gains rom high-qualiy early learning are mainained and ha

children are able o build on a srong oundaion, i is criical ha children have

consisen access o effecive insrucion.4 Increasingly, researchers are recognizing

he imporance o creaing alignmen across educaional policies and insrucional

pracices rom preschool o hird grade.

Providing sudens wih coninuous access o high-qualiy eachers is a necessary

componen or creaing his alignmen. While i is challenging o define a specific

meric ha capures he overall qualiy o a eacher, evidence suggess ha cerain

acors may suppor effecive eaching and ulimaely produce beter oucomesor children. Tese measurable acors include eachers’ qualificaions, namely

heir years o experience and educaional background; he eaching environmen,

including characerisics o he school and eachers’ compensaion; as well as each-

ers’ atiudes owards heir proession, specifically job saisacion and commi-


5/34


men o eaching. In order o ensure ha he gains rom early educaion coninue

and all children are prepared o succeed in school, policymakers should ake seps

o ensure ha eachers across he early educaion specrum have he raining,

resources, and suppor hey need o creae sae and engaging spaces or children.

Tis repor examines he consisency o children’s access o effecive eachers beween preschool and hird gradeas well as how ha access differs by a child’s

race/ehniciy and socio-economic sauswihin hree broad acors o eacher

effeciveness: qualificaions, atiudes, and environmen. Te analyses presened

uilize wo naionally represenaive daa ses: he Early Childhood Longiudinal

Sudy, Birh Cohor, or ECLS-B, and he Early Childhood Longiudinal Sudy,

Kindergaren Class o 2010-11, or ECLS-K: 2011.

Resuls suppor ha he acors ha conribue o effecive eaching are inherenly

inerconneced and ypically accessed a lower raes by Arican American and

Hispanic children, as well as children rom low-income households. Furhermore,access o effecive eachers varies beween he prekindergaren year and he kin-

dergaren hrough hird, or K-3, grades because he sandards, expecaions, and

suppors or eachers are differen or hese wo sysems.

In order o improve alignmen and ensure ha children have access o effecive

eachers every year beween preschool and hird grade, policymakers should ocus

on he ollowing prioriies:

• Expanding access o high-qualiy prekindergaren programs

• Providing collaboraive and muli-year proessional developmen and in-service

raining opporuniies o all eachers beween preschool and hird grade

• Ensuring ha school-level suppors and insrucional resources are available o

all eachers, children, and amilies

• Aligning he oversigh agencies ha develop sandards or eaching, insrucion,

and governance beween preschool and hird grade

• Increasing eacher compensaion

Supporing educaors and caregivers so ha hey are well-equipped o provide

high-qualiy learning environmens is a criical firs sep o improving academic

oucomes or he naion’s younges learners and ensuring heir long-erm success.


6/34


Measuring teacher effectiveness

and child outcomes

An exensive body o research examining he relaionship beween classroom

qualiy in early childhood educaion and child oucomes has idenified several

acors ha are criical o children’s success, including supporive and engaging

ineracions beween children and eachers; developmenally appropriae insruc-

ion; and sae and simulaing maerials and aciviies.5 Tese eaures o classroom

qualiy mater. When childrenespecially children rom low-income house-

holdshave access o high-qualiy classrooms, hey are more likely o be prepared

or kindergaren and perorm beter hroughou heir educaional careers.6

Alhough less widely used as a measure o qualiy in K-12 educaion, supporive

eacher-child ineracionsin he conex o sae and insrucionally engaging

classroom environmenshave significan posiive effecs on children’s academic

achievemen and classroom behavior wihin and across elemenary grades. In

early elemenary school, high levels o emoional and insrucional suppor may

allow sruggling sudens o cach up o heir peers,7 as well as aciliae higher

levels o engagemen8 and social skills9 in he classroom.

eachers play a key role in creaing a high-qualiy classroom environmen, paric-

ularly since supporive and posiive eacher-child ineracions are a key eaure o

qualiy 10 and are posiively associaed wih children’s achievemen rajecories.11

Ineracions ha are warm and sensiive while sill providing explici insruc-

ion and verbal engagemen are predicive o gains in children’s lieracy, language

acquisiion, and social developmen.12 Observaion ools such as he Classroom

Assessmen Scoring Sysem, or CL ASS,13 are designed o evaluae and measure

he qualiy o eacher-child ineracions rom inancy hrough secondary school,

bu hey require a subsanial amoun o human capial o adminiser, which

can be financially and logisically burdensome. Consequenly, disrics’ accesso well-recognized global measures o eacher qualiy ha span he preschool o

hird grade ime rame is limied.


7/34


However, paricular characerisics o eachers and heir schools may be posiively

associaed wih he qualiy o eacher-child ineracions in he classroom and sup-

por beter long-erm oucomes or children. Tis repor ocuses on hree o hese

characerisics: eachers’ qualificaions; atiudes abou eaching; and he eaching

environmen, including characerisics o schools and eachers’ compensaion.

Tese acors are inherenly inerwoven and conribue a grea deal o a eacher’seffeciveness in he classroom. For example, while policymakers ypically consider

boh eachers’ compensaion and educaion as levers o elevae eacher qualiy,

compensaion is generally dependen on educaion.14 In urn, compensaion can

influence how saisfied and commited eachers are, paricularly when hey are

working in challenging schools.15 As hey seek o elevae he eaching workorce,

policymakers mus consider a wide range o acors and suppors or educaors.


8/34


Children’s access to teachers with

key factors of effectiveness from

preschool to third grade

Comparing access o effecive eachers rom preschool o hird grade is challenging

because here are undamenal differences in how early learning sysems and K-12

sysems are adminisered, moniored, and evaluaed. Tis resuls in drasically dis-

parae proessional sandards or educaors. Moreover, a child’s access o early edu-

caion varies by his or her socio-economic saus and racial background, 16 whereaspublic K-12 educaion is universally accessible regardless o a child’s demographics.

Despie increasing demand or early educaion opporuniies over he las wo

decades, he early childhood educaion field remains largely disjoined. Even

wihin saes, sandards or eachers vary widely depending he ype o program

and source o unding.17 For example, a 4-year-old in Alabama’s public preschool

program is guaraneed o have a eacher wih a bachelor’s degree. I ha same

4-year-old were in a child care cener, however, his eacher may no even have a

high school diploma.18 Conversely, educaion and licensing requiremens or public

school eachers are uniorm wihin saes, and across he counry, mos elemenary

school eachers are a leas expeced o have a bachelor’s degree.19 Tese differences

in requiremens or early childhood and K-12 educaors can resul in drasic gaps in

salary and opporuniies or proessional growh beween he secors.

Moreover, while enrollmen in early educaion has been on he rise in recen years,

ar ewer children atend preschool compared o kindergaren and elemenary

school. Jus less han 50 percen o 3- and 4-year-olds are enrolled in a pre-

school program, whereas 84 percen o 5-year-olds are enrolled in school.20 Even

when children have access o early educaion, heir experiences vary drasicallydepending on wha ype o program hey are enrolled in.21 Access o high-qualiy

programs also varies by children’s demographic backgrounds.22 Tese gaps in


9/34


access o educaional opporuniies may lead o dramaic differences in access o

well-qualified eachers beween preschool and kindergaren, which in urn likely

conribue o gaps in achievemen a kindergaren enry beween sudens who

have access o high-qualiy early educaion and hose who do no.

Te disinc naure o hese wo sysems means ha here is significan variaion inchildren’s access o he acors ha suppor high-qualiy eaching as hey ransiion

rom preschool o elemenary school. Te ollowing secions ake a closer look a

key characerisics o eacher effeciveness, examining why hese specific charac-

erisics mater or children and wheher or no children rom differen economic

and racial backgrounds have consisen access o various acors ha suppor

eacher effeciveness as hey move rom preschool o hird grade.

Teacher qualif ications

When policymakers consider ways o promoe effecive eaching, hey ofen look

o aspecs o a eacher’s proessional background, specifically heir educaional

raining and years o experience. In boh early educaion and K-12 research, how

hese acors conribue o a child’s success have been well-sudied. Research indi-

caes ha access o experienced eachers wih raining specific o child develop-

men is imporan o promoe suden achievemen.23

Years of teaching experience

Research has demonsraed ha eachers improve in effeciveness over he firs

five years o heir eaching career, meaning ha new eachersspecifically hose

in he firs ew years o eachingare less effecive han eachers wih more

experience.24 Sudies have linked higher levels o eacher experience o higher es

scores, as well as beter long-erm oucomes as children progress hrough school.25

While he added benefis rom more years o experience end o level off or each-

ers, i is clear ha eachers who have a ew years o in-classroom pracice under

heir bels suppor beter oucomes or children.26

Analyses o ECLS-B and ECLS-K:2011 daa show ha access o new eachers

varies litle across grades: Less han 10 percen o children in each grade are being

augh by a new eacher. Wihin each grade, access o new eachers also does no

vary much by a child’s race/ehniciy. However, analyses revealed differences


10/34


beween children rom high-income householdsdefined as hose making more

han $100,000 per yearand children living in povery. (see Figure 1) Noably,

children rom high-income households are less likely han children living in pov-

ery o have a new eacher in every grade beween preschool and hird grade.

Teacher education

Research examining he associaion beween a eacher’s level o educaion and

individual child oucomes has produced mixed resuls bu has generally ound

ha children receive beter qualiy educaion and experience beter oucomes

when eachers have more years o specialized educaion, specifically in child

developmen and insrucion.27 A presen, highly educaed means somehing

differen in early childhood versus elemenary educaion. In general, mos pre-

kindergaren eachers have no earned more han a bachelor’s degree.28 Research

suggess ha high-qualiy early learning classrooms are ypically led by a eacher

wih a bachelor ’s degree in child developmen, early childhood educaion, ora relaed field.29 Reflecing his, qualificaions or eachers in publically unded

programs are on he rise.30

FIGURE 1

Access to new teachers* varies by child's household income and

grade level

Proportion of children in prekindergarten to second grade with a new teacher,

by child’s household income

* For the purposes of this analysis, new teachers are those with two or less years of experience.

Sources: Authors' calculations are based on data from National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study: BirthCohort (U.S. Department of Education, 2009); National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study: KindergartenClass of 2010-11 (U.S. Department of Education, 2011).

Prekindergarten Kindergarten First grade Second grade0%

2%

4%

6%

8%

10%

Poverty

High income

6%

4%

9%

7%

9%

5%

8%

5%


11/34


Elemenary educaors, by conras, mus hold a bachelor’s degree in mos saes.31

Researchers have ound ha while simply having a degree does no necessarily

aciliae suden achievemen, having a degree specific o eaching or eacher

preparaion coursework specific o mahemaics and reading insrucion is associ-

aed wih a significan posiive effec on achievemen gains.32

Analyses o ECLS-B and ECLS-K:2011 daa reveal ha nearly all children exam-

ined have access o eachers wih raining in child developmen across grade levels,

regardless o race or income. Children in firs and second grade are slighly less

likely o have eachers wih his raining. Overall, children are much more likely

o have a highly educaed eacher in kindergaren, firs, and second grade han in

preschool. (see Figure 2) In his analysis, he auhors define “highly educaed” as

a bachelor’s degree or higher or prekindergaren programs and a maser’s degree

or higher or elemenary school, reflecing he highes requiremens naionally or

hese grades. Nearly 100 percen o children have a eacher wih a leas a bachelor’s

degree beween kindergaren and second grade, bu only 54 percen o childrenin cener-based early learning have a similarly qualified eacher. When comparing

access o eachers wih a maser’s degree, his rend is urher pronounced: Only

13 percen o children in cener-based preschool have access o a eacher wih a

maser’s degree compared o 52 percen o children in second grade.

FIGURE 2

Access to teachers with a college degree, by grade level

Sources: Authors' calculations are based on data from National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study: Birth

Cohort (U.S. Department of Education, 2009); National Center f or Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study: KindergartenClass of 2010-11 (U.S. Department of Education, 2011).

Prekindergarten Kindergarten First grade Second grade0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100% 99%

46% 50% 52%

99% 99%

B.A. or higher

M.A. or higher

13%

54%


12/34


Analyses also show ha children rom higher-income backgrounds are slighly

more likely o have highly educaed eachers. (see Figure 3) In he prekindergar-

en year, 61 percen o children in he highes income group have a eacher wih a

leas a bachelor’s degree compared o only 52 percen o children rom he lowes

income amilies. As children progress hrough elemenary school, hey are slighly

more likely o have a highly educaed eacher. Tis is paricularly rue or childrenrom higher income amilies: 60 percen o he highes income second-graders

have a eacher wih a maser’s degree compared o only 46 percen o kindergar-

eners in he same income group.

FIGURE 3

Access to highly educated* teachers, by child's household income and

grade level

* "Highly educated" is considered to be a B.A. or higher for prekindergarten teachers and an M.A. or higher for elementary school teachers.

Sources: Authors' calculations are based on data from National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study: BirthCohort (U.S. Department of Education, 2009); National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study: Kindergarten

Class of 2010-11 (U.S. Department of Education, 2011).

Prekindergarten

Kindergarten

First grade

Second grade

Less than $20,000 $20,000–$50,000 $50,000–$100,000 Greater than $100,000

52%

53%

56%

61%

46%

46%

47%

46%

49%

50%

50%

52%

50%

51%

50%

60%


13/34


Tese analyses confirm sark differences in expecaions or eachers beween he

prekindergaren year and kindergaren and early elemenary school. While his

finding is no new, i highlighs an area o disconinuiy in eachers’ educaional

requiremens across he prekindergaren o hird grade specrum. Similarly, resuls

show ha children’s access o highly educaed eachers varies by heir socio-

economic saus, especially as hey progress ino elemenary school. Tis is a causeor concern because disadvanaged children sand o gain he mos rom effecive

eachers, paricularly during early childhood.

Attitudes towards teaching: Efficacy, satisfaction, and commitment

eachers’ belies and atiudes oward heir proession are imporan and powerul

predicors o heir effeciveness in he classroom. Specifically, eachers who believe

ha hey are capable o improving all sudens’ learning; who are happy wih heir

jobs; and who are commited o eaching are more likely o be open o innovaions,ry new insrucional echniques, and have lower raes o urnover.33 Efficacious,

saisfied, and commited eachers are more likely o engage in supporive, mean-

ingul ineracions wih children in heir classrooms,34 which can lead o posiive

effecs on academic achievemen and children’s own eelings o sel-efficacy.35

Analyses revealed ha beween prekindergaren and hird grade, sudens in

cener-based preschool are he mos likely o have eachers who indicae more

posiive atiudes owards eaching han children in kindergaren, firs, and second

grade. (see Figure 4) In general, as children progress hrough he early elemenary

grades, heir access o eachers who srongly agree ha hey are saisfied, effica-

cious, and commited decreases. Seveny-eigh percen o preschool sudens have

a eacher who srongly agrees ha hey enjoy heir curren posiion. Conversely,

only 40 percen o sudens in second grade have a eacher who indicaes equal

enjoymen. Similar rends are refleced in analyses o eachers’ eelings abou

wheher or no hey believe ha hey make a difference in heir sudens’ lives and

i hey would choose o each given he opporuniy o sar over.


14/34


Access o eachers who repor posiive atiudes oward eaching does no vary

drasically across children’s socio-economic sauses, alhough children in higher-

income households are slighly more likely han heir lower-income peers o have

highly saisfied eachers. (see Figure 5)

FIGURE 4

Children's access to highly committed and satisfied teachers varies

by grade

Percentage of children whose teachers report strong agreement, by grade level


Cohort (U.S. Department of Education, 2009); National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study:

"I really enjoy my

present teaching job"

"I am certain I am

making a difference

in the lives of the

children I teach"

"If I could start over,

I would choose

teaching again as

my career"

Prekindergarten Kindergarten First grade Second grade

78%

52%

48%

40%

76%

56%

53%

47%

67%

53%

47%

40%


15/34


eachers’ sense o sel-efficacy can ac as an imporan buffer agains he effecs

o sress, which is associaed wih burnou and ulimaely urnover. eachers

who repor lower sel-efficacy may be less equipped o manage sressors in heir workplacesuch as classroom managemen, paren-eacher ineracions, and

relaionships wih colleaguesand hereore more likely o experience eelings o

burnou.36 Providing eachers wih he suppors and resources ha hey need in

order o eel effecive may help increase heir job saisacion, decrease eelings o

burnou, and creae a sronger sense o commimen o eaching.

FIGURE 5

Teacher-reported job satisfaction varies further by child's

household income

Percentage of children whose teacher strongly agrees with the statement "I really

enjoy my present teaching job," by child's household income and grade level



Prekindergarten

Kindergarten

First grade

Second grade


74%

77%

79%

80%

47%

50%

54%

56%

41%

46%

50%

54%

37%

39%

43%

42%


16/34


Teaching environment

eachers’ working environmens affec heir overall eelings o sress and well-being,

which influence heir abiliy o advance sudens’ learning. Our analysis explores

hree acors o he eaching environmen: neighborhood saey, povery densiy,

and eacher compensaion. Te associaions beween hese eaures o schools andeacher effecivenessas well as he exen o which hey have been explored in

researchvary drasically beween he early childhood and K-12 spheres. However,

here is evidence o sugges ha eachers who are in high-sress environmens are

more likely o burnou, which has negaive effecs on suden achievemen.37

Neighborhood safety and poverty density

Public schools in high-povery, high-crime neighborhoodsparicularly urban

communiies are more likely o enroll sudens ha come rom socially andeconomically sressed households.38 eachers in hese schools ofen lack access

o imporan insrucional resources ha can help hem adequaely suppor he

academic and social-emoional needs o heir sudens.39 Tis creaes a challenging

working environmen or eachers and can resul in poor oucomes or children.40

Unlike public elemenary schools, a child’s enrollmen in cener-based early

learning programs is no necessarily deermined by where hey live; parens have

a air amoun o auonomy regarding which program heir children atend. Ye,

research suggess ha when choosing a cener, low-income amilies generally

prioriize pracical concerns, such as cos, proximiy o home or work, or opera-

ing hours, while high-income amilies are more likely o prioriize qualiy.41 Early

childhood research has generally no explored he effecs o communiy and cen-

er characerisics on insrucional qualiy. One migh expec, however, ha he

sressors ha can dilue elemenary educaors’ effeciveness may have he same

effec in early childhood ceners.

Analyses o ECLS-B and ECLS-K:2011 daa confirms ha children rom lower-

income backgrounds are less likely o atend schools in very sae neighborhoods

as idenified by school adminisraorsin boh prekindergaren and kindergaren.(see Figure 6) Arican American and Hispanic children are also less likely han heir

whie and Asian peers o atend schools in neighborhoods considered very sae by


17/34


school adminisraors. (see Figure 7) Noably, Arican American children are more

likely o atend a preschool in a very sae neighborhood when compared o elemen-

ary school; children rom oher racial and ehnic backgrounds are equally likely o

atend preschool and elemenary school in a very sae neighborhood.

FIGURE 6

Children attending prekindergarten and kindergarten in a very safe

neighborhood, by child's household income




Prekindergarten

Kindergarten

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

46%

42%

55% 56%

68% 71% 75%

77%

FIGURE 7

Children attending prekindergarten and kindergarten in a very safeneighborhood, by child's race and ethnicity


Cohort (U.S. Department of Education, 2009); National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study: KindergartenClass of 2010-11 (U.S. Department of Education, 2011).

White African American Hispanic Asian

Prekindergarten

Kindergarten

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

73% 72%

39%

44% 47%

63%67%

36%


18/34


Analyses reveal similar rends in access by children’s race and socio-economic

saus when examining which children are likely o be in schools wih high con-

cenraions o povery. Access o ood assisance is no a perec proxy or povery,

bu i does provide some meric by which o undersand he socio-economic

saus o children’s peers. Te ECLS-B provides daa on wheher or no child care

ceners receive ood assisance hrough he Child and Adul Care Food Program,or CACFP, in he prekindergaren year. ECLS-K:2011 daa idenifies he adminis-

raor repored proporion o children in each school who are eligible or ree and

reduced price lunches, or FRPL, hrough he Naional School Lunch Program.

Analyses show ha Arican American and Hispanic children are much more

likely o be enrolled in preschool ceners ha receive CACFP reimbursemens

(see Figure 8) and atend kindergaren in elemenary schools where high pro-

porions o sudens are repored o be on FRPL. (see Figure 9) Children rom

lower-income households are also more likely o atend schools wih high propor-

ions o children receiving assisance. In he prekindergaren year, children romhouseholds wih incomes below $20,000 are more han five imes as likely o be in

a program ha receives CACFP unding han heir peers in households wih more

han $100,000 in household income.42

FIGURE 8

African American and Hispanic children are more likely to be enrolled in aprekindergarten or child care center that receives CACFP reimbursements

Proportion of children attending a prekindergarten center that receives food

subsidies, by child's race and ethnicity

Source: Authors' calculations are based on data from National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study: Birth

Cohort (U.S. Department of Education, 2009).

White African American Hispanic Asian0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

28%

70%61%

25%


19/34


In addiion o influencing eachers’ abiliy o be effecive in he classroom, a

school’s locaion and he characerisics o he suden body enrolled can suppor

or hinder is abiliy o atrac and reain well-qualified eachers across grade levels.

Across he counry, eachers working in high-povery schools are more likely o

move schools or leave eaching alogeher.43 A 2009 repor examining eacher

urnover in Chicago Public Schools ound ha elemenary schools wih chroni-

cally low raes o eacher sabiliy ended o be low-income, low-achieving, and

predominanly Arican American schools.44 Meanwhile, eacher sabiliy raes

were significanly higher a elemenary schools locaed in areas wih low crime

likely due o he ac ha schools in low-crime areas also end o have beter work-

ing condiions, such as increased paren involvemen and ewer disciplinary issues

among sudens.45 Given he characerisics o eachers mos commonly placed in

high-povery schools, many deparing eachershighly effecive or oherwise

are likely being replaced by novice eachers wih limied experience.

Teacher pay

eachers’ salaries, o some exen, are linked o paricular indicaors o effecive-ness, namely years o eaching experience, educaional background, and special-

ized raining. In many K-12 school disrics, eachers are paid more i hey have

FIGURE 9

African American and Hispanic children are more likely to attend

kindergarten in a school with a high concentration of childreneligible for nutrition assistance

Average proportion of students in school who qualify for free and reduced-price

lunches by child's race and ethnicity

Source: Author's calculations are based on data from National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study:Kindergarten Class of 2010-11 (U.S. Department of Education, 2011).

White African American Hispanic Asian0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

38%

71% 68%

38%


20/34


a maser’s degree46 or i hey are cerified o each a high-need populaion o su-

dens, such as children wih special needs.47 Similarly, early childhood educaors

receive incremenally higher pay or higher levels o educaion, hough hey end

o earn less han heir K-12 counerpars regardless o heir educaion level.48

In he early childhood field, sudies have ound boh direc and indirec links beween eachers’ pay and he qualiy o educaion provided, wih comparaively

beter-compensaed educaors creaing a higher-qualiy classroom environmen.49

Te available daa on educaor pay reveals large differences beween compensa-

ion in prekindergaren programs and he K-12 educaion sysem. (see Figure 10)

Naional averages o eacher pay, meanwhile, show sligh increases in compensa-

ion or eachers serving older children.

Analyses comparing eachers’ educaional backgrounds confirm drasically di-

eren requiremens or early childhood and elemenary educaors, which likely

conribues o he large differences in compensaion. Ensuring ha educaional

requiremens and compensaion are consisen across he prekindergaren o hirdgrade coninuum is imporan in effors o improve alignmen.

Secondary school teachers

Middle school teachers

Elementary school teachers

Kindergarten teachers

Preschool teachers

Child care workers

FIGURE 10

Average annual teacher pay, by grade level

Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, "Occupational Employment Statistics: May 2014 National Occupational Employment and Wage

Estimates, United States," available at http://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes_nat.htm#25-0000 (last accessed November 2015).

$59,330

$57,620

$56,830

$53,480

$32,040

$21,710


21/34


Te ECLS-B provides more deailed inormaion on early educaion providers’

household incomes, allowing or a closer look a children’s access o eachers

who are more economically secure. Analyses shows ha children rom Arican

American and Hispanic backgrounds are more likely o have eachers whose

household income is below $50,000 when compared o heir whie and Asian

peers. (see Figure 11)

Similarly, children living in povery are more likely o have eachers in he

lowes income group han children rom high-income households. (see Figure

12) Moreover, children rom disadvanaged backgrounds may be experienc-

ing higher levels o sress a home and sand he mos o gain rom a sable and

secure classroom environmen.


FIGURE 11

African American and Hispanic children are less likely to have a teacher

with a higher household income than their white and Asian peers

Prekindergarten teachers' household income, by child's race and ethnicity

Source: Authors' calculations are based on data from National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study: BirthCohort (U.S. Department of Education, 2009).

White African American Hispanic Asian

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

7%

9%8%

4%

38% 38%

24%

32%

18%

30%

12%

4%

7%

13%

29%28%


22/34


Te compensaion available or eachers may also affec schools’ abiliy o atrac and

reain high-qualiy eachers. Specifically, associaions beween compensaion and

eacher commimen are hough o be influenced by he school environmen and

working condiions. For insance, despie receiving higher salaries, eachers in urban

disrics in exas were more likely o repor higher levels o job dissaisacion han

heir rural and suburban counerpars.50 Early child caregivers and educaors wih

higher educaional backgrounds and raining are more likely o leave heir posiions

i hey are making low wages and i co-workers are no similarly well-rained. 51

FIGURE 12

High-income children are more likely to have a teacher with a higher

household income than their low-income peers

Proportion of children with access to teachers in each income quartile, by child's

household income

Source: Authors' calculations are based on data from National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study: BirthCohort (U.S. Department of Education, 2009).


73%

0

10

20

30

40

Poverty

High income

9%

5%

39%

27%26%

32%

6%

15%


23/34


Teachers need support

to be effective

Myriad acors play a significan role in promoing eachers effeciveness. While

his paper does no consider every acor ha influences eacher effecive-

ness, he analyses presened reveal a number o key findings. Firs, he exising

lieraure and analyses o ECLS daases demonsrae he inerconnecedness o

he acors ha influence eacher effeciveness. Ulimaely, o aciliae sudens’

success in school, eachers need o be well-educaed and prepared; suppored

and appropriaely compensaed by heir schools; equipped wih he resources

and ongoing proessional developmen hey need o each; and eel confiden inheir abiliy o be effecive.

Analyses o ECLS daa shows ha, in general, children rom lower-income and

ehnic minoriy amilies have less access o eachers wih he suppors necessary

o be effecive. Specifically, hey are more likely o atend high-povery schools in

less-sae neighborhoods and less likely o have eachers in high-income house-

holds. Similarly, low-income children are more likely o have a new eacher in all

grades han heir high-income peers.

Daa analyses reveals sark differences in children’s access o highly educaed and

well-compensaed eachers beween prekindergaren and he early elemenary

years, likely due o he significan differences in he sandards and expecaions or

prekindergaren eachers and caregivers and heir peers in he K-12 sysem. Te

differences beween prekindergaren and kindergaren are paricularly noable,

given ha early childhood educaorsespecially hose in high-qualiy pro-

gramsand kindergaren eachers are working wih children on similar skills.

Analyses also reveal ha eacher saisacion and posiive atiudes oward each-

ing seem o decrease as children advance hrough he elemenary grades; a rendha is more pronounced or children rom low-income households. While i is

beyond he scope o his repor o ge o he roo o his rend, one migh expec

ha pressure on eachers moun as children progress hrough elemenary school

and are expeced o maser more challenging inormaion. Furher research could


24/34


explore why atiudes owards eaching migh become less posiive in laer grades.

Increased alignmen and coninuiy in insrucional approaches beween pre-

school and hird grade is a key policy prioriy or lawmakers hoping o reduce he

achievemen gap and hereby reduce sress or eachers in laer elemenary years.


25/34


Policy priorities

Te research and findings presened in his repor i lluminae a number o priori-

ies or policymakers seeking o broaden access o effecive eachers beween

preschool and hird grade. By ocusing on hese prioriies, policymakers can sig-

nificanly improve he suppors available o eachers beween preschool and hird

grade; ensure educaional alignmen or young children; and ulimaely improve

oucomes or our mos vulnerable children.

Increasing access to high-quality prekindergarten programs

One o he key challenges o aligning educaion sysems beween preschool and

hird grade is ha raes o access o hese wo sysems are drasically differen.

While public elemenary schools are available o all children, only abou hal o

all children have access o preschool.52 Likewise, when children do have access o

preschool, he qualiy o he educaion hey receive can vary significanly depend-

ing on he ype and locaion o he paricular program.53

Wihou universal access o prekindergaren, children ener kindergaren a di-

eren skill levels and developmenal sages. Tis presens an added challenge or

eachers in K-3 classrooms, who mus balance addressing he needs o sruggling

children while coninuing o provide more advanced children wih challenging

and simulaing aciviies. Increasing invesmens, paricularly a he ederal level,

ha expand access o high-qualiy early learning would ensure ha all children

ener kindergaren ready o learn and could have a significan effec on reducing

achievemen gaps in laer grades.

Increasing cross-sector collaboration among oversight agencies

Collaboraion beween agencies ha oversee sandards or eaching, insrucion,

and governance a ederal, sae, and local levels is necessary in order o ensure

ha children have access o cohesive high-qualiy educaional opporuniies


26/34


beween preschool and hird grade. In many saes, decision-making around early

childhood and elemenary educaion operaes in largely separae spheres wih

litle opporuniy or inormaion sharing. Esablishing a ormal process or cross-

secor collaboraion a all levels o governmen allows agency leaders o ideniy

areas where policy and pracice in early learning and elemenary grades are ou o

sync and generae sraegies o achieve alignmen.

Increasing teacher pay

Increasing eacher compensaion is vial sep in elevaing he eaching proes-

sion and improving eacher qualiy, paricularly or eachers beween preschool

and hird grade. Improving compensaion would go a long way in atracing and

reaining high-qualiy eachers and may improve eacher atiudes abou he

proession, as well as heir efficacy on he job.54 Compensaion or eachers should

be increased o beter reflec he demands and imporance o he proession aevery level. Paricularly or prekindergaren eachers, compensaionalong wih

educaional sandards and expecaionsshould be increased and aligned wih

compensaion levels or eachers in K-3 grades.

Promoting collaborative professional development

and in-service training

In order o ensure ha vial inormaion on a child’s background and learning

experience is no los as children ransiion rom prekindergaren programs o

kindergaren and beyond, early learning programs, school disrics, and sae edu-

caion sysems should work ogeher o increase collaboraion among eachers in

each o hese years. Addiionally, policymakers should work o expand opporuni-

ies or proessional developmen and in-service raining or eachers and caregiv-

ers beween preschool and hird grade.

Providing eachers wih collaboraive muligrade proessional developmen and

raining opporuniies would allow or beter inormaion sharing across grades,

as well as beween early childhood educaion sysems and he K-12 educaion sys-em. Addiionally, muligrade-level proessional developmen and raining could

suppor consisen access o qualiy eachers beween preschool and hird grade

and ensure ha eachers are coninually improving and adaping heir approaches

o eaching. Tis ype o raining is paricularly imporan or new eachers who

would benefi grealy rom menorship and peer learning opporuniies.


27/34


Ensure that school-level supports and instructional resources

are available

While all schools should provide broader suppor o heir eachers and sudens,

his is paricularly imporan or schools wih a high concenraion o children

who are a risk o school ailure. Tese children ofen come o school wih uniqueand inense educaional and behavioral needs, and i may be especially challeng-

ing or eachers o provide high-qualiy and enriching educaional environmens

o mee hem. Tese suppors should include boh inrasrucure supporssuch

as up-o-dae exbooks, echnology, and developmenally appropriae classroom

maerialsas well as environmenal suppors, including eacher-planning ime

during he school day; adequae eacher and school-adminisraor compensaion;

and a school communiy ha empowers eachers o be effecive. Addiionally,

eachers need supporive school leaders; access o communiy social services o

address he broader needs o children and amilies; and alernaive approaches o

classroom and school discipline.


28/34


Conclusion

eachers play a crucial role in osering children’s success in school. Te qual-

iy o ineracions beween eachers and children in he conex o engaging,

supporive insrucion has been highlighed as an imporan deerminan o a

child’s success in school.55 A number o acors conribue o eachers’ abiliies o

effecively creae enriching classroom environmens. Namely, effecive eachers

are adequaely prepared and have coninuous access o proessional develop-

men resources; eel saisfied, commited, and efficacious o help heir sudens

succeed; and are adequaely compensaed and suppored in order o manage hesressors associaed wih eaching.

Analyses revealed some sark differences in he degree o which children rom

varying socio-economic background have access o eachers wih hese characer-

isics: Arican American children, Hispanic children, and children rom low-

income backgrounds are generally a a disadvanage in erms o access. Moreover,

resuls sugges ha eachers vary on hese characerisics across he preschool o

hird grade coninuum as well, namely in erms o heir educaional background

and sel-repored eelings o efficacy, saisacion, and commimen o eaching.

As policymakers look o beter align policy and pracice or he naion’s young-

es learners, ensuring ha educaors and caregivers are adequaely prepared and

suppored o provide high-qualiy learning environmens or all children is a key

firs sep. Tis work is paricularly imporan or children rom low-income and

minoriy communiies, who, research shows, generally have less access o he

acors ha suppor effecive eaching. As policymakers look o increase eacher

effeciveness, hey mus consider ways o elevae he enire eaching proession

while aligning expecaions and opporuniies or eachers across he early years

o a child’s educaion.


29/34


Methodology and description

of data

Analyses or his repor were conduced using daa rom wo daases rom he

Early Childhood Longiudinal Sudy, or ECLS, program: he Birh Cohor, or

ECLS-B, and he Kindergaren Class o 2010–2011, or ECLS-K:2011.56

Daa rom he prekindergaren year were obained rom he ECLS-B, which

sudied he experiences o roughly 14,000 children across he Unied Saes. Te

sample or his repor was limied o he children who atended cener-based early

care and educaion when hey were 4 years old in he 2005-2006 school year. Daa were colleced hrough paren inerviews, child care provider quesionnaires, and

cener direcor quesionnaires.

Daa rom he ECLS-K:2011 were used o examine children’s experiences rom

kindergaren hrough second grade. Daa collecion or he ECLS-K:2011 is

ongoing, ollowing approximaely 18,000 children over he course o elemenary

school. Te analyses or his repor include he ull sample o children in he daa-

se. Daa were colleced hrough paren inerviews, eacher quesionnaires, and

school adminisraor quesionnaires rom he kindergaren year.

eachers and direcors or adminisraors responded o quesionnaires abou

hemselves and characerisics o heir cener or school. Average responses were

analyzed by grade level; some were urher broken down by a child’s race/eh-

niciy and income level.


30/34


About the authors

Rachel Herzfeldt-Kamprath is a Policy Analys or he Early Childhood Policy

eam a he Cener or American Progress. Prior o joining he Cener, Rachel

compleed graduae-sudy inernships wih he Whie House Office o

Managemen and Budge and he Cener on Budge and Policy Prioriies, ocus-ing on analyzing economic and ederal budge daa and he impac o policy

decisions on low-income communiies. Beore graduae school, Rachel worked

on sae-level policy advocacy and communiy organizing in Minnesoa, where

her work ranged rom issues relaed o child care and early educaion unding,

abuse and neglec, and povery, o human rafficking and affordable housing.

Rachel also paricipaed in he Luheran Voluneer Corps or wo years, serving

in Caliornia and Minnesoa.

She holds a bachelor’s degree rom Pacific Luheran Universiy in acoma,

Washingon, and a masers o science in public policy and managemen rom heHeinz College o Carnegie Mellon Universiy in Pitsburgh, Pennsylvania.

Rebecca Ullrich is a Policy Analys or he Early Childhood Policy eam a he

Cener. As a graduae suden, Ullrich’s research ocused on classroom qualiy in

early childhood educaion and eacher-child relaionships. She also compleed an

inernship wih he U.S. Deparmen o Educaion’s Adminisraive Daa Division

and was a summer research assisan on he Child Care and Developmen Fund

daabase projec a he Urban Insiue. Prior o beginning her graduae program,

Ullrich worked on evaluaions relaed o K-12 educaion, adul basic educaion,

workorce raining, and homelessness as a research assisan wih Ab Associaes

in Behesda, Maryland.

Ullrich holds a maser’s degree in applied developmenal psychology rom

George Mason Universiy, as well as a bachelor’s degree in human developmen

rom Virginia ech.


31/34


Endnotes

1 Margaret Burchinal and others, “Threshold analysisof association between child care quality and childoutcomes for low-income children in pre-kindergartenprograms,” Early Childhood Research Quarterly 25 (2010):166–176, available at http://www.learningcommu-nityds.org/files/1013/7029/9372/Study_EarlyChild-hoodResearchQuarterly_BurchinalThresholdsofQuality-forCLASS_101609.pdf .

2 Tamara Halle and others, “Disparities in Early Learningand Development: Lessons from the Early ChildhoodLongitudinal Study – Birth Cohort (ECLS-B)” (Wash-ington: Child Trends, 2009), available at http://www.childtrends.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/2009-52DisparitiesELExecSumm.pdf.

3 Sneha Elango and others, “Early Childhood Education”(Chicago, IL: University of Chicago, 2015), available athttp://www.nber.org/papers/w21766.

4 Arthur Reynolds, Katherine Magnuson, and Suh-RuuOh, “PK-3 Education: Programs and Practices that Workin Children’s First Decade” (New York, NY: Foundationfor Child Development, 2006), available at http://fcd-us.org/resources/pk-3-education-programs-and-practices-work-childrens-first-decade?destination=resources%252Fsearch%253Fpage%253D14.

5 Linda M. Espinosa, “High-Quality Preschool: Why WeNeed it and What it Looks Like,” Preschool Policy Matters1 (2002), available at http://nieer.org/resources/policy-briefs/1.pdf.

6 Hirokazu Yoshikawa and others, “Investing in Our Fu-ture: The Evidence Base on Preschool Education” (AnnArbor, MI; New York, NY: Society for Research in ChildDevelopment; Foundation for Child Development,2013), available at http://www.srcd.org/sites/default/files/documents/washington/mb_2013_10_16_invest-ing_in_children.pdf.

7 Bridget K. Hamre and Robert C. Pianta, “Can Instruc-tional and Emotional Support in the First-Grade Class-room Make a Difference for Children at Risk of SchoolFailure?” Child Development 76 (5) (2005): 949–967.

8 Jason T. Downer, Sara. E. Rimm-Kaufman, and Robert C.Pianta, “How Do Classroom Conditions and Children’sRisk for School Problems Contribute to Children’s Be-havioral Engagement in Learning?”School PsychologyReview 36 (3) (2007): 413–432.

9 Amy E. Luckner and Robert C. Pianta, “Teacher-StudentInteractions in Fifth Grade Classrooms: Relations withChildren’s Peer Behavior,” Journal of Applied Develop-mental Psychology 32 (2011): 257–266.

10 University of Virginia Center for Advanced Study of Teaching and Learning, “Measuring and Improving Teacher-Student Interactions in PK-12 Settings toEnhance Students’ Learning,” available at http://curry.virginia.edu/uploads/resourceLibrary/CLASS-MTP_PK-12_brief.pdf (last accessed January 2016).

11 Bridget K. Hamre and Robert C. Pianta, “Early Teacher-Child Relationships and the Trajectory of Children’sSchool Outcomes through Eighth Grade,” Child Develop-ment (72) (2001): 625–638.

12 Jason Downer, Terri Sabol, and Bridget Hamre,“Teacher-Child Interactions in the Classroom: Toward a

Theory of Within-and Cross-Domain Links to Children’sDevelopmental Outcomes,” Early Education and Devel-opment (21) (2010): 699–723.

13 University of Virginia Center for Advanced Study of Teaching and Learning, “Classroom Assessment ScoringSystem,” available at http://curry.virginia.edu/research/centers/castl/class (last accessed December 2015).

14 National Center for Education Statistics, “Schools andStaffing Survey: Table 2. Percentage of Public SchoolsDistricts that had Salary Schedules for Teachers andAmong those that had Salary Schedules, the AverageYearly Teacher Base Salary, by Various Levels of Degreesand Experience and State: 2011-12,” available at http://nces.ed.gov/surveys/sass/tables/sass1112_2013311_d1s_002.asp (last accessed December 2015).

15 Eric A. Hanushek and Steven G. Rivkin, “Pay, WorkingConditions, and Teacher Quality,” The Future of Children (17) (1) (2007): 69–85.

16 Milagros Nores and W. Steven Barnett, “Access to HighQuality Early Care and Education: Readiness and Op-portunity Gaps in America” (New Brunswick, NJ: Centeron Enhancing Early Learning Outcomes, 2014), avail-able at http://ceelo.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/ceelo_policy_report_access_quality_ece.pdf.

17 W. Steven Barnett and others, “The State of Preschool2014: State Preschool Yearbook” (New Brunswick, NJ:National Institute for Early Education Research, 2015),available at http://nieer.org/yearbook.

18 Ibid.

19 Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Kindergarten and Elemen-tary School Teachers,” available at http://www.bls.gov/

ooh/education-training-and-library/kindergarten-and-elementary-school-teachers.htm (last accessedDecember 2015).

20 National Center for Education Statistics, “Digest ofEducation Statistics: Table 202.10 Enrollment of 3-, 4-,and 5-year-old children in preprimary programs, byage of child, level of program, control of program, andattendance status: S elected Years, 1970 through 2013,”available at https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d14/tables/dt14_202.10.asp (last accessed November 2015).

21 Nores and Barnett, “Access to High Quality Early Care andEducation: Readiness and Opportunity Gaps in America.”

22 Ibid.

http://www.learningcommunityds.org/files/1013/7029/9372/Study_EarlyChildhoodResearchQuarterly_BurchinalThresholdsofQualityforCLASS_101609.pdfhttp://www.learningcommunityds.org/files/1013/7029/9372/Study_EarlyChildhoodResearchQuarterly_BurchinalThresholdsofQualityforCLASS_101609.pdfhttp://www.learningcommunityds.org/files/1013/7029/9372/Study_EarlyChildhoodResearchQuarterly_BurchinalThresholdsofQualityforCLASS_101609.pdfhttp://www.learningcommunityds.org/files/1013/7029/9372/Study_EarlyChildhoodResearchQuarterly_BurchinalThresholdsofQualityforCLASS_101609.pdfhttp://curry.virginia.edu/uploads/resourceLibrary/CLASS-MTP_PK-12_brief.pdfhttp://curry.virginia.edu/uploads/resourceLibrary/CLASS-MTP_PK-12_brief.pdfhttp://curry.virginia.edu/uploads/resourceLibrary/CLASS-MTP_PK-12_brief.pdfhttp://curry.virginia.edu/research/centers/castl/classhttp://curry.virginia.edu/research/centers/castl/classhttp://nces.ed.gov/surveys/sass/tables/sass1112_2013311_d1s_002.asphttp://nces.ed.gov/surveys/sass/tables/sass1112_2013311_d1s_002.asphttp://nces.ed.gov/surveys/sass/tables/sass1112_2013311_d1s_002.asphttp://www.bls.gov/ooh/education-training-and-library/kindergarten-and-elementary-school-teachers.htmhttp://www.bls.gov/ooh/education-training-and-library/kindergarten-and-elementary-school-teachers.htmhttp://www.bls.gov/ooh/education-training-and-library/kindergarten-and-elementary-school-teachers.htmhttps://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d14/tables/dt14_202.10.asphttps://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d14/tables/dt14_202.10.asphttps://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d14/tables/dt14_202.10.asphttps://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d14/tables/dt14_202.10.asphttp://www.bls.gov/ooh/education-training-and-library/kindergarten-and-elementary-school-teachers.htmhttp://www.bls.gov/ooh/education-training-and-library/kindergarten-and-elementary-school-teachers.htmhttp://www.bls.gov/ooh/education-training-and-library/kindergarten-and-elementary-school-teachers.htmhttp://nces.ed.gov/surveys/sass/tables/sass1112_2013311_d1s_002.asphttp://nces.ed.gov/surveys/sass/tables/sass1112_2013311_d1s_002.asphttp://nces.ed.gov/surveys/sass/tables/sass1112_2013311_d1s_002.asphttp://curry.virginia.edu/research/centers/castl/classhttp://curry.virginia.edu/research/centers/castl/classhttp://curry.virginia.edu/uploads/resourceLibrary/CLASS-MTP_PK-12_brief.pdfhttp://curry.virginia.edu/uploads/resourceLibrary/CLASS-MTP_PK-12_brief.pdfhttp://curry.virginia.edu/uploads/resourceLibrary/CLASS-MTP_PK-12_brief.pdfhttp://www.learningcommunityds.org/files/1013/7029/9372/Study_EarlyChildhoodResearchQuarterly_BurchinalThresholdsofQualityforCLASS_101609.pdfhttp://www.learningcommunityds.org/files/1013/7029/9372/Study_EarlyChildhoodResearchQuarterly_BurchinalThresholdsofQualityforCLASS_101609.pdfhttp://www.learningcommunityds.org/files/1013/7029/9372/Study_EarlyChildhoodResearchQuarterly_BurchinalThresholdsofQualityforCLASS_101609.pdfhttp://www.learningcommunityds.org/files/1013/7029/9372/Study_EarlyChildhoodResearchQuarterly_BurchinalThresholdsofQualityforCLASS_101609.pdf


32/34


23 Washington State Institute for Public Policy, “TeacherCompensation and Training Policies: Impacts onStudent Outcomes” (2012), available at http://www.wsipp.wa.gov/ReportFile/1104/Wsipp_Teacher-Com-pensation-and-Training-Policies-Impacts-on-Student-Outcomes_Full-Report.pdf ; Marcy Whitebook, “EarlyEducation Quality: H igher Teacher Qualifications forBetter Learning Environments – A Review of the Lit-erature” (Berkeley, CA: Institute of Industrial Relations,Center for the Study of Child Care Employment, 2003),available at http://www.irle.berkeley.edu/cscce/2003/early-education-quality-literature-review/.

24 Washington State Institute for Public Policy, “TeacherCompensation and Training Policies: Impacts on Stu-dent Outcomes” (2012).

25 John P. Papay and Matthew A. Kraft, “ProductivityReturns to Experience in the Teacher Labor Market:Methodological Challenges and New Evidence onLong-Term Career Improvement.” Brown University,2014 and Washington State Institute for Public Policy,“Teacher Compensation and Training Policies: Impactson Student Outcomes.”

26 Jennifer King Rice, “The Impact of Teacher Experience:Examining the Evidence and Policy Implications”(Washington: Urban Institute, 2010), available at http://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/alfresco/publication-pdfs/1001455-The-Impact-of-Teacher-Experience.PDF.

27 Whitebook, “Early Education Quality: Higher TeacherQualifications for Better Learning Environments – AReview of the Literature.”

28 Elise Gould, “Child Care Workers Aren’t Paid Enoughto Make Ends Meet” (Washington: Economic PolicyInstitute, 2015), available at http://www.epi.org/publication/child-care-workers-arent-paid-enough-to-make-ends-meet/.

29 Robert Pianta and others, “Features of Pre-KindergartenPrograms, Classrooms, and Teachers: Do They PredictObserved Classroom Quality and Child-Teacher Interac-tions?” Applied Developmental Science 9 (3) (2005):144–159.

30 National Association for the Education of YoungChildren, “High Quality Early Childhood Educators arethe Key to Quality Programs for Children,” available at

https://www.naeyc.org/files/naeyc/201NAEYC_Child-hood%20Educators.pdf (last accessed January 2016).

31 Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Kindergarten and Elemen-tary School Teachers.”

32 Robert G. Croninger and others, “Teacher qualifica-tions and early learning: Effects of certification, degree,and experience on first-grade student achievement,”Economics of Education Review (26) (2007): 312–324.

33 Theodore Coldarci, “Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy andCommitment to Teaching,” The Journal of ExperimentalEducation 60 (4) (1992): 323–337; Megan Tschannen-Moran and Anita Woolfolk Hoy, “Teacher Efficacy:Capturing an Elusive Construct,” Teaching and TeacherEducation 17 (2001): 783–805.

34 Amy C. Thomason and Karen M. La Paro, “Teachers’

Commitment to the Field and Teacher-Child Interac-tions in Center-Based Child Care for Toddlers and Three-Year-Olds,” Early Childhood Education Journal 41 (2013):227–234.

35 Myron H. Dembo and Sherri Gibson, “Teachers’ Sense ofEfficacy: An Important Factor in School Improvement,”The Elementary School Journal 86 (2) (1985): 173–184.

36 Ralf Schwarzer and Suhair Hallum, “Perceived TeacherSelf-Efficacy as a Predictor of Job Stress and Burnout:Meidation Analyses,” Applied Psychology: An Interna-tional Review 57 (2008): 152–171; Einer M. Skaalvikand Sidsel Skaalvik, “Teacher self-efficacy and teacherburnout: A study of relations,” Teaching and TeacherEducation 26 (2010): 1059–1069.

37 Wendy L.G. Hoglund, Kristen E. Klingle, and NaheedE. Hosan, “Classroom Risks and Resources: TeacherBurnout, Classroom Quality, and Children’s Adjustmentin High Needs Elementary Schools,” Journal of SchoolPsychology , (53) (2015): 337–357.

38 Christopher Corallo and Deborah McDonald, “WhatWorks in Low-Performing Schools: A Review ofResearch literature on Low-Performing Schools”(Charleston, WV: AEL, 2001), available at http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED462737.

39 U.S. Department of Education, “More Than 40% ofLow-Income Schools Don’t Get a Fair Share of Stateand Local Funds, Department of Education ResearchFinds,” Press release, November 30, 2011, available athttp://www.ed.gov/news/press-releases/more-40-low-income-schools-dont-get-fair-share-state-and-local-funds-department-education-research-finds.

40 National Center for Education Statistics, “Urban Schools: The Challenge of Location and Poverty,” available athttp://nces.ed.gov/pubs/web/96184ex.asp(last ac-cessed on December 2015).

41 Vicki Peyton and others, “Reasons for Choosing ChildCare: Associations with Family Factors, Quality, and Sat-isfaction,” Early Childhood Research Quarterly 16 (2001):191–208.

42 Authors’ analysis of National Center for EducationStatistics, “Early Childhood Longitudinal Program: BirthCohort (ECLS-B), ” available at http://nces.ed.gov/ecls/birth.asp (last accessed December 2015).

43 Richard Ingersoll, “Teacher Turnover and Teacher Short-ages: An Organizational Analysis,” American EducationalResearch Journal 38 (3) (2001): 499–534.

44 Elaine Allensworth, Stephen Ponisciak, and ChristopherMazzeo, “The Schools Teachers Leave: Teacher Mobilityin Chicago Public Schools” (Chicago, IL: Consortium onChicago School Research at the University of ChicagoUrban Education Institute, 2009), available at https://consortium.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/publica-tions/CCSR_Teacher_Mobility.pdf .

45 Ibid.

46 National Center for Education Statistics, “Table 78:Average Base Salary for Full-Time Teachers in PublicElementary and Secondary Schools, by Highest DegreeEarned and Years of Full-Time Teaching: Selected years,1990-91 through 2007-08,” available at https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d10/tables/dt10_078.asp (lastaccessed on December 2105).

http://www.wsipp.wa.gov/ReportFile/1104/Wsipp_Teacher-Compensation-and-Training-Policies-Impacts-on-Student-Outcomes_Full-Report.pdfhttp://www.wsipp.wa.gov/ReportFile/1104/Wsipp_Teacher-Compensation-and-Training-Policies-Impacts-on-Student-Outcomes_Full-Report.pdfhttp://www.wsipp.wa.gov/ReportFile/1104/Wsipp_Teacher-Compensation-and-Training-Policies-Impacts-on-Student-Outcomes_Full-Report.pdfhttp://www.wsipp.wa.gov/ReportFile/1104/Wsipp_Teacher-Compensation-and-Training-Policies-Impacts-on-Student-Outcomes_Full-Report.pdfhttp://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/alfresco/publication-pdfs/1001455-The-Impact-of-Teacher-Experience.PDFhttp://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/alfresco/publication-pdfs/1001455-The-Impact-of-Teacher-Experience.PDFhttp://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/alfresco/publication-pdfs/1001455-The-Impact-of-Teacher-Experience.PDFhttps://www.naeyc.org/files/naeyc/201NAEYC_Childhood%20Educators.pdfhttps://www.naeyc.org/files/naeyc/201NAEYC_Childhood%20Educators.pdfhttp://www.ed.gov/news/press-releases/more-40-low-income-schools-dont-get-fair-share-state-and-local-funds-department-education-research-findshttp://www.ed.gov/news/press-releases/more-40-low-income-schools-dont-get-fair-share-state-and-local-funds-department-education-research-findshttp://www.ed.gov/news/press-releases/more-40-low-income-schools-dont-get-fair-share-state-and-local-funds-department-education-research-findshttp://nces.ed.gov/pubs/web/96184ex.asphttps://consortium.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/publications/CCSR_Teacher_Mobility.pdfhttps://consortium.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/publications/CCSR_Teacher_Mobility.pdfhttps://consortium.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/publications/CCSR_Teacher_Mobility.pdfhttps://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d10/tables/dt10_078.asphttps://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d10/tables/dt10_078.asphttps://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d10/tables/dt10_078.asphttps://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d10/tables/dt10_078.asphttps://consortium.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/publications/CCSR_Teacher_Mobility.pdfhttps://consortium.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/publications/CCSR_Teacher_Mobility.pdfhttps://consortium.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/publications/CCSR_Teacher_Mobility.pdfhttp://nces.ed.gov/pubs/web/96184ex.asphttp://www.ed.gov/news/press-releases/more-40-low-income-schools-dont-get-fair-share-state-and-local-funds-department-education-research-findshttp://www.ed.gov/news/press-releases/more-40-low-income-schools-dont-get-fair-share-state-and-local-funds-department-education-research-findshttp://www.ed.gov/news/press-releases/more-40-low-income-schools-dont-get-fair-share-state-and-local-funds-department-education-research-findshttps://www.naeyc.org/files/naeyc/201NAEYC_Childhood%20Educators.pdfhttps://www.naeyc.org/files/naeyc/201NAEYC_Childhood%20Educators.pdfhttp://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/alfresco/publication-pdfs/1001455-The-Impact-of-Teacher-Experience.PDFhttp://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/alfresco/publication-pdfs/1001455-The-Impact-of-Teacher-Experience.PDFhttp://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/alfresco/publication-pdfs/1001455-The-Impact-of-Teacher-Experience.PDFhttp://www.wsipp.wa.gov/ReportFile/1104/Wsipp_Teacher-Compensation-and-Training-Policies-Impacts-on-Student-Outcomes_Full-Report.pdfhttp://www.wsipp.wa.gov/ReportFile/1104/Wsipp_Teacher-Compensation-and-Training-Policies-Impacts-on-Student-Outcomes_Full-Report.pdfhttp://www.wsipp.wa.gov/ReportFile/1104/Wsipp_Teacher-Compensation-and-Training-Policies-Impacts-on-Student-Outcomes_Full-Report.pdfhttp://www.wsipp.wa.gov/ReportFile/1104/Wsipp_Teacher-Compensation-and-Training-Policies-Impacts-on-Student-Outcomes_Full-Report.pdf


33/34


47 Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Occupational EmploymentStatistics: May 2014 National Occupational Employ-ment and Wage Estimates: United States,” available athttp://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes_nat.htm#25-0000(last accessed November 2015).

48 Ibid.

49 W. Steven Barnett, “Low Wages=Low Quality: Solvingthe Real Preschool Teacher Crisis” (New Brunswick, NJ:National Institute for Early Education Research, 2003),available at http://nieer.org/resources/policybriefs/3.

pdf.

50 Hanushek and Rivkin, “Pay, Working Conditions, and Teacher Quality.”

51 Marcy Whitebook, “Turnover Begets Turnover: An Ex-amination of Job and Occupational Instability AmongChild Care Center Staff,” Early Childhood ResearchQuarterly 18 (2003): 273–293.

52 National Center for Education Statistics, “Digest ofEducation Statistics: Table 202.10 Enrollment of 3-, 4-,and 5-year-old children in preprimary programs, byage of child, level of program, control of program, andattendance status: Selected Years, 1970 through 2013.”

53 Nores, and Barnett, “Access to High Quality Early Careand Education: Readiness and Opportunity Gaps inAmerica.”

54 Anthony Milanowski, “Do Teacher Pay Levels Matter?”(Madison, WI: Consortium for Policy Research in Educa-tion, 2008), available at http://cpre.wceruw.org/papers/cb-2-teacher-salary-levels-matter.pdf .

55 Bridget K. Hamre and Robert C. Pianta, “Student-Teach-er Relationships.” In George G. Bear and Kathleen M.Minke, eds., Children’s Needs III: Development, Prevention,

and Intervention (Washington: National Association ofSchool Psychologists, 2006).

56 National Center for Education Statistics, “Early Child-hood Longitudinal Program: Birth Cohort (ECLS-B)”; Na-tional Center for Education Statistics, “Early ChildhoodLongitudinal Program: Kindergarten Class of 2010-11(ECLS-K:2011),” available at https://nces.ed.gov/ecls/kindergarten2011.asp (last accessed December 2015).

http://cpre.wceruw.org/papers/cb-2-teacher-salary-levels-matter.pdfhttp://cpre.wceruw.org/papers/cb-2-teacher-salary-levels-matter.pdfhttp://cpre.wceruw.org/papers/cb-2-teacher-salary-levels-matter.pdfhttp://cpre.wceruw.org/papers/cb-2-teacher-salary-levels-matter.pdf


34/34

Our Mission

The Center for American

Progress is an independent,

nonpartisan policy institute

that is dedicated to improving

the lives of all Americans,

through bold, progressive

ideas, as well as strongleadership and concerted

action. Our aim is not just to

change the conversation, but

to change the country.

Our Values

As progressives, we believe

America should be a land of

boundless opportunity, where

people can climb the ladder

of economic mobility. We

believe we owe it to future

generations to protect theplanet and promote peace

and shared global prosperity.

And we believe an effective

government can earn the

trust of the American people,

champion the common

good over narrow self-interest,

and harness the strength ofour diversity.

Our Approach

We develop new policy ideas

challenge the media to cover

the issues that truly matter,

and shape the national debat

With policy teams in major

issue areas, American Progres

can think creatively at thecross-section of traditional

boundaries to develop ideas

for policymakers that lead to

real change. By employing an

extensive communications

and outreach effort that we

adapt to a rapidly changing

media landscape, we move

our ideas aggressively in thenational policy debate.

Documents

Examining Teacher Effectiveness Between Preschool and Third Grade