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European European Scientists in the Scientists in the 19th and 20th 19th and 20th
CenturiesCenturies
How Did European How Did European Scientists in the Scientists in the
1919thth and 20 and 20thth Centuries Centuries
Contribute to Contribute to World Science?World Science?
Scientists Make Their Scientists Make Their Mark On The WorldMark On The World
Charles Charles DarwinDarwin
(February 12, 1809 – April (February 12, 1809 – April 19, 1882)19, 1882)
Charles Charles DarwinDarwin
(February 12, 1809 – April (February 12, 1809 – April 19, 1882)19, 1882)
Charles Charles DarwinDarwinBritish Naturalist…ornithologist.
Born in Shrewsbury, England
Proposed the theory of natural selection – animals with favorable traits will survive and reproduce
Developed concept that related species descended from common ancestors
Proposed concept that life is not static, but evolving
Conducted most of his work after he returns from the Galapagos Islands, studying the beak sizes of different Finch species
Charles Charles DarwinDarwin1831: Graduated from
University of Cambridge with a degree in theology
1831-1836: Sailed aboard the HMS Beagle
1839: Filled notebooks with careful observations of animal and plant species
The Voyages of HMS Beagle
H.M.S. H.M.S. BeagleBeagleThe natural history of these islands is
eminently curious, and well deserves attention. Most of the organic productions are aboriginal creations, found nowhere else; there is even a difference between the inhabitants of the different islands; yet all show a marked relationship with those of America, though separated from that continent by an open space of ocean, between 500 and 600 miles in width…Hence, both in space and time, we seem to be brought somewhat near to that great fact—that mystery of mysteries—the first appearance of new beings on this earth.
- Charles Darwin from Voyage of the Beagle
Charles Charles DarwinDarwinFirst person to challenge the
“catastrophe” theory was English geologist Sir Charles Lyell
Catastrophe theory stated that organisms were individually created and unchangeable
In Principles of Geology, Lyell declared that the earth is constantly changing due to affects of natural forces
Argued that species are specially created
Natural Natural SelectionSelection
Darwin incorporated work done by Thomas Robert Malthus, a British Economist
An Essay on the Principle of Population (1798)
Darwin applied Malthus’ theory to animals and plants
Charles Charles DarwinDarwin
1859: Published On the Origin of Species
1871: Published The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex
1872: Published The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals
Charles Charles DarwinDarwinI have called this principle, by I have called this principle, by
whichwhicheach slight variation, if useful, is each slight variation, if useful, is preserved, preserved, by the term Natural Selection.by the term Natural Selection. - Charles - Charles Darwin from Darwin from The Origin The Origin of Speciesof Species
From Darwin’s From Darwin’s study of study of Galapagos Galapagos FinchesFinches
Charles Charles DarwinDarwin
This principle of preservation, or This principle of preservation, or the survival of the fittest, I have the survival of the fittest, I have called Natural Selection. It leads called Natural Selection. It leads to the improvement of each to the improvement of each creature in relation to its organic creature in relation to its organic and inorganic conditions of life; and inorganic conditions of life; and consequently, in most cases, and consequently, in most cases, to what must be regarded as an to what must be regarded as an advance in organization. advance in organization. Nevertheless, low and simple Nevertheless, low and simple forms will long endure if well forms will long endure if well fitted for their simple conditions fitted for their simple conditions of life.of life. - Charles Darwin - Charles Darwin from from The Origin of The Origin of SpeciesSpecies
Natural Natural SelectionSelectionDarwin’s theory stated:
Young compete for survival (e.g. food, shelter)
Young that survive produce a new generation with more favorable characteristics
These natural variations are passed on by heredity.
Each generation will adapt and improve over time• Evolution of species
An albino peacock…incapable of reproducing
What’s this?
Schematic representation of how antibiotic resistance is enhanced by natural selection. The top section represents a population of bacteria before exposure to an antibiotic.
The middle section shows the population directly after exposure, the phase in which selection took place.
The last section shows the distribution of resistance in a new generation of bacteria. The legend indicates the resistance levels of individuals.
Natural Selection
Charles Charles DarwinDarwinTheory of natural selection was Theory of natural selection was
later used as justification for later used as justification for imperialism and the destruction of imperialism and the destruction of weaker races and peoplesweaker races and peoples
Social DarwinismSocial Darwinism
Herbert Spencer"Survival of the fittest" is a phrase which is a concept relating to competition for survival or predominance.
Social Darwinism is the idea that Darwin’s theory can be extended and applied to the social domain of humans,
i.e. just as competition between individual organisms drives biological evolutionary change through the survival of the fittest, competition between individuals, groups, nations or ideas drives social change in human societies.
“Thus the weak members of civilized societies propagate their kind. No one who has attended to the breeding of domestic animals will doubt that this must be highly injurious to the race of man.
But, excepting in the case of man himself, hardly any one is so ignorant as to allow his worst animals to breed.
The aid which we feel impelled to give to the helpless is mainly an incidental result of the instinct of sympathy, which was originally acquired as part of the social instincts.
We must therefore bear the undoubtedly bad effects of the weak surviving and propagating their kind; but there appears to be at least one check, namely that the weaker and inferior members of society do not marry so freely, and this check might be indefinitely increased by the weak in body or mind refraining from marriage, though this is more to be hoped for than expected”.
“Welfare and insane asylums were allowing "inferior" humans to survive and reproduce at levels faster than the more "superior" humans in respectable society, and if corrections were not soon taken, society would be awash with "inferiors."
• The simpler aspects of social Darwinism followed the earlier Malthusian ideas that humans, especially males, need competition in their lives in order to survive in the future…
• and that the poor should have to provide for themselves and not be given any aid…
• most social Darwinists supported better working conditions and salaries, to give the poor a better chance to provide for themselves…but!!!
• society had to point out those who are capable of succeeding from those who are poor out of laziness, weakness, or inferiority.
• Malthus’s theory; The "Principle of Population" depended on the idea that population, if unchecked, increases at a geometric rate (i.e. 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, etc.), whereas the food-supply grows at an arithmetic rate (i.e. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 etc.).
“We are not alone”
Law for the Prevention of Genetically Diseased Offspring
A poster from a 1921 eugenics conference proudly displayed which U.S. states had by then implemented sterilization legislation.
Marie Marie CurieCurie
(November 7, 1867 – July 4, 1934)
Marie CurieMarie Curie
Polish-born French Chemist Polish-born French Chemist
Studied radioactivity and Studied radioactivity and discovered the radioactive discovered the radioactive elements radium and elements radium and poloniumpolonium
Radioactivity Radioactivity spontaneous decay of spontaneous decay of certain elements into certain elements into other elements and other elements and energyenergy
Marie CurieMarie CurieFirst woman to win the Nobel First woman to win the Nobel Prize.Prize.
Won the 1903 Nobel Prize in Won the 1903 Nobel Prize in physics with her husband, physics with her husband, Pierre Curie, and Antoine Pierre Curie, and Antoine Henri Becquerel.Henri Becquerel.
Won the 1911 Nobel Prize in Won the 1911 Nobel Prize in chemistry .chemistry .
First scientist to receive the First scientist to receive the Nobel Prize in two different Nobel Prize in two different categories.categories.
The element curium, discovered in 1944, The element curium, discovered in 1944, was named in honor of Marie and Pierrewas named in honor of Marie and Pierre
Marie CurieMarie Curie
1891: Attended the Sorbonne 1891: Attended the Sorbonne (now part of the University of (now part of the University of Paris) to study physics and Paris) to study physics and mathematicsmathematics
1898: Discovered the 1898: Discovered the radioactive elements radium radioactive elements radium and polonium with husband, and polonium with husband, Pierre CuriePierre Curie
1903: Received her doctorate 1903: Received her doctorate degree in physics from the degree in physics from the SorbonneSorbonne
Marie CurieMarie Curie
1906: Became professor of 1906: Became professor of general physics and first general physics and first woman to teach at the woman to teach at the Sorbonne Sorbonne
1910 – Isolated pure radium 1910 – Isolated pure radium metal with chemist André metal with chemist André DevierneDevierne
1914 – University of Paris built 1914 – University of Paris built Institut du RadiumInstitut du Radium (now the (now the Institut CurieInstitut Curie))
Marie CurieMarie Curie1914: Equipped ambulances 1914: Equipped ambulances with X-ray equipment to be with X-ray equipment to be used on the front lines of used on the front lines of World War IWorld War I
1918-1934: Directed the 1918-1934: Directed the Research Department at the Research Department at the Radium Institute of the Radium Institute of the University of ParisUniversity of Paris
1934: Died from leukemia as 1934: Died from leukemia as a result of long-term a result of long-term exposure to radiationexposure to radiation
Marie CurieMarie CurieWe must not forget that when radium was We must not forget that when radium was discovered no one knew that it would prove discovered no one knew that it would prove useful in hospitals. The work was one of pure useful in hospitals. The work was one of pure science. And this is a proof that scientific science. And this is a proof that scientific work must not be considered from the point work must not be considered from the point of view of the direct usefulness of it. It must of view of the direct usefulness of it. It must be done for itself, for the beauty of science, be done for itself, for the beauty of science, and then there is always the chance that a and then there is always the chance that a scientific discovery may become like the scientific discovery may become like the radium a benefit for humanity.radium a benefit for humanity.
- - Marie Curie,Marie Curie, Lecture at Vassar Lecture at Vassar College, May 14, 1921College, May 14, 1921
Marie and Marie and Pierre’s Nobel Pierre’s Nobel PrizePrize
Albert Albert EinsteinEinstein
(March 14, 1879 – April 18, 1955)
Albert Albert EinsteinEinsteinBorn in Ulm, Born in Ulm,
GermanyGermany
Proposed theory of Proposed theory of relativity, a physical relativity, a physical theory of gravity, theory of gravity, space and timespace and time
Most famous for Most famous for equation E equation E = mc= mc22
The element The element einsteinium, einsteinium, discovered in 1952, discovered in 1952, was named in honor was named in honor of Albert Einsteinof Albert Einstein
Albert Albert EinsteinEinstein
Proposed light can be Proposed light can be considered as consisting considered as consisting of particles under certain of particles under certain conditionsconditions
Hypothesized that energy Hypothesized that energy carried by any light carried by any light particle, a photon, is particle, a photon, is proportional to frequency proportional to frequency of radiationof radiation
Formula Formula E = hv E = hv
Albert Albert EinsteinEinstein
1905: Published papers on special relativity, Brownian motion, and the photoelectric effect
Photoelectric Effect Formation of charged
particles when light reflects off mass
Brownian Motion All particles move around
randomly
Albert Albert EinsteinEinstein
Contradicted traditional view Contradicted traditional view that light energy was a that light energy was a result of a continuous result of a continuous processprocess
Instead, proposed that Instead, proposed that energy contained within a energy contained within a light beam is transferred in light beam is transferred in individual units, or quantaindividual units, or quanta
Special Theory of Special Theory of RelativityRelativity1905: “On the Electrodynamics of 1905: “On the Electrodynamics of
Moving Bodies”Moving Bodies”
All measurements of time and All measurements of time and space depend on whether the space depend on whether the two events occur two events occur simultaneouslysimultaneously
Developed a theory based on two Developed a theory based on two assumptions:assumptions:
Physical laws are the same Physical laws are the same under all conditions under all conditions
Speed of light never changesSpeed of light never changes
Albert Albert EinsteinEinstein
1909-1911: Taught 1909-1911: Taught physics at the University physics at the University of Zürichof Zürich
1911-1912: Taught 1911-1912: Taught physics at German-physics at German-speaking university in speaking university in PraguePrague
1912-1914: Returned to 1912-1914: Returned to teach at University of teach at University of ZürichZürich
Albert Albert EinsteinEinstein
1914: Became a professor 1914: Became a professor at the University of Berlin at the University of Berlin and director of the Kaiser and director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Wilhelm Institute for PhysicsPhysics
1916: Published a paper 1916: Published a paper on general relativity, on general relativity, extending his earlier extending his earlier theory of special relativitytheory of special relativity
General Theory of General Theory of RelativityRelativityInteraction of bodies, or Interaction of bodies, or
gravitational forces, are explained gravitational forces, are explained by the impact of bodies on by the impact of bodies on geometry of space-time. Likened geometry of space-time. Likened the interaction to a ball being the interaction to a ball being dropped on a trampoline.dropped on a trampoline.
This theory accounted for This theory accounted for previously unexplained variations previously unexplained variations in orbital motion of planets and in orbital motion of planets and predicted bending of starlight in predicted bending of starlight in the vicinity of a massive body the vicinity of a massive body such as the sun.such as the sun.
Proposed the inter-conversion of Proposed the inter-conversion of mass and energy through the mass and energy through the equation equation E = mcE = mc22
Unified Field Unified Field TheoryTheory
Attempted to unify the Attempted to unify the understanding of all understanding of all physical interactions, physical interactions, including gravity and including gravity and time.time.
Albert Albert EinsteinEinstein1919: A solar eclipse confirmed 1919: A solar eclipse confirmed
Einstein’s prediction that starlight Einstein’s prediction that starlight bends in the vicinity of a massive bends in the vicinity of a massive body such as the sunbody such as the sun
1921: Won the Nobel Prize in 1921: Won the Nobel Prize in physics for his work on the physics for his work on the photoelectric effectphotoelectric effect
1933: Began teaching at Princeton 1933: Began teaching at Princeton UniversityUniversity
1939: Pointed out in a letter to 1939: Pointed out in a letter to President Roosevelt that there was President Roosevelt that there was a possibility that Germans were a possibility that Germans were working on creating an atomic working on creating an atomic bombbomb
Albert Albert EinsteinEinsteinIn a letter to F.D.R.:In a letter to F.D.R.:
In the course of the last four months it has In the course of the last four months it has been made probable—through the work of been made probable—through the work of Joliot in France as well as Fermi and Szilard Joliot in France as well as Fermi and Szilard in America—that it may become possible to in America—that it may become possible to set up a nuclear chain reaction in a large set up a nuclear chain reaction in a large mass of uranium, by which vast amounts of mass of uranium, by which vast amounts of power and large quantities of new radium-power and large quantities of new radium-like elements would be generated. Now it like elements would be generated. Now it appears almost certain that this could be appears almost certain that this could be achieved in the immediate future…I achieved in the immediate future…I understand that Germany has actually understand that Germany has actually stopped the sale of uranium from the stopped the sale of uranium from the Czechoslovakian mines which she has taken Czechoslovakian mines which she has taken over. That she should have taken such early over. That she should have taken such early action might perhaps be understood on the action might perhaps be understood on the ground that the son of the German Under-ground that the son of the German Under-Secretary of State, von Weizsäcker, is Secretary of State, von Weizsäcker, is attached to the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut in attached to the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut in Berlin where some of the American work on Berlin where some of the American work on uranium is now being repeated.uranium is now being repeated.
Francis Harry Compton
Crick(June 8, 1916 – July 28, 2004)
Francis Harry Francis Harry Compton CrickCompton CrickBritish biophysicistBritish biophysicist
Born in Northampton, Born in Northampton, EnglandEngland
Co-discovered the double-Co-discovered the double-helix structure of DNA helix structure of DNA with James Dewey Watsonwith James Dewey Watson
Discovered that every Discovered that every three stairs on the DNA three stairs on the DNA ladder contain the code for ladder contain the code for one amino acidone amino acid
Shared the 1962 Nobel Shared the 1962 Nobel Prize in physiology and Prize in physiology and medicine with James medicine with James Watson and Maurice Watson and Maurice WilkinsWilkins
Francis Harry Francis Harry Compton CrickCompton Crick
1937: Graduated from 1937: Graduated from University College, London, University College, London, with a B.S. in physics with a B.S. in physics
1947: Began to study 1947: Began to study biology at the Strangewats biology at the Strangewats Research Institute of the Research Institute of the University of CambridgeUniversity of Cambridge
1949-1977: Worked as a 1949-1977: Worked as a researcher at the Laboratory researcher at the Laboratory of Molecular Biology in of Molecular Biology in Cambridge, EnglandCambridge, England
Francis Harry Francis Harry Compton CrickCompton Crick
1951-1953: Discovered the 1951-1953: Discovered the structure of DNA while working structure of DNA while working with James Watson as a with James Watson as a researcher at the Cavendish researcher at the Cavendish Laboratory of the University of Laboratory of the University of CambridgeCambridge
Aided by X-ray images of Aided by X-ray images of biological molecules made by biological molecules made by Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind FranklinFranklin
Francis Harry Francis Harry Compton Compton
CrickCrick
Letter to Letter to Cambridge Cambridge University University discussing the discussing the model of the model of the double helix.double helix.
Francis Harry Compton Francis Harry Compton CrickCrickWe wish to put forward a radically
different structure for the salt of deoxyribose nucleic acid. This structure has two helical chains each coiled round the same axis…Both chains follow right-handed helices, by owing to the dyad the sequences of the atoms in the two chains run in opposite directions…The novel feature of the structure is the manner in which the two chains are held together by the purine and pyrimidine bases…They are joined together in pairs, a single base from one chain being hydrogen-bonded to a single base from another chain, so that the two lie side by side with identical z-co-ordinates.
- Francis Crick and James Watson, “Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids,” Nature, 1953
Francis Harry Francis Harry Compton CrickCompton Crick
1953: Completed his Ph.D. on 1953: Completed his Ph.D. on the structure of hemoglobinthe structure of hemoglobin
During World War II, Crick During World War II, Crick worked with explosive mines worked with explosive mines for the British Navyfor the British Navy
1958: Took the double helix 1958: Took the double helix theory one step further to theory one step further to propose and prove the “central propose and prove the “central dogma”dogma”
The Central DogmaThe Central Dogma
From "Central Dogma of Molecular Biology“, From "Central Dogma of Molecular Biology“, NatureNature, 1970, 1970
