Ethics in Human Ethics in Human CommunicationCommunication

Part IIIPart III

OrganizationsOrganizations

Organizational Culture and ClimateOrganizational Culture and Climate• Values, beliefs, symbols and customsValues, beliefs, symbols and customs• Rituals, ceremonies and narrativesRituals, ceremonies and narratives• Heroes, villains and foolsHeroes, villains and fools

Misspeaking v. SilenceMisspeaking v. Silence

GroupthinkGroupthink

Antecedent conditionsAntecedent conditions• Decision makers are cohesive groupDecision makers are cohesive group• Structural faultsStructural faults

Insulation of groupInsulation of group Lack of tradition of impartial leadershipLack of tradition of impartial leadership Lack of norms for methodological Lack of norms for methodological

proceduresprocedures Homogeneity of groupHomogeneity of group

• Provocative contextProvocative context

• High stress from external threatsHigh stress from external threats• Low self-esteem from recent failuresLow self-esteem from recent failures• Excessive complexityExcessive complexity• Moral dilemmasMoral dilemmas• Etc.Etc.

All lead to concurrence-seeking All lead to concurrence-seeking tendency (Groupthink)tendency (Groupthink)

Symptoms of GroupthinkSymptoms of Groupthink Overestimation of groupOverestimation of group

• Illusion of invulnerabilityIllusion of invulnerability• Belief in moralityBelief in morality

Closed-mindednessClosed-mindedness• Collective rationalizationCollective rationalization• Stereotypes of ingroupsStereotypes of ingroups

Uniformity pressuresUniformity pressures• Self-censorshipSelf-censorship• Direct pressureDirect pressure• Self-appointed mindguardsSelf-appointed mindguards

Symptoms of Defective Decision Symptoms of Defective Decision MakingMaking

Incomplete survey of alternativesIncomplete survey of alternatives Incomplete survey of objectivesIncomplete survey of objectives Failure to examine risks of preferred Failure to examine risks of preferred

choicechoice Failure to reappraise rejected choicesFailure to reappraise rejected choices Poor information searchPoor information search Selective information biasSelective information bias Failure to contingency planFailure to contingency plan

All leads to . . .All leads to . . .

Low probability of successful outcomeLow probability of successful outcome

Abilene ParadoxAbilene Paradox

Limits of a particular situation force a group of Limits of a particular situation force a group of people to act in a way that is directly the opposite people to act in a way that is directly the opposite of their actual preferencesof their actual preferences

Occurs when groups continue with misguided Occurs when groups continue with misguided activities which no group member desires activities which no group member desires because no member is willing to raise objections.because no member is willing to raise objections.

Observed by Jerry B. Harvey in his article Observed by Jerry B. Harvey in his article The The Abilene Paradox and other Meditations on Abilene Paradox and other Meditations on ManagementManagement

The StoryThe Story““ On a hot afternoon visiting in Coleman, Texas, the family is comfortably playing On a hot afternoon visiting in Coleman, Texas, the family is comfortably playing

dominoes on a porch, until the father-in-law suggests that they take a trip to dominoes on a porch, until the father-in-law suggests that they take a trip to Abilene [53 miles north] for dinner. The wife says, "Sounds like a great idea." Abilene [53 miles north] for dinner. The wife says, "Sounds like a great idea." The husband, despite having reservations because the drive is long and hot, The husband, despite having reservations because the drive is long and hot, thinks that his preferences must be out-of-step with the group and says, thinks that his preferences must be out-of-step with the group and says, "Sounds good to me. I just hope your mother wants to go." The mother-in-law "Sounds good to me. I just hope your mother wants to go." The mother-in-law then says, "Of course I want to go. I haven't been to Abilene in a long time." The then says, "Of course I want to go. I haven't been to Abilene in a long time." The drive drive isis hot, dusty, and long. When they arrive at the cafeteria, the food is as hot, dusty, and long. When they arrive at the cafeteria, the food is as bad. They arrive back home four hours later, exhausted.bad. They arrive back home four hours later, exhausted.

One of them dishonestly says, "It was a great trip, wasn't it." The mother-in-law One of them dishonestly says, "It was a great trip, wasn't it." The mother-in-law says that, actually, she would rather have stayed home, but went along since says that, actually, she would rather have stayed home, but went along since the other three were so enthusiastic. The husband says, "I wasn't delighted to the other three were so enthusiastic. The husband says, "I wasn't delighted to be doing what we were doing. I only went to satisfy the rest of you." The wife be doing what we were doing. I only went to satisfy the rest of you." The wife says, "I just went along to keep you happy. I would have had to be crazy to says, "I just went along to keep you happy. I would have had to be crazy to want to go out in the heat like that." The father-in-law then says that he only want to go out in the heat like that." The father-in-law then says that he only suggested it because he thought the others might be bored.suggested it because he thought the others might be bored.

The group sits back, perplexed that they together decided to take a trip which none The group sits back, perplexed that they together decided to take a trip which none of them wanted. They each would have preferred to sit comfortably, but did not of them wanted. They each would have preferred to sit comfortably, but did not admit to it when they still had time to enjoy the afternoon.admit to it when they still had time to enjoy the afternoon.

The ParadoxThe Paradox

Often used to help explain extremely poor Often used to help explain extremely poor business decisions, especially notions of the business decisions, especially notions of the superiority of “rule by committee” superiority of “rule by committee”

A technique mentioned in the study and/or A technique mentioned in the study and/or training of management, as well as practical training of management, as well as practical guidance by consultants, is that group members, guidance by consultants, is that group members, when the time comes for a group to make when the time comes for a group to make decisions, should ask each other, “Are we going decisions, should ask each other, “Are we going to Abilene?” to determine whether their decision to Abilene?” to determine whether their decision is legitimately desired by the group's members or is legitimately desired by the group's members or merely a result of this kind of groupthinkmerely a result of this kind of groupthink

Avoidance TechniquesAvoidance Techniques

Neutrality of leader, withholding Neutrality of leader, withholding preferences, encouraging open preferences, encouraging open inquiryinquiry

Encourage expression of objections Encourage expression of objections and doubts . . . Accepting of criticismand doubts . . . Accepting of criticism

Assign role(s) of devil’s advocateAssign role(s) of devil’s advocate Divide group in two (or more) Divide group in two (or more)

separate DM bodiesseparate DM bodies

Survey warning signals from rivalsSurvey warning signals from rivals Put initial consensus on hold and Put initial consensus on hold and

reconsider laterreconsider later Include outside expertsInclude outside experts Discuss tentative decision with Discuss tentative decision with

trusted colleagues outside grouptrusted colleagues outside group Establish several independent DM Establish several independent DM

groups to work on same critical issue groups to work on same critical issue or policyor policy

Formal Ethics CodesFormal Ethics Codes

ConcernsConcerns• Style over substanceStyle over substance• PracticalityPracticality• EffectivenessEffectiveness• Unintended consequencesUnintended consequences

BenefitsBenefits• Argumentative and Character-depiction Argumentative and Character-depiction

functionsfunctions ExamplesExamples

Feminist ContributionsFeminist Contributions

Ethic of Care (Gilligan)Ethic of Care (Gilligan)• Justice v. CareJustice v. Care

Invitational Rhetoric (Foss and Invitational Rhetoric (Foss and Griffin)Griffin)• Safety, Value and FreedomSafety, Value and Freedom

Rakow’s ethicRakow’s ethic• Inclusiveness, participation and Inclusiveness, participation and

reciprocityreciprocity