Ethics: Discovering Ethics: Discovering Right and WrongRight and Wrong

Louis J. Louis J. PojmanPojmanand James Fieserand James Fieser

Seventh EditionSeventh Edition

Chapter One:Chapter One:What is Ethics?What is Ethics?

•What is it to be a moral person?What is it to be a moral person?•What is the nature of morality?What is the nature of morality?•Why do we need morality?Why do we need morality?•What function does morality play?What function does morality play?•How do I know what is the good?How do I know what is the good?

What is Ethics?What is Ethics?•Are moral principles absolute?Are moral principles absolute?•Are moral principles relative to social Are moral principles relative to social groups or individual decisions?groups or individual decisions?•Is morality only in the view of the Is morality only in the view of the person being moral?person being moral?•Is there a time for me to act Is there a time for me to act immorally?immorally?•How can I justify my moral beliefs?How can I justify my moral beliefs?

WhatWhat is Ethics? is Ethics?

•What is the basis of morality?What is the basis of morality?•Which ethical theory best justifies Which ethical theory best justifies and explains moral life?and explains moral life?•What is morality’s relationship withWhat is morality’s relationship with religion?religion? law?law? social etiquette?social etiquette?

““Moral” vs. “Ethical”Moral” vs. “Ethical”•Terms “moral” and “ethical” are Terms “moral” and “ethical” are often used interchangeably but both often used interchangeably but both derive their meaning from the idea of derive their meaning from the idea of “custom”“custom”•The term “moral” comes fromThe term “moral” comes from the Latin (meaning “mores”)the Latin (meaning “mores”) andand the Greek (meaning “ethos”)the Greek (meaning “ethos”)

““Morality”Morality” refers to refers to

•Certain CustomsCertain Customs•Certain PreceptsCertain Precepts

•Certain Practices of Peoples and Certain Practices of Peoples and CulturesCultures

•Positive or Descriptive Morality: Positive or Descriptive Morality: is used to describe actual beliefsis used to describe actual beliefs and customs of a cultureand customs of a culture

““Moral Philosophy”Moral Philosophy”•Refers to philosophical or theoreticalRefers to philosophical or theoretical reflection on moralityreflection on morality•Your author terms these theoriesYour author terms these theories

“ “Ethical Theories”Ethical Theories”

•These theories come from moralThese theories come from moral philosophical reflections.philosophical reflections.

““Ethics”Ethics”Refers to the whole domain ofRefers to the whole domain of morality and moral philosophymorality and moral philosophy

Both areas are connected by common Both areas are connected by common concerns in different ways through:concerns in different ways through:

Values, Virtues, PrinciplesValues, Virtues, PrinciplesAnd PracticesAnd Practices

Ethics and its SubdivisionsEthics and its Subdivisions(1) Descriptive morality(1) Descriptive morality

(2) Moral philosophy (ethical theory)(2) Moral philosophy (ethical theory)

(3) Applied ethics(3) Applied ethics

(1)Descriptive Morality(1)Descriptive MoralityRefers to actual beliefs, customs, Refers to actual beliefs, customs,

principles, and practices of people principles, and practices of people and cultures.and cultures.

Example: Sociologists pay attention to Example: Sociologists pay attention to moral practices of social groups and moral practices of social groups and treat them as cultural “facts”treat them as cultural “facts”

The systematic effort toThe systematic effort to understand moral concepts andunderstand moral concepts and justify moral principles and theories.justify moral principles and theories.

Moral Philosophy analyzes key ethical Moral Philosophy analyzes key ethical concepts such as “right”, concepts such as “right”,

“wrong”, “wrong”, and “permissible”.and “permissible”.

(2) Moral Philosophy(2) Moral Philosophy

(2) Moral Philosophy(2) Moral PhilosophyExplores possible sources of moralExplores possible sources of moral

obligation such as God, humanobligation such as God, humanreason, or the desire to be happyreason, or the desire to be happy

Seeks to establish principles of rightSeeks to establish principles of rightbehavior that may serve as action behavior that may serve as action guides for individuals and groupsguides for individuals and groups

(3) Applied Ethics(3) Applied EthicsDeals with controversial moral Deals with controversial moral

problems such as abortion, problems such as abortion, premarital sex, capital punishment, premarital sex, capital punishment, euthanasia, and civil disobedienceeuthanasia, and civil disobedience

Morality as Compared with Morality as Compared with Other Normative SubjectsOther Normative Subjects

Morality has a distinct action-guiding, Morality has a distinct action-guiding, or or normativenormative, aspect which is also , aspect which is also shared with other practices such as shared with other practices such as religion, law and etiquette.religion, law and etiquette.

Morality differs from religion, law and Morality differs from religion, law and etiquette.etiquette.

Morality and ReligionMorality and ReligionMoral behavior is usually essential to Moral behavior is usually essential to religion’s practicereligion’s practiceNeither the practices nor principles of Neither the practices nor principles of morality should be identified with morality should be identified with religionreligionPractice of morality need not be Practice of morality need not be motivated by religious considerationsmotivated by religious considerationsMoral principles need not be grounded Moral principles need not be grounded in revelation or divine authorityin revelation or divine authority

Morality and ReligionMorality and ReligionReligious ethics grounded in revelation Religious ethics grounded in revelation or divine authorityor divine authorityEthics is characterized by its grounding Ethics is characterized by its grounding in reason and human experiencein reason and human experienceSome versions of religious ethics hold Some versions of religious ethics hold that reason can discover what is right or that reason can discover what is right or wrong even apart from divine revelationwrong even apart from divine revelation

Morality and LawMorality and LawMany laws are instituted in order to:Many laws are instituted in order to:–promote well-beingpromote well-being–resolve conflicts of interestresolve conflicts of interest–promote social harmonypromote social harmony

Morality and LawMorality and LawMorality also does all of these three.Morality also does all of these three.

Ethics may judge that some laws are Ethics may judge that some laws are immoral without denying that they have immoral without denying that they have legal authoritylegal authority

Law and Morality DifferLaw and Morality DifferSome aspects of morality are not Some aspects of morality are not covered by law, ie. Lying in generalcovered by law, ie. Lying in generalIntentionIntention plays a role in determining plays a role in determining legal character of an act, once the act legal character of an act, once the act has been committed but bad intentions has been committed but bad intentions themselves are not illegal but can be themselves are not illegal but can be immoralimmoral

Morality and EtiquetteMorality and EtiquetteEtiquette determines what is Etiquette determines what is politepolite behaviorbehavior

Morality determines what is Morality determines what is rightright behavior in a deeper sensebehavior in a deeper sense

To disregard or defy etiquette in some To disregard or defy etiquette in some cases can be considered immoralcases can be considered immoral

Limitations of Religion, Law, & EtiquetteLimitations of Religion, Law, & EtiquetteReligion –Rests on authority that may Religion –Rests on authority that may lack certainty or agreement on lack certainty or agreement on authority credentials or how authority authority credentials or how authority would rule in new cases. Reason may would rule in new cases. Reason may not be able to persuade.not be able to persuade.Law – Every social ill cannot have a Law – Every social ill cannot have a law and not all rules can be enforcedlaw and not all rules can be enforcedEtiquette – Does not go to the heart of Etiquette – Does not go to the heart of what is important for existencewhat is important for existence

Traits of Moral PrinciplesTraits of Moral PrinciplesCentral to morality are moral principles Central to morality are moral principles

which have have these five traits:which have have these five traits: PrescriptivityPrescriptivity

UniversalizabilityUniversalizability OverridingnessOverridingness

PublicityPublicity PracticabilityPracticability

PrescriptivityPrescriptivityThe practical or action-guiding, nature The practical or action-guiding, nature

of morality.of morality. Moral principles generally put forth Moral principles generally put forth

as commands or imperativesas commands or imperatives Intended for use: to advise and Intended for use: to advise and

influence actioninfluence action Used to appraise behavior, assign Used to appraise behavior, assign

praise and blame, and produce praise and blame, and produce feelings of satisfaction or guiltfeelings of satisfaction or guilt

UniversalizabilityUniversalizabilityMoral principles must apply to all Moral principles must apply to all

people who are in a relevantly similar people who are in a relevantly similar situation.situation.

Exemplified in the Golden RuleExemplified in the Golden Rule Applies to all evaluative judgments.Applies to all evaluative judgments. An extension of the An extension of the principle of principle of

consistentcyconsistentcy

OverridingnessOverridingnessMoral principles have predominant Moral principles have predominant

authority and override other kinds of authority and override other kinds of principlesprinciples

Take precedence over considerations Take precedence over considerations including aesthetic, prudential, and including aesthetic, prudential, and legal oneslegal ones

Religion is a special case where a Religion is a special case where a command may override a normal command may override a normal moral rulemoral rule

PublicityPublicityMoral Principles must be made public Moral Principles must be made public

in order to guide our actionsin order to guide our actions Necessary because principles are Necessary because principles are

used to prescribe behavior, give used to prescribe behavior, give advice, and assign praise and blameadvice, and assign praise and blame

Keeping a moral principle secret Keeping a moral principle secret would be self-defeatingwould be self-defeating

PracticabilityPracticabilityA Moral Principle must be workable A Moral Principle must be workable

and its rules must not lay a heavy and its rules must not lay a heavy burden on us when we follow themburden on us when we follow them

Rules must take human limitations Rules must take human limitations into consideration so as to prevent into consideration so as to prevent moral despair, deep or undue moral moral despair, deep or undue moral guilt, and ineffective actionguilt, and ineffective action

Domains of Ethical Domains of Ethical AssessmentAssessment

Most ethical analysis falls into one or more Most ethical analysis falls into one or more of the following domains:of the following domains:

ActionActionConsequencesConsequences

CharacterCharacterMotiveMotive

ActionActionActions are usually termedActions are usually termed

right or wrong.right or wrong.

‘‘Right’ can be an ambiguous term.Right’ can be an ambiguous term.

RightRight can mean can meanObligatory orObligatory orPermissiblePermissible

Right ActionRight Action1. A 1. A right actright act is an act that is permissible for is an act that is permissible for you to do. It may be either:you to do. It may be either:a. An a. An obligatory actobligatory act – – is one that morality is one that morality requires you to do; it is not permissible for requires you to do; it is not permissible for you to refrain from doing ityou to refrain from doing it

b. Anb. An optional actoptional act – An act not obligatory – An act not obligatory or wrong to do; not your duty to do or not to or wrong to do; not your duty to do or not to dodo

Wrong ActionWrong Action2. A 2. A wrong actwrong act is one you have an is one you have an

obligation, or a duty, to refrain from doing: obligation, or a duty, to refrain from doing: It is an act you ought not to do; it is not It is an act you ought not to do; it is not permissible to do it.permissible to do it.

Supererogatory ActsSupererogatory ActsThese actions are within the range of These actions are within the range of permissible acts.permissible acts.Also known as highly altruistic acts.Also known as highly altruistic acts.These acts are neither required nor These acts are neither required nor obligatoryobligatoryThey exceed what morality requires.They exceed what morality requires.They go beyond ‘the call of duty.’They go beyond ‘the call of duty.’

Complete Scheme of Complete Scheme of ActsActs

1. Right act (permissible)1. Right act (permissible)a. Obligatory acta. Obligatory actb. Optional actb. Optional act

(1) Neutral act(1) Neutral act(2) Supererogatory act(2) Supererogatory act

2. Wrong act (not permissible)2. Wrong act (not permissible)

Deontological TheoriesDeontological TheoriesEmphasize the nature of the actEmphasize the nature of the actSome acts are inherently good or right and Some acts are inherently good or right and some acts are inherently wrong or badsome acts are inherently wrong or badKant defended a principle of moral duty he Kant defended a principle of moral duty he calls the categorical imperativecalls the categorical imperativeDeontological theories have in common the Deontological theories have in common the view that we have an inherent duty to view that we have an inherent duty to perform right actions and avoid bad actionsperform right actions and avoid bad actions

ConsequencesConsequencesActions based on the foreseeable outcome Actions based on the foreseeable outcome of a course of decisionof a course of decisionEthical theories that focus primarily on Ethical theories that focus primarily on consequences in determining moral consequences in determining moral rightness or wrongness are called: rightness or wrongness are called: Teleological EthicsTeleological EthicsUtilitarianism is the most famous of these Utilitarianism is the most famous of these and requires us to do what is likeliest to and requires us to do what is likeliest to have the best consequenceshave the best consequences

CharacterCharacterEthical theories that emphasize Ethical theories that emphasize charactercharacter, , or virtue are or virtue are virtue theoriesvirtue theoriesGood character traits are Good character traits are virtuesvirtuesBad character traits are Bad character traits are vicesvicesAristotle maintained that the development Aristotle maintained that the development of virtuous character traits is needed to of virtuous character traits is needed to ensure that we habitually act rightlyensure that we habitually act rightlyVital to empower our character with the Vital to empower our character with the tendency to do goodtendency to do good

MotiveMotiveEthically assess situations by examining Ethically assess situations by examining the motive of the people involvedthe motive of the people involvedVirtually all ethical systems recognize the Virtually all ethical systems recognize the importance of motivesimportance of motivesFor a full assessment of any action it is For a full assessment of any action it is important to take the agent's motive into important to take the agent's motive into accountaccountSeemingly identical acts may differ morally Seemingly identical acts may differ morally due to a difference of motivesdue to a difference of motives

ConclusionConclusionEthics has enormous practical benefits:Ethics has enormous practical benefits: Can free us from prejudice and dogmatismCan free us from prejudice and dogmatism Has comprehensive systems from which to Has comprehensive systems from which to

orient individual judgmentsorient individual judgments Helps us to think more clearly about moral Helps us to think more clearly about moral

problemsproblems Shows how principles and values relate to Shows how principles and values relate to

one anotherone another Gives us some guidance in how to liveGives us some guidance in how to live

Answering Initial Answering Initial QuestionsQuestionsWhat is the nature of morality, and why do What is the nature of morality, and why do we need it?we need it?What is the good, and how will I know it?What is the good, and how will I know it?Is it in my interest to be moral?Is it in my interest to be moral?What is the relationship between: morality What is the relationship between: morality and religion?and religion?morality and the law?morality and the law?morality and etiquette?morality and etiquette?