EnvirOnmEnTal SciEncE - Nampatroop112nampa.org/.../Environmental_Science_Merit...12 EnvironmEntal SciEncE The Roots of Environmental Science. The Roots of Environmental Science American

EnvirOnmEnTal SciEncE

How to Use This PamphletThe secret to successfully earning a merit badge is for you to use both the pamphlet and the suggestions of your counselor.

Your counselor can be as important to you as a coach is to an athlete. Use all of the resources your counselor can make available to you. This may be the best chance you will have to learn about this particular subject. Make it count.

If you or your counselor feels that any information in this pamphlet is incorrect, please let us know. Please state your source of information.

Merit badge pamphlets are reprinted annually and requirements updated regularly. Your suggestions for improvement are welcome.

Send comments along with a brief statement about yourself to Youth Development, S209 • Boy Scouts of America • 1325 West Walnut Hill Lane • P.O. Box 152079 • Irving, TX 75015-2079.

Who Pays for This Pamphlet?This merit badge pamphlet is one in a series of more than 100 covering all kinds of hobby and career subjects. It is made available for you to buy as a service of the national and local councils, Boy Scouts of America. The costs of the development, writing, and editing of the merit badge pamphlets are paid for by the Boy Scouts of America in order to bring you the best book at a reasonable price.

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

BOY SCOUTS OF AMERICAMERIT BADGE SERIES

Requirements1. Makeatimelineofthehistoryofenvironmentalsciencein

America.IdentifythecontributionmadebytheBoyScoutsofAmericatoenvironmentalscience.Includedates,namesofpeopleororganizations,andimportantevents.

2. Definethefollowingterms:population,community,eco-system,biosphere,symbiosis,niche,habitat,conservation,threatenedspecies,endangeredspecies,extinction,pollutionprevention,brownfield,ozone,watershed,airshed,nonpointsource,hybridvehicle,fuelcell.

3. DoONEactivityfromEACHofthefollowingcategories(usingtheactivitiesinthispamphletasthebasisforplanningandprojects):

A. Ecology

(1) Conductanexperimenttofindouthowlivingthingsrespondtochangesintheirenvironments.Discussyourobservationswithyourcounselor.

(2) Conductanexperimentillustratingthegreenhouseeffect.Keepajournalofyourdataandobservations.Discussyourconclusionswithyourcounselor.

(3) Discusswhatisanecosystem.Tellhowitismain-tainedinnatureandhowitsurvives.

B. AirPollution

(1) Performanexperimenttotestforparticulatesthatcontributetoairpollution.Discussyourfindingswithyourcounselor.

35892 ISBN 978-0-8395-3363-4©2006 Boy Scouts of America2010 Printing

BANG/Brainerd, MN4-2010/059741

EnvironmEntal SciEncE 3

(2) Recordthetripstaken,mileage,andfuelconsumptionofafamilycarforsevendays,andcalculatehowmanymilespergallonthecargets.Determinewhetheranytripscouldhavebeencombined(“chained”)ratherthantakenoutandback.Usingtheideaoftripchaining,determinehowmanymilesandgallonsofgascouldhavebeensavedinthosesevendays.

(3) Explainwhatisacidrain.Inyourexplanation,tellhowitaffectsplantsandtheenvironmentandthestepssocietycantaketohelpreduceitseffects.

C. WaterPollution

(1) Conductanexperimenttoshowhowlivingthingsreacttothermalpollution.Discussyourobservationswithyourcounselor.

(2) Conductanexperimenttoidentifythemethodsthatcouldbeusedtomediate(reduce)theeffectsofanoilspillonwaterfowl.Discussyourresultswithyourcounselor.

(3) Describetheimpactofawaterbornepollutantonanaquaticcommunity.Writea100-wordreportonhowthatpollutantaffectedaquaticlife,whattheeffectwas,andwhethertheeffectislinkedtobiomagnification.

D. LandPollution

(1) Conductanexperimenttoillustratesoilerosionbywater.Takephotographsormakeadrawingofthesoilbeforeandafteryourexperiment,andmakeapostershowingyourresults.Presentyourpostertoyourcounselor.

(2) Performanexperimenttodeterminetheeffectofanoilspillonland.Discussyourconclusionswithyourcounselor.

(3) Photographanareaaffectedbyerosion.Shareyourphotographswithyourcounseloranddiscusswhytheareahaserodedandwhatmightbedonetohelpalleviatetheerosion.

E. EndangeredSpecies

(1) Doresearchononeendangeredspeciesfoundinyourstate.Findoutwhatitsnaturalhabitatis,whyitisendangered,whatisbeingdonetopreserveit,andhowmanyindividualorganismsareleftinthewild.Preparea100-wordreportabouttheorganism,includingadrawing.Presentyourreporttoyourpatrolortroop.

(2) Doresearchononespeciesthatwasendangeredorthreatenedbutwhichhasnowrecovered.Findouthowtheorganismrecovered,andwhatitsnewstatusis.Writea100-wordreportonthespeciesanddiscussitwithyourcounselor.

(3) Withyourparent’sandcounselor’sapproval,workwithanaturalresourceprofessionaltoidentifytwoprojectsthathavebeenapprovedtoimprovethehabitatforathreatenedorendangeredspeciesinyourarea.Visitthesiteofoneoftheseprojectsandreportonwhatyousaw.

F. PollutionPrevention,ResourceRecovery,andConservation

(1) Lookaroundyourhomeanddetermine10waysyourfamilycanhelpreducepollution.Practiceatleasttwoofthesemethodsforsevendaysanddiscusswithyourcounselorwhatyouhavelearned.

(2) Determine10waystoconserveresourcesoruseresourcesmoreefficientlyinyourhome,atschool,oratcamp.Practiceatleasttwoofthesemethodsforsevendaysanddiscusswithyourcounselorwhatyouhavelearned.

(3) Performanexperimentonpackagingmaterialstofindoutwhichonesarebiodegradable.Discussyourconclusionwithyourcounselor.


4. Choosetwooutdoorstudyareasthatareverydifferentfromoneanother(e.g.,hilltopvs.bottomofahill;fieldvs.forest;swampvs.dryland).ForBOTHstudyareas,doONEofthefollowing:

A. Markoffaplotof4squareyardsineachstudyarea,andcountthenumberofspeciesfoundthere.Estimatehowmuchspaceisoccupiedbyeachplantspeciesandthetypeandnumberofnonplantspeciesyoufind.Writeareportthatadequatelydiscussesthebiodiversityandpopulationdensityofthesestudyareas.Discussyourreportwithyourcounselor.

B. Makeatleastthreevisitstoeachofthetwostudyareas(foratotalofsixvisits),stayingforatleast20minuteseachtime,toobservethelivingandnonlivingpartsoftheecosystem.Spaceeachvisitfarenoughapartthattherearereadilyapparentdifferencesintheobservations.Keepajournalthatincludesthedifferencesyouobserve.Then,writeashortreportthatadequatelyaddressesyourobservations,includinghowthedifferencesofthestudyareasmightrelatetothedifferencesnoted,anddiscussthiswithyourcounselor.

5. Usingtheconstructionprojectprovidedoraplanyoucreateonyourown,identifytheitemsthatwouldneedtobeincludedinanenvironmentalimpactstatementfortheprojectplanned.

6. Findoutaboutthreecareeropportunitiesinenvironmentalscience.Pickoneandfindouttheeducation,training,andexperiencerequiredforthisprofession.Discussthiswithyourcounselor,andexplainwhythisprofessionmightinterestyou.


contents

WhatIsEnvironmentalScience? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

TheRootsofEnvironmentalScience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

PrinciplesofEcology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

HumanImpactontheBiosphere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

TakingAction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

CareersinEnvironmentalScience. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

ActivitiesinEnvironmentalScience. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

EnvironmentalScienceResources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93


.What Is Environmental Science?

WhatIsEnvironmentalScience?Scientistsaskquestionsaboutthingstheyobserveandthentrytofindouttheanswers.Anenvironmentalscientistasksques-tionsabouttheenvironmentandtriestolearntheanswersbyobservingandexperimenting.WhileearningtheEnvironmentalSciencemeritbadge,youwillgetatasteofwhatitisliketobeanenvironmentalscientist,asyoumakeobservationsandcarryoutexperimentstocompletetheactivitiesandprojectsrequiredforthebadge.

From nature Study to EcologyPeoplehavealwaysbeencuriousaboutthenaturalworldandhavestudieditinordertosurvive.Earlyhumanslearnedwhichplantsweregoodtoeatandwhichonesmadethemsick.Theylearnedthehabitsofanimalsthattheyhuntedforfoodandhowtoavoidthoseanimalsthatpreyeduponhumans.

Today,manypeopleobserveplantsandanimalsinthewildasahobby.Somegohikingtofindrarewild-flowers.Otherskeepbinocularsandfieldguidesnearawindowsotheycanidentifythebirdsthatvisitbackyardbirdfeeders.Becausemanypeopleoverthecenturieshavestudiednatureclosely,muchisknowntodayaboutthenaturalhistoryofplantsandanimals.

Plantsandanimals,however,donotlivealoneintheenvironment.Alivingthing’senvironmentismadeupofallofthelivingandnonlivingmaterialsaroundit,includingplants,animals,air,soil,heat,light,food,water,andanythingelsethatplaysanyroleinitslife.Inaddition,allplantsandanimalsareconnectedtootherlivingthings.

The natural

development of

a living thing over

time is its natural

history. People

who study

natural history

are naturalists.

10 EnvironmEntal SciEncE

What Is Environmental Science?.

Theyinteractwithoneanotherandwiththenonlivingpartsoftheirenvironment.Livingthingsdependuponthematerialsfoundintheirenvironmenttosurvive.Anythingthatdisturbstheenvironmentmayaffectthelivingthingsfoundthere.

Using this PamphletAnenvironmentalscientistneedstoknowagreatdealaboutlivingthings,abouttheirwaysoflife,andabouttheenvironmentanditseffectonlife.Forinstance,anenvironmentalscientistmightstudyhowthechemistryofsoilaffectsantbehavior.Someotherthingsthatanenvironmentalscientistmightstudyincludeplantsinaforest,makeupofrainwater,purityofair,andhowmanylivingthingsarefoundinagivenenvironment.Theactivitiesinthispamphletwillintroduceyoutothewiderangeofsubjectsthatenvironmentalscientistsstudy.

The study of

living things and

their interactions

with one another

and with their

environments is

known as ecology.

Scientists

who study the

interactions

among organisms

and their

environments

are ecologists.


.What Is Environmental Science?

Steps in the Scientific MethodImagine that you are watching a line of ants carrying pieces of food from a picnic site to an anthill. If you push the ants aside, they soon line up again. You want to know how the ants know where to line up. To try to answer that question, you follow a series of steps known as scientific method.• First, you state the problem you want to solve—how

ants know where to line up. Then you gather informa-tion about ants. Perhaps you do some research on ants in the library.

• Next, you form a hypothesis, that is, you formulate a statement or question that can be tested. Your hypothesis might be a statement such as: Ants know where to line up because they can see one another.

• You test your hypothesis by performing an experiment. In your experiment, you place food in one corner of a box and ants at the other end. When the ants have found the food and have formed a line to carry it, you disrupt the line, and then turn off the lights.

• Now you analyze your results. Did the ants line up again? If the ants lined up even in the dark, you might draw a conclusion that they do not need to see one another in order to line up, so your hypothesis is wrong. Your conclusion would be that ants must use some sense other than sight to line up. Sometimes, when the results of an experiment do not support a hypothesis, you can use what you learned to formu-late a new hypothesis and carry out a new experiment to test the new hypothesis.

Not all hypotheses can be tested by doing an experi-ment in a laboratory. Some hypotheses are tested by observing events and collecting facts. You could test which kinds of birdseed a particular type of bird prefers just by observing what birds eat at several feeders.


The Roots of Environmental Science.

TheRootsofEnvironmentalScienceAmericanIndiansusedforestsandotherenvironmentalresourcesforcenturiesbeforeEuropeansettlersarrivedonthecontinent.InthePacificNorthwest,tribesusedforestmaterialstomakecedarhouses,boats,andclothing.IntheNortheastandupperMidwesttheybuiltbirch-barkcanoes.Forestsalsoweretremen-doussourcesoffood,bothfromplantsandfromwildlife.

Attimes,tribesoverusedcertainforestedareas.Sometimestheyintentionallyburnedforeststoclearlandforcultivationortomakeiteasiertopursuegame.Ifaforestbecameoverusedortooheavilydamagedtosupportatribe,thegroupwouldmoveonandtheforest,leftalone,wouldrecover.

AsmoreandmoreEuropeansettlersarrivedinNorthAmerica,theirneedfornaturalresourcesgrew.Theykilledwildlife,cuttrees,andcontaminatedthewaterneartheirsettle-ments.Whenthepressureonnaturalresourcesinasettledareagrewtoogreat,peoplemovedwestwardandbeganthecycleagain.Settlersbelievedtheycouldalwaysmovefartherwesttofindmorespaceandmoreresources.


.The Roots of Environmental Science

Earlyon,however,somesettlersrealizedthattheabundantnaturalresourcesofthisnewlandwerenotlimitless.In1626,PlymouthColonypassedalawtocontrolthecuttingandsaleoftimberoncolonylands.PeopleinNewport,RhodeIsland,agreedin1639torestrictdeerhuntingtosixmonthsayear.InPennsylvaniain1681,WilliamPenndecreedthatoneacremustbeleftforestedforeveryfiveacresofforestthatwerecleared.

Bythe1830s,peoplesuchasartistGeorgeCatlinandnaturalistHenryDavidThoreauwerewritingabouttheneedtopreservesomeoftheuniqueenvironmentsofNorthAmericainnationalparks.PeoplededicatedtoenvironmentalprotectionandwildlifeconservationfoundedgroupssuchasAmericanForests(1875),theAppalachianMountainClub(1876),theNewYorkAudubonSociety(1886),theBooneandCrockettClub(1887),theSierraClub(1892),theAmericanScenicandHistoricPreservationSociety(1895),andtheIzaakWaltonLeagueofAmerica(1922).

Governmentmanagementofspecialareascanbetracedbacktothecreationofthefirstnationalpark—Yellowstone—setasidein1872.CongresspassedtheCreativeActin1891,designatingmuchofthenation’spubliclyownedforestsasprotectedforestreserves.TheForestReserveActof1891followed,changingtheforestreservestonationalforestsandchargingtheirmanagerswithimprov-ingandprotectingthenation’slong-termsupplyofwoodandwater.TheBureauofForestrybecametheForestServicein1905whentheforestreservesweretransferredtotheDepartmentofAgriculture.In1916,CongressestablishedtheNationalParkService.TheParkService’smissionistopreservenaturalandculturalresourcesfortheenjoyment,education,andinspirationofcurrentandfuturegenerations.

Inthedecadesthatfollowed,forward-thinkingagencypersonnelandaconservationmovementmadeupofdedicatedcitizensestablishedtheideaofprotectingsomeforestsandotherwildernessareasasremindersofthewaytheywerebeforehumansintervenedandofbalancingtheuseofpubliclandsforrecreation,timber,andbiologicalresources.TheMultiple-UseSustained-YieldActof1960officiallyestablishedmultiple-usemanagementoftheforests.


The Roots of Environmental Science.

TheBureauofLandManagement,theU.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineers,theFishandWildlifeService,theNaturalResourcesConservationService,andotherpublicagenciesalsostrivetomanagepubliclandsthatfallwithintheiradministrativebound-aries.Stateandlocalagenciesoverseesmalleracreagesofpub-liclands.Privatelandownerswithforestedproperties—fromlargeforest-productcompaniestofamilieswithafewacresoftreesaroundtheirhomes—haveastakeinthepropermanage-mentofforestresources,too.

From conservation to EnvironmentalismDuringthelate1800sandearly1900s,peoplebegantospeakoutabouthumanactivitiesthatwerecausingseriousenviron-mentalproblemssuchasairandwaterpollution.AmericanzoologistWilliamT.HornadaywroteabouttheneedtoprotectwildlifeinNorthAmerica.In1907,ascientificstudybyM.C.Marshshowedhowfishwerehurtbyindustrialwastesreleasedintowatersources.In1962,RachelCarsonpublishedSilent Spring,abookthatdiscussedthedangerstotheenvironmentfromusingthepesticideDDT.

The Slaughter of the BisonHuge herds of millions of bison, or American buffalo, were once a common sight on the Great Plains. By 1884, however, settlers had hunted so many of them that only 300 were left. The survival of the bison is largely credited to the efforts of Dr. William T. Hornaday, who led conservation efforts to protect the bison. Today, Scouts can earn the William T. Hornaday Award for distinguished service in conservation.


.The Roots of Environmental Science

Carsonandotherpeoplewhowroteabouttheenvironmen-taleffectsofhumanactivitieshelpedmakethepublicawareofenvironmentalconcerns.ThispublicawarenessledtothedesignationofApril22asEarthDay.ThefirstEarthDayin1970sparkedanenvironmentalmovementintheUnitedStates.Asaresult,theU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA),theCouncilonEnvironmentalQuality,andmanystateandlocalenvironmentalagencieswereestablished.Today,manylawsprotectourair,water,land,andwildliferesources.

Boy Scouts and the EnvironmentIntheearly1900s,astheconservationmovementgrew,twoseparateorganizationsforboysthatfocusedonnatureandtheenvironmentwerefounded.In1902,theWoodcraftIndianswasstartedinConnecticutbythenaturalistErnestThompsonSetontopreservethewildernessknowledgeofAmericanIndians.Asoneoftheforemostnaturalistsofhistime,SetonspokebeforetheU.S.Congressin1904insupportoflegislation,whichhadbeenauthoredbyWilliamT.Hornaday,toprotectmigratorybirds.

Aboutthesametime,DanielCarterBeard,aformersur-veyorandengineerwhobecameanauthorandillustrator,wroteabooktitledThe American Boy’s Handy Book.In1905,BeardfoundedaclubcalledSonsofDanielBoonetoteachboysaboutnature,conservation,andoutdoorsmanship.

OnFebruary8,1910,SetonandBeardmergedtheirseparateboys’clubsintotheBoyScoutsofAmerica.PublisherWilliamD.Boycefoundedthisneworganization.Fromitsbeginnings,theBoyScoutsofAmericahadastrongfoundationofwoodcraft,naturestudy,andconservation.ManyactivitiesinScoutingcomefromactivitiesofAmericanIndians.ManyoftheprinciplesthatScoutsupholdcomefromtheconservationethicsofSetonandBeard.TheBSAhastaughtmorethan45millionyoungenvironmentaliststhroughoutitshistory.Currently,withmorethan1.5millionactivemembers,theBSAcontinuestotrainAmericanyouthinprinciplesofconservationandenvironmentalscience.

Activities

designed to help

you earn the

Environmental

Science merit

badge can be

found toward

the back of

this pamphlet.


.Principles of Ecology

PrinciplesofEcologyAlthoughlawsandagencieshavebeenestablishedtohelpprotectandpreservenature,muchmoreneedstobedone.Beforeyoucanhelpprotectnature,youmustunderstandhowitworks.

Understanding EcologyImaginethatyouarestandingonthebankofaquietriverinFlorida.Alongthebanksofthisriveryouseeagreatblueheron,analligator,aratsnake,andaraccoon.Onarockintheriver,aFloridared-belliedturtlebasksinthesun.Lookingdownintothewater,youseethelongbodyofafishcalledagarglidingthroughslenderleavesofeelgrass.Snailsfeedastheytravelamongthewaterplants.Hereandthere,whirligigbeetlesdotthewatersurface.Tinyduckweedplantsfloatnearthequietbanks.Abullfrogjumpsfromtheriver’sedgeanddisappearsintothewater.

Allofthelivingthingsinandaroundtheriverarecon-nectedinsomeway.Bullfrogseatwhirligigbeetles.Heronseatbullfrogs,ratsnakes,gars,andhatchlingred-belliedturtles.Raccoonseatbullfrogs,insects,worms,andsnails.Snailsandadultturtleseataquatic(water)plants.Innature,livingthingsinteractinmanyways.

living things in the EnvironmentSnails,red-belliedturtles,andeelgrassarelivingthings.Allliv-ingthingshavetheabilitytoreproduce,thatis,tomakemoreofthesamekindoflivingthing.Livingthingsalsochangedur-ingtheirlifetimes.Theygrowanddevelopandhavealifespanthateventuallyendsindeath.Anotherimportantcharacteristicoflivingthingsisthattheycanusuallyadjusttotheirsurround-ings.Theycanrespondtochangesintheirenvironments.

Principles of Ecology.

Scientistscalllivingthingsorganisms.ThinkofallthemillionsoforganismsthatinhabitEarth.Organismscanbefoundinthedeepestoceansandonthehighestmountains.SomebacteriacanevenbefoundhighinEarth’satmosphere.ThepartofEarththatcontainsandsupportslivingthingsisknownasthebiosphere.ThebiosphereisallpartsofEarthwherelifeexistsonland,inwater,orintheair.

Withinthebiospherearemanydifferentkindsofenviron-ments.Beaches,forests,glaciers,deserts,andriversareenvi-ronments.EveryenvironmentonEarthincludesboththelivingthingsfoundthereandthephysical,ornonliving,environment

the organisms that live in and around a river in Florida include fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals, and plants.

HydrospHere

LitHospHere

AtmospHere

the regions that form Earth’s biosphere include the atmosphere (air), hydrosphere (water), and lithosphere (land).




inwhichlivingthingsexist.Thinkaboutthelivingthingsinyourownenvironment.Nomatterwhereyoulive,organismssurroundyou.You,thebacteriaonyourskin,yourpet,thefleasonyourpet,thespiderinacorner,andtheplantsgrowingoutsideareorganismsinyourenvironment.

Youhaveinteractionswiththebacteria,yourpet,itsfleas,thespider,andtheplants,buttheseinteractionsarenottheonlyonesinyourenvironment.Therealsoarenonlivingthingsthatinfluencetheorganismsineveryenvironment.

nonliving things in the Environment Let’sgobacktothatFloridariveryouimaginedbeforeandthinkofnonlivingthings.Youprobablyknowthatthewaterintheriverisnonliving,butwhataboutthewind?Thesunlight?Rocksintheriver?Thesoilthatsupportstheplantsgrowingattheriver’sedge?Theseareallnonlivingthingsthatinteractwiththelivingorganismsintheriverenvironment.

Inyourenvironment,theweatheraffectsyouandyourpets.Thesoapyouusewhenyoushoweraffectsthebacteriaonyourskin.Sunlight,temperature,rainfall,andmineralsinthesoilaffecttheplantsoutside.Theimportantinteractionsbetweennonlivingandlivingthingsdeterminewhichlivingthingscanshareanenvironmentwithwhichnonlivingthings.

Let’slookatfournonlivingfactorstofindouthowtheyaffectthelivingthingsinanenvironment.

Water.LifeonEarthwouldbeimpossiblewithoutwater.Thebodiesofmostorganismsare50to95percentwater.Waterisnecessaryformanylifeprocesses,includingrespira-tion,photosynthesis,anddigestion.

Watercoversmorethan70percentofEarth’ssurface.Butabout97percentofthewateronEarthissaltwatercon-tainedinoceans.Thatmeansonlyabout3percentisfresh-water.Mostofthefreshwaterisnotavailabletolivingthings,becauseitisfrozenintheicecapsorglaciers.Infact,onlyatinyfractionofEarth’swaterisfreshwaterthatisavailabletoorganisms.Thisfreshwaterisinrivers,ponds,lakes,streams,undergroundwatersupplies(aquifers),orinwatervapor.



Soil. Soilisformedbythephysicalandchemicalbreakdownofrocksandbytheactionsoflivingthings.Thebreakdownofrockintosoilreleasesmineralsthatorganismsneedfortheirlifeprocesses.Thesemineralsreturntothesoilwhenorganismsdieanddecay.Decayedmaterialthatoncewaslivingiscalledorganicmatter.Themoreorganicmatterinsoil,themorefertileitis.

Soildeterminesthetypeofplantlifethatcangrowincer-tainenvironments.Therefore,soilhasaneffectupontheotherorganismsthatcanlivethere,too.Amongthefactorsthatdeter-minewhichorganismscanliveinaparticularsoilenvironmentarethemineralandorganicmattercontent,aircontent,andsoiltexture.

In photosynthesis,

green plants,

algae, and some

other organisms

capture the

energy of sunlight

and change it into

a form of energy

that they can use

or store. Most

of the energy

that powers

life in Earth’s

biosphere is made

available through

the process of

photosynthesis. ToTal WaTer on earTh

sALt wAter (oceAns)

97.2 percentFresHwAter (LAkes,

rivers, streAms) 0.022 percent

ice cAps And gLAciers 2.38 percent

groundwAter 0.397 percent

AtmospHeric wAter vApor

0.001 percent

100 percent 26 gALLons

3 percent 0.8 gALLons

0.003 percent 1⁄2 teAspoon

How much of Earth’s freshwater is available for organisms? if you imagine that Earth has a total of 26 gallons of water, less than one gallon of that would be freshwater, and only half a teaspoon would be readily available to living things.



Sunlight. Nearlyalllivingthingsdependuponthesunforenergy,eitherdirectlyorindirectly.Plants,algae,andsomeotherorganisms“trap”sunlightandcaptureitsenergyintheprocessofphotosynthesis.Plantsusethisenergytopowertheirlifeprocesses,ortheystoreit.Whenasnaileatsaplant,forexample,thesnailusesthestoredenergyintheplanttocarryoutlifeprocessessuchasbreathingandmoving.Whenarac-cooneatsthesnail,theenergyispassedalong.Greenplants,algae,andotherphotosyntheticorganismsmustlivewherethereissunlight.Inaquaticenvironments,photosyntheticorganismscanliveonlyinthetoplayerofthewater,wheresunlightcanreachtheorganisms.

temperature. Ingeneral,thetemperatureofanenvironmentdependsontheamountofsunlightitgets.Airisheatedmoreattheequatorthanatthepoles.Thisiswhytropicalareasneartheequatorarehot,thepolarregionsarecold,andtheregionsinbetweenhavemoderatetemperatures.TemperaturesalsoareaffectedbyEarth’srotation,bywindsandoceancurrentscreatedbythatrotation,bythetiltofEarthonitsaxis(seetheillustration),andbyelevation.Asyouhikeupamountain,theairtemperaturedrops.ThatiswhyitispossibletohaveasnowballfightontopofMountBaldyatPhilmontScoutRanchinNewMexicoinJuly!

Factors such as

rainfall, sunlight,

temperature,

the nearness of

large bodies of

water (oceans),

and elevation

determine the

climate (the

general weather

pattern) in

an area.

Earth’s orbit

Spring

Summer

WinTer

auTumn

sun

s u n

s u n

s u n

s u n

n n n n

s s s s

S

n

S

n

S

n S

n



interactions among living things ThinkagainoftheorganismslivinginaFloridariver.Thereareseveraldifferentspeciesofturtleslivingthere.Aspeciesisagroupoforganismsthathascharacteristicsincommonandcanbreedtoproduceoffspring.Forexample,red-belliedturtlescanmatewithotherred-belliedturtlestoproducebabyred-belliedturtles.Intheriver,thereareatleastthreespeciesofturtles—red-belliedturtles,cooters,andcommonsnappingturtles.Alltheindividualred-belliedturtleslivingintherivermakeupapopulationofred-belliedturtles.Allthecootersmakeupapopulationofcooters,andallthesnappingturtlesmakeupapopulationofsnappingturtles.Youcanseethattheriverenvi-ronmentcontainsmanydifferentpopulationsoforganisms.

Populationsoforganisms,ofcourse,donotlivealoneintheenvironment.Mostinteractwithotherpopulationsinagivenarea.Thered-belliedturtlesinteractwiththeeelgrass(byeatingit).Theeelgrassprovideshidingplacesforyoungfishandtadpoles.Thegreatblueheronseatthebullfrogs.Populationsareconstantlychanginginsize,density,andageastheyrespondtochangesintheirenvironment.Iftheheronseatalloftheadultbullfrogsintheriver,forexample,thepopulationofbullfrogswillincludeonlytadpolesandeggs.

a pond ecosystem



Groupsofpopulationsthatinteractwithoneanotherinagivenareaformacommunity.Allthepopulationsinacommunitydependupononeanotherforneedssuchasfoodandshelter.Thepopulationsoforganismsthatlivetogetherandinteractwithoneanother—suchasherons,alligators,bullfrogs,insects,andturtles—formtheFloridariver’slivingcommunity.Theriver,thesoilalongthebank,therocksintheriver,andthesunshiningontheriveraresomeofthenonlivingfactorsintheenvironment.

Thelivingcommunityoftheriver,andthenonlivingfactorsthataffectit,formrelationshipsthattogethermakeupanecosystem.Ecosystems,suchasariver,pond,forest,ordesert,maybetreatedasseparatepartsoftheenvironment.

relationships Within EcosystemsWithinanecosystemsuchasaFloridariver,theactionsofeveryspeciesaffectotherspecies,populations,andcommuni-ties.Aratsnakefeedsonsmallrodents,keepingtherodentpopulationsmallenoughthattheydonoteatalltheplantseedsavailable.Analligatorstirsupbottommud,releasingwormsandorganicmatterthatotherorganismsuseforfood.Bothratsnakesandalligatorshelpmaintaintheirecosystems.

the living community in a Florida river includes many populations that live together and interact with one another. the river, the soil along its bank, and the sun shining on the water are some nonliving factors in the environment.



niches and HabitatsAnicheistheroleofaspeciesinitscommunity.Thenicheoffungisuchasmushrooms,forexample,isnotsimplytogetnutrients(food)fromdeadordyingtreesbutalsotoreleasethosenutrientsbackintotheenvironmentinaformthatotherorganismscanuse.

Besideshavingarolewithinacommunity,organismsoccupyspace.Forinstance,youliveinahouse,anapartment,orsomeothertypeofshelter.Inariverecosystem,greatblueheronsroosthighintreesalongriverbanks.Commonsnappingturtlesburrowintothemudatthebottomofariver.Theplaceinwhichanorganismlivesisitshabitat.Anorganism’shabitatprovidestheorganismwithnourishment(foodandwater),shelter,protectionfromenemies,andthespaceneededforthatorganismtosurvive.

Withinanyhabitat,thefood,shelter,andotherresourcesaredividedintoseparateniches.Forexample,aFloridariverisahabitatforbothred-belliedturtlesandbullfrogs.Adultturtleseatonlywaterplants.Bullfrogseatinsects,snails,fish,andfrogs.Becausethesetwospecieseatdifferentfoods,theyoccupydifferentnicheswithinthesamehabitat.



Feeding relationships Manyoftherelationshipswithinacommunityarefeedingrela-tionships.Thatisbecauseanimalsmusteattogettheenergytheyneedforlife.AlmostalltheenergyonEarthbeginswiththesun.Organismssuchasgreenplantsandalgaetrapthesun’senergyduringtheprocessofphotosynthesis.Theseorgan-ismsarecalledproducers.Allotherorganismsdependuponproducersforenergy.

Someorganismsgettheenergytheyneedbyeatingplantsandotherproducers.Miceandrats,forexam-ple,gettheirenergybyeatingplantseeds.Otherlivingthingsgetenergybyeatingorganismsthateatplants.Ratsnakes,forexample,eatthemiceandratsthateatplantseeds.Organismssuchasmice,rats,andratsnakesarecalledconsumers.

Organismsthatbreakdowndeadplantandanimalmatterandabsorbenergyandnutrientsfromthemarecalleddecom-posers.Bacteria,earthworms,andmostfungiaredecomposers.Whentheybreakdownthebodiesofdeadorganisms,theyusesomeoftheenergyandnutrientsfortheirownlifeprocessesbutalsoreturnenergyandnutrientstothesoilasorganicmatter.

Producer, consumer,anddecomposeraretermsecologistsusefordifferentnicheswithinanecosystem.Theserolesareimportantforanecosystemtofunction.Ecologistsfurtherdividethesenichesintofeedingrelationships.Youprobablyarealreadyfamiliarwithafeedingrelationshipknownasthepredator-preyrelationship.Ratsnakes,herons,alligators,andfrogsallare



predatorsthateatprey.Otherfeedingrelationshipsincludeparasite-hostrelationships,suchasamosquito(theparasite)feedinguponyourblood(youarethehost).

Therearemanyothertypesofrelationshipswithinandbetweenecosystems.Sometimes,organismsofdifferentspecieslivetogetherbutdonotfeeduponeachother.Thisiscalledsymbiosis,whichmeans“livingtogether.”Clownfish,forexample,liveamongthestingingtentaclesofseaanemones.Thesetwoanimalshaveasymbioticrelationship.Scientistsbelieveaclownfishdevelopsimmunitytothestingofapartic-ularseaanemone.Yetpredatorfisharenotimmune,sotheclownfishisprotectedfrompredatorswhenitswimsbetweenthestingingtentaclesoftheseaanemone.Theseaanemonebenefitsbecausetheorange-stripedclownfish,whichisverynoticeableandapparentlysafeswimmingamongthepoisonoustentacles,luresinotherspeciesoffish.Theseaanemonestingsandeatstheunsuspectingfishthatcometooclose.

the sea anemone and clown fish have a symbiotic relationship—they are partners, helping each other survive.



Producer, Consumer, or Decomposer?

Which of these organisms are producers? Which are consumers? Which are decomposers?



cycling of matter through EcosystemsEverylivingandnonlivingthingismadeofmatter.Matteristhephysicalmaterialthatmovesthroughanecosystemandisrecycledinanecosystem.

the Water cycleEnergyfromsunlightisconstantlyrenewedorreplenishedinanecosystem.Matterisnotreplenished.Allofthephysicalmate-rialinyourbodyandinthebodiesofallorganismsisthesamematterthathasbeenonEarthsincelifebegan.Let’sseehowthesephysicalmaterialsarerecyclednaturallyinecosystems.

Watercirculatesthroughtheenvironmentinaprocessknownasthewatercycle.Heatfromthesunevaporateswaterfromoceans,lakes,andstreamsthatformscloudsofwatervaporintheatmosphere.Eventually,thevaporcondensesandfallsasrain,snow,sleetorhail—calledprecipitation.

Of all the natural resources neccesary to the existence and comfort of all living things on Earth, water is the arguably the most important.



Someprecipitationpercolatesintothesoilwhereplantrootscanabsorbit.Someofthewaterseepsdownthroughthesoilandfindsitswayintoaquifers(undergroundlayersofporousrockthatserveasnaturalstorageareasforgroundwater).Somerainwaterfindsitswayintosurfacewatersuchasstreamsandlakes.Surfacewatereventuallyevaporates,enterstheatmosphere,condenses,andfallsagainasprecipitation.Waterisnotusedup;itisjustreusedoverandover.

Livingorganismsalsoplayaroleinthewatercycle.Plantsabsorbwaterfromthesoilthroughtheirrootsandreleasewatervaporintotheairthroughaprocesscalledtranspiration.Animalsdrinkwaterdirectlyfromlakesandstreamsorgetitfromthefoodstheyeat.Animalslosewaterthroughexcretion.Bothplantsandanimalsalsolosewatertotheatmospherethroughrespiration.Whenorganismsdie,theirbodiesreleasewatertotheenvironmentastheydecompose.

precipitAtion (rAin)

cLoud FormAtion

trAnspirAtion

evAporAtion

surFAce runoFF

groundwAter

percoLAtion (soAk-in)

streAm to oceAn

the water cycle



the oxygen-carbon cycleAlllivingthingsneedcarbon.Plantsusecarbondioxideandwaterintheprocessofphotosynthesistomakeatypeofsugarthatlivingthingsuseforenergy.Consumersgetcarbonwhentheyeattheproducersandthenusethecarbonintheirlifeprocesses.Bybreathing,animalsreleasecarbondioxideintotheatmosphere.Decomposersreleasecarbonastheybreakdownthebodiesofdeadorganisms.Thecyclebeginsanewasproducersusethecarbonfromtheairtomakefood.

Organismsdonotalwaysdecayrightaway.Theymayfallintoswampyorboggyareaswithlittleoxygen.Ifdecayhap-penswithoutoxygen,eventuallycarbonmaybeboundintoafossilfuel—suchascoal,oil,ornaturalgas.Scientistsbelievethattinyplantsandanimalsthatdiedthousandsofyearsagoarewhatformedthefossilfuelsweusetoday.Theburningoffossilfuelsreturnscarbontotheatmosphereinlargeamounts.

Carbon, like other

matter, must be

recycled through

the biosphere for

use by organisms.

sun energy

pLAnt growtH

soiL nutrients

decAying mAtter

Food From AnimALs

And otHer products

oxygen

Food From

pLAnts

AnimAL Food

cArbon dioxidecArbon d

ioxid

e

the oxygen-carbon cycle

pLAnt Food



the nitrogen cycleAirisnearly78percentnitrogen.Alllivingthingsneednitro-gen,butmostcannotusenitrogenintheair.Organismsneednitrogeninaformcallednitrates,inwhichnitrogenisbondedtooxygenandanotherelement.Nitrogenintheairischangedintonitratesbylightningandbycertainsoilbacteriaorplants.Plantsthentakeupthenitratesfromthesoilandpassthemalongtoconsumers.

Some environments may have so little moisture or bacteria that they require an outside influence, such as a fire, to begin the decomposition process.

When organisms die and decompose, they release nitrogen into the atmosphere, soil, and water, and the cycle begins again.

the nitrogen cycle


.Human Impact on the Biosphere

HumanImpactontheBiosphereThinkaboutthethingsyoudoeverymorningtogetreadyforschool.Youwakeupasthesunfiltersthroughthewindow.Youtakeashowerandputonyourclothes.

Doyourealizethatyouusenaturalresourceseverymorn-ing?Thesun’senergyisanaturalresource.Thewaterforyourshowerisalsoanaturalresource,asisthesoilthatgrewthecottonusedtomakeyourclothes.

What are natural resources?Natural resourcesareallofthelivingandnonlivingfactorsinthebiosphere,includingnutrients,minerals,soil,water,organisms,andotherresourcesmadebynaturalprocessesonEarth.Theyarethematerialsthatyouandalllivingthingsuseeveryday.

Somenaturalresourcescanbeusedoverandover.Suchresourcesareknownasrenewable resources.Naturalprocessesreplenishrenewableresources.Renewableresourcesincludefreshwater,freshair,soilfertility,forests,andelementssuchascarbonandnitrogen.Nonrenewableresourcesexistinlimitedamountsandarenotreplacedthroughnaturalprocesses.Theyincludepetroleum,coal,naturalgas,copper,aluminum,andtheproductsmadefromtheseresources.

Some resources are replaced so slowly by natural processes that they can be thought of as nonrenewable. Topsoil (the most fertile layer of soil) is an example of a resource that is renewable by natural processes, such as weathering, but topsoil formation takes so long that we think of topsoil as nonrenewable. It may take 500 to 1,000 years for one inch of topsoil to form.


Human Impact on the Biosphere.

Problems With resource UseAllorganismsproducewasteproducts.Duringphotosynthesis,plantstakeincarbondioxideandgiveoffoxygenasawasteproduct.Youbreatheinoxygenandbreatheoutcarbondioxideasawasteproduct.Whenyoueatahardboiledeggoranorange,theeggshellandtheorangepeelarewaste.Decomposersinthesoilcanbreakdowneggshellsandorangepeelsintothenutri-entsplantsneed.Orangepeels,eggshells,oxygen,andcarbondioxideallarewasteproducts,buttheycanberecycledinthebiospherebynaturalprocesses.

Whathappenswhenwasteproductsareproducedtooquicklyorinamountstoogreattoberecyclednaturally?Whenwasteproductsbuildupfasterthantheycanbebrokendown,theybecomepollutants.

Here are some items made from natural resources. can you identify which of these are made from renewable resources and which are made from nonrenewable resources?

Renewable or Nonrenewable?



Stratosphere

Mesosphere

Thermosphere

Troposphere

Sea Level

10

20

30(48 km)

(32 km)

(16 km)

50(80 km)

120(200 km)

air and air PollutionWhenyoubreathe,youexchangegaseswiththeair.Animals,includinghumans,takeinoxygenandbreatheoutcarbondioxide.

airThetwomostabundantgasesinEarth’satmospherearenitrogenandoxygen.Nitrogenmakesupabout78percentandoxygenanother21percent.Theremaining1percentconsistsoftraceamountsofothergases,includingcarbondioxideat0.036percent.Airalsoholdswatervapor.MostofEarth’sairisintheinnerlayeroftheatmosphere,calledthetroposphere.Abovethetroposphereisthestratosphere.

the layers of the atmosphere include the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere. Beyond the thermosphere is open space. the ozone layer is in the stratosphere.

— ALso cALLed iono-spHere; tHe AurorA boreALis, or nortHern LigHts, HAppen Here.

— very coLd, -173 degrees FAHrenHeit.

— tHis LAyer contAins tHe ozone LAyer; weAtHer bALLoons reAcH tHis LAyer.

— tHis LAyer contAins 80 percent oF tHe AtmospHere’s mAss; it contAins dust, wAter vApor, And cLouds.

ALtitude (in miLes)

MOUNT EVEREST

AIR TRAFFIC



the ozone layerAgascalledozoneformsinthestratospherewhenoxygeninteractswithlightningandultravioletradiationfromthesun.Ozoneisaformofoxygenthatconsistsofthreeoxygenmole-culesbondedtogether;theoxygenwebreatheconsistsoftwomoleculesbondedtogether.Ozoneisimportantbecauseitpre-ventsharmfulultravioletradiationfromreachingEarth’ssur-face.Ultravioletradiationharmshumansandotheranimalsbydamagingtheskin,eyes,andimmunesystem.Excessiveultravioletradiationalsoharmsplantsandaquaticorganisms.

the Greenhouse EffectOurclimateisregulatedbythegreenhouseeffect.HeatenergyfromthesunpassesthroughEarth’satmosphereandheatsEarth’ssurface.Someofthisheatenergyisradiatedbackupintotheatmosphere,wheregreenhousegasessuchascarbondioxideinthetroposphereabsorbheatfromthesunnearEarth’ssurface.ThisheatisthenreflectedbacktoEarth.Thisnaturalphenomenonisknownasthegreenhouseeffect,becausethegasesactlikethepanesofglassinagreenhouse,trappingthesun’swarmth.Withoutthegreenhouseeffect,thewholeworldwouldbeaboutthetemperatureoftheNorthPole.

reFLected rAdiAtion

escAping HeAt

AtmospHere

sHort wAveLengtH

rAdiAtion

Long wAveLengtH

rAdiAtion

trApped by

AtmospHere

eArtH

The ozone layer

occurs between

6 and 25 miles

above Earth.

the greenhouse effect



air PollutantsSomepollutantsentertheatmospherenaturally.Volcaniceruptions,duststorms,andforestfiresproducenaturalpollutants.Forexample,whenMountPinatubointhePhilippineserupted,theashesreducedtheamountofsunlightthatcouldpassthroughtheatmosphereandslightlyreducedEarth’saveragetemperatureforthreeyears.

Humanactivitiesalsocauseairpollution.Mostairpollutioncreatedbyhumanscomesfromburningfossilfuelsforenergy.Forexample,thesmokethatcomesfromtheexhaustpipeofacarorbuscontainssoot,ash,carbonmonoxide,arsenic,sulfur,andnitrogenoxidesasgasesandparticulates—tiny,solidparticlesofdust,ash,soot,orothervisiblepollutantsintheair.Particulatesinteractwithnitrogenoxidesandotherchemicalsintheairtoformadangeroustypeofairpollutioncalledsmog(from“smoke”and“fog”).Incitieswithheavytraffic,thegasesreleasedbycarsandtrucksproducesmog.Smogisespeciallydangerousforpeoplewithrespiratoryproblems.

Whenstudyingsourcesofairpollution,suchasthesmokefromafactory,environmentalscientistsareconcernednotonlyabouttheareaimmediatelysurroundingthefactory,butalsowithamuchlargerareaknownasanairshed.Anairshedisanareathat,duetogeography,weatherpatterns,andclimate,sharesthesameair.Airpollutantstravel.Forexample,achemicalyousprayinyourgardenmaybetransportedonaircurrentsthroughouttheairshedaroundyourhouse.Inaddition,howapollutantisdistributedthroughanairsheddependsonthetypeofpollutant.Forexample,thewaypollutantsincarexhaustaredistributedwillbedifferentfromthewaythepollutantsfromaforestfirearedistributed.Scientistsusecomputermodelstotrytodeterminehowvariouspollutantsaffectairsheds.



acid rainAcidityisapropertymeasuredonascalecalledthepHscale.Thescalehasarangeof0to14,with7beingneutral.PurewaterhasapHof7.IfasubstancehasapHbelow7,itisanacid.Rainisnaturallyslightlyacidic,withapHofabout5.6,becausecarbondioxideintheatmospherereactswithwatervaportobecomecarbonicacid.

Sulfurdioxideandnitrogenoxidesaretheprimarycausesofacidrain.Whenvehiclesandpowerplantsthatburnfossilfuelsemitsulfurdioxideandnitrogenoxidesintotheair,thesegasesinteractwithwatervaportoformsulfuricandnitricacids.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Acid neutrAL bAse

bAttery Acid

Lemon juice

tomAtoes miLk pure wAter

soAp soLutions

HAir remover

oven cLeAner

the pH of some common substances is shown on this scale.

acid rain can deplete the soil of the nutrients that plants need to grow. When acid rain falls, it filters down through the soil and dissolves soil nutrients and other materials, moving them down to layers out of reach of plant roots.

suLFuric Acid nitric Acid

suLF

ur d

ioxide

nitr

ogen oxide

Acid

pAr

ticL

es

Acid snow

Acid rAin

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14


TheseacidsthenmixwithrainandfalltoEarth’ssurfaceasacidrain.AccordingtotheU.S.GeologicalSurvey,acidrainisrain(oranyothertypeofprecipitation)withapHlowerthan5.

Plantsmaydiefromacidrainorbeweakenedsothattheyaremoreeasilyharmedbyotherkindsofstressesintheenvironment,suchascoldtemperatures,insectdamage,ordroughts.AcidraindamagesaquaticecosystemsbychangingthepHofthewater.Manyaquaticorganismsmaydiewhenacidrainfallsintolakesandponds.

Acidrainisaworldwideproblembecausethegasesthatmakeitmaybeproducedinonestateorcountryandbeblowntoanotherstateorcountrybywinds.AcidrainthatfallsinsoutheasternCanadaandthenortheasternUnitedStates,forinstance,maybeginwithpollutantsemittedbycoal-burningpowerplantsasfarsouthasTennessee.



Global WarmingEarth’stemperatureisaffectedbyvariousfactors.Weaddheattotheairandwaterthroughthermalpollution.Increasedpar-ticulatesintheairreducetheamountofheatfromthesunthatcanreachus,andincreasedgreenhousegasestrapmoreheatonEarth.Sincethemid-20thcentury,manyscientistssay,humanactivitieshavereleasedmoreandmoregreenhousegases—particularlycarbondioxide,methane,nitrousoxide,andchlorofluorocarbons—intotheatmosphere.

• Carbon dioxideisreleasedduringforestfiresandinlargeamountsbytheburningoffossilfuels,especiallycoal.

• Methaneoccursnaturallyasacomponentofnaturalgas.Italsoisproducedasbacteriadecomposeorganicwasteintheabsenceofoxygen.Thisgastrapsmorethan20timesasmuchheatasdoescarbondioxide.Landfills,whichcontainlargeamountsoforganicwaste,areamajorsourceofmeth-ane.Livestocksuchascattlealsoproducemethaneduringtheirdigestiveprocesses.Thebreak-downofanimalmanurefromcattle,hogs,andpoultryisanothersourceofmethane.

• Nitrous oxideisapollutantthatformsduringforestfires,whencoalisburnedandwhennitrogenfertilizersbreakdowninsoil.Nitrousoxidetrapsabout230timesasmuchheatasdoescarbondioxide.

• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)wereonceusedaspropellantsinspraycansandascoolantsinrefrigeratorsandairconditioners.CFCstrapthousandsoftimesmoreheatthandoescarbondioxide.MostusesofCFCsarenowbanned.However,sinceittakes10to20yearsforCFCstoreachthestratosphereand,oncethere,theymaypersistfordecades,CFCswillcontinuetoaffecttheenvironmentforsometime.



Allofthesegreenhousegaseshaveincreasedintheatmo-sphereasaresultofhumanactivities.Somescientiststhinkgreenhousegasescauseglobalwarming,othersbelievethatincreasedparticulateemissionsarecoolingEarth,andstillothersbelievethatthermalpollutionwillhavethebiggesteffectonglobalclimate.ScientistswhostudyglobalclimatetrendshaverecordsthatshowEarth’saveragetemperaturehasrisen0.7degreeFahrenheitto1.3degreesFahrenheitinthelast100years.Eventhoughmanyscientistsagreethatglobalwarmingmaybehappening,theydisagreeaboutthedamagethatthiswarmingmightdo.

CFCs and the Ozone LayerMany scientists agree that CFCs also destroy ozone in the stratosphere, thus thinning the ozone layer and allowing additional harmful ultraviolet radiation to reach Earth. Increased amounts of ultraviolet radiation can damage or kill plant and animal cells. All organisms on Earth are at risk from the thinning of the ozone layer.

the amounts of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere have shown a general upward trend from the 1960s to the present.

pArt

s pe

r m

iLLi

on

370

360

350

340

1957 1970 1980 2000



Solutions to air PollutionTheCleanAirActof1970createdfederalairpollutionregula-tionsthateachstatemustenforce.Sincethisenactment,theUnitedStateshassignificantlyloweredthelevelsofsixmajorairpollutantsincludingsulfurdioxides,nitrogenoxides,andparticulates.

Thereareseveralwaysthatthenitrogenoxides,sulfurdioxides,andparticulatesthatpowerplantsandindustriesreleaseintotheairhavebeenlowered.Someplantsburncoalthathasalowersulfurcontent.Othersremovethesulfurfromcoalorconvertcoaltoaliquidorgasbeforeitisburned.Athirdwaytoreducegreenhousegasemissionsistousealter-nativesourcesofpower,suchaswind,water,orsolarenergy.

Anaddedbenefitofusingalternativeenergysourcesisthattheycanproduceelectricitywithoutproducingthermalpollution.Whenelectricityisproducedateitherafossilfuel–ornuclear-poweredpowerplant,morethantwo-thirdsoftheenergyinthesourcematerialisreleasedasheatandnotconvertedintoelec-tricity.Thisisamajorsourceofthermalpollutionintheworldtoday.Inaddition,muchstudyhasgoneintodesigningequip-mentsuchasfilters,separators,andscrubbersthatcanbeusedinsidesmokestacksandexhaustsystemstoremoveparticulates.

Becausecarsandtrucksproducehighlevelsofnitrogenoxides,lawsrestricttheamountofairpollutantsthatvehicles

mayemit.Adeviceknownasacatalyticconverterconvertsharmfulpollutantscreatedfromtheburningofgasolineintosafersubstances.Stateswithsmogproblemsrequirethatcarsundergoannualinspectionstotestemissionsandfueleffi-ciency.Today,99percentofcarsintheUnitedStatesburnonlyunleadedgasoline,whichhassignificantlyreducedtheamountoftoxicleadintheairintheUnitedStates.

Wet scrubber

dirty wAter

dirty gAs

cLeAn wAter

wet gAs

cLeAned gAs

a wet scrubber removes hazardous particulates and sulfur dioxide gas from power plant emissions.



Agrowingnumberofpeoplearebuyinghybridvehicles.Hybrid vehiclesusetwodifferentsourcestoproduceenergy.Currently,mosthybridvehiclesuseasmallgasoline-poweredengineandanelectricmotorwithaspecialbattery.Hybridcarsgetsignificantlybettermileagethanmostconventionalgasoline-onlyvehicles,sotheyhelpconservefuelresources.Inaddition,theyemitonlyafractionofthesmog-producingpollutantsthatconventionalvehiclesemit.

Someautomanufacturersaredevelopingzero-emissionvehicles—vehiclesthatdonotproduceanyairpollution.Vehiclespoweredbyafuel celloperateonelectricityproducedthroughachemicalreaction.Themostcommontypeoffuelcellreliesonachemicalreactionbetweenhydrogenandoxy-gen.Theonlyby-productsofthereactionareheatandwater.

Aneasywaytoreduceairpollutionfromvehiclesistonotusethemasmuch.Youcanpracticepollution preventionbywalking,biking,orcarpooling.

Trip ChainingRemember when you trip chain, you can help save the air in addition to time. Chances are, you and your family members already combine errands, which helps cut down on traffic congestion and saves gasoline. If you can, try cycling or using public transportation whenever possible.

How much mileage would you save by going from a ➔ B ➔ c ➔ D ➔ E ➔ F ➔ a rather than from a ➔ B ➔ a ➔ c ➔ a ➔ D ➔ a ➔ E ➔ a ➔ F ➔ a?

3 miLes 1 miLe

1.75 miLes

2 miLes

2.5 miLes1.5 miLes

1 miLe

oFFice suppLy store

Bgrocery

store

Fyour Home

A

sister’s scHooL

D

LibrAry

CFriend’s House

E

2 miLes

1.25 miLes



Reducingtheamountoffossilfuelsweburncanhavewide-rangingpositiveeffectsontheenvironmentincludingcleanerairandwater.Itmayalsohelpreduceacidrainandslowglobalwarming.Scientistssuggestthatusinglessfossilfuel,changingtorenewableandalternativeenergysources,protectingforestsandreplantingharvestedtrees,andslowinghumanpopulationgrowthwillallbenefittheenvironmentinthelongrun.

Water and Water PollutionPollutionmayenterabodyofwaterdirectlyorindirectlyasrunofffromapointanywhereinabodyofwater’swatershed.Awatershedistheregiondrainingintoariver,riversystem,orotherbodyofwater.Smallwatershedsmakeuplargerones.Forexample,theMississippiRiverdrainsawatershedofabout1,243,000squaremiles.Precipitationthatfallsatanypointwithinabodyofwater’swatershedwilleventuallydrainintothatbodyofwater.Manykindsofpollutantscandiminishwaterquality,includingtoxicmetals,industrialwaste,agriculturalchemicals,householdproducts,petroleumproducts,andheat.

Wind energy, the fastest growing energy source, can reduce the need for power plants that burn fossil fuels.



FertilizersChemicalsusedtofertilizelawnsandcropsmaybecarriedbyrainwaterintolakes,streams,andotherbodiesofwater.Pollutantssuchasfertilizersandpesticidesthatenterourwatersystemfromrunoffarecallednonpoint source pollutionbecausethesourcesofthepollutioncannotbetracedtoasingleidentifi-ablepoint.Thephosphatesinfertilizersareplantnutrientsthatcropsneed,butiftheygetintopondsandlakes,theycauseovergrowths,or“blooms,”ofalgae.Thealgaecancoverthewatersurface,blockinglife-supportingsunlightandkillingsomeformsofpondlife.Whenthealgaedieanddecay,thedecayprocesstakesoxygenfromthewater,whichinturnmaykillfishandotherorganisms.

PesticidesChemicalsthatfarmers,homeowners,andothersusetocontrolpests,suchasinsects,arecalledpesticides.Somepesticideskillonlyparticularspecies,butothersaretoxictomanylivingthings.Manyofthesetoxicchemicalsendupintheair,surfacewater,andgroundwater.Pesticidesinrainwaterrunoffkillmillionsoffisheachyear.TracesofpesticidescanbefoundinnearlyallofthefreshwaterfishintheUnitedStates.

DDT in the Food ChainA pesticide called DDT was widely used in the 1950s and 1960s to kill mosquitoes and insects that harmed crops. But DDT also killed many beneficial insects and washed into bodies of water, where it was absorbed by tiny water organisms. Small invertebrates that fed on the contaminated organisms were affected next. Fish ate the contaminated invertebrates, and the fish were in turn eaten by birds. In this way, the DDT moved its way up the food chain. At each level, the pesticide became more concentrated as a result of a phenomenon known as biomagnification. DDT killed many insects, invertebrates, fish, and songbirds. The buildup of the pesticide in the bodies of larger birds, such as brown pelicans, bald eagles, and peregrine falcons, caused their eggs to develop thin, fragile shells. These thin-shelled eggs tended to break in the nest before the young were hatched, causing a rapid and drastic decline in the populations of these species. DDT’s effect on birds received wide public attention when Rachel Carson published her book Silent Spring (1962), which helped rally public support for the ban of most uses of DDT.



toxic metals and industrial PollutantsMercury,lead,andothertoxicmetalsthatareminedorusedinindustryhavecontaminatedbodiesofwater.ThesetoxicmetalsaswellasPCBs(syntheticchlorinecompoundsonceusedinpaints,adhesives,lubricants,andelectricalequipment)arealsoexamplesofwaterbornepollutantsthatbecomemoreconcen-tratedastheymoveupthefoodchain.Manystateshaveissuedhealthwarningsbecauseofthetoxicmetalcontentofnativefish.

Household ProductsSomechemicalsusedinhouseholdproductsalsocausewaterpollution.Whenyoucleanthebathtub,forinstance,theclean-ingsolutiongoesdownthedrain.Whathappenstothewaterthen?Ifyouliveinacityorsuburbanarea,thatwastewaterispipedtoawater-treatmentplant,whereitisfilteredandtreatedsothatthepollutantscanberemovedandthewaterreused.Inruralareas,wastewatermaybepipedintoaseptictank.Eventually,waterleavestheseptictankandfiltersdownintothesoilandbackintothegroundwater.Whenthiswastewatercontainsmoretoxicchemicalsthanthesoilcanabsorb,thechemicalsalsoenterthegroundwater.

septic tAnk

HouseHoLd wAstewAter

perForAted pipe

distribution box (optionAL)

drAin FieLd

vent pipe

grAveL or crusHed

stone

nonperForAted pipemAnHoLe (For cLeAnout)

Household septic system

Household sewage may be disposed of through a septic tank and leach field. Water and wastes spread over the leach field, where the soil filters out some chemicals and decomposers break down organic matter.

Hazardous

household

products include

pesticides, paints,

solvents, drain

cleaners, oil,

gasoline, and

car batteries.



Petroleum ProductsPetroleum(oil),gasoline,kerosene,andotherpetroleumprod-uctsareamajorsourceofwaterpollution.Youprobablyhaveheardaboutoilspillsatsea.Oilcandevastateoceanecosys-tems.Itkillssomeorganismsimmediately.Othersdiemoreslowlyasoilcoatstheirfeathers,fur,orskin.Someoilsinkstotheoceanfloor,whereitkillsbottom-livingcreatures.Evenwithexpensivecleanupefforts,ittakesthreeto10yearsformarinelifetorecoverfromtheeffectsofanoilspill.

thermal PollutionThermalwaterpollutionoccurswhenwateristakenfromarivertocoolapowerplant.Iftheheatedwaterisreleasedbackintotheriver,itraisestheriver’stemperature.Thermalpollu-tionofthewaterharmsmanyaquaticorganisms.Itmayhurtthemdirectlyorlowertheamountofdissolvedoxygeninwaterandmakeorganismsmorepronetotheeffectsofdamagingchemicalsandattacksbyparasitesordisease.

Solutions to Water PollutionSupposeyouareoutplayingbasketball.Yougetthirstyandruninsidetogetaglassofwaterfromthekitchentap.Wheredoesthattapwatercomefrom?IntheUnitedStates,mostcom-munitiesgettheirwatersupplyfromriversandlakesorfromundergroundaquifers.Beforethewatergetstoyou,itmustundergoatreatmentprocesstomakesureitmeetsthestandardsforsafe,cleandrinkingwaterthataresetbytheEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).Becausewaterissoimportanttoalllife,wemustprotectwaterresourcesandpreventandcleanupwaterpollutionwheneverpossible.

An oil spill or

the emissions

from a factory

are considered

point source

pollution because

the source of the

pollution can

be identified.



When waterfowl

fall victim to oil

spills, immediate

action is often the

only thing that

will save them.

Specially trained

and licensed

wildlife rescue

crews “shampoo”

individual birds

to remove the

oil from their

feathers. They

also give the birds

food, medical

care, and a warm

place to stay

until it is safe to

release them

back into the

wild. Such rescue

efforts, however,

can be very

labor-intensive

and costly.

Methods of Oil-Spill Cleanup Here are some of the ways oil spills can be cleaned up.

• Bioremediation uses fertilizers to increase the population of oil-eating microbes. This process is very harmful to humans and animals in the first 24 hours after application. If animals cannot be restricted from the cleanup area, bioremediation should not be used.

• Booms are floating barriers used to contain and absorb oil spills. Their high-maintenance requirements can sometimes outweigh their effectiveness.

• Burning reduces large amounts of oil to a tarry residue. It requires favorable weather conditions and must be done within 72 hours after the spill occurs. Unfortunately, burning produces smoke that is poisonous to humans and animals.

• Chemical dispersants help scatter oil into larger volumes of water and help prevent oil from reaching shorelines. Dispersants must be mixed with oil, which requires good wave action.

• Hot-water washing works best on heavily oiled beaches, but hot water “cooks” all plant and animal life in its path, leaving beaches sterile.

• Skimmers collect oil from the water’s surface. Under the right conditions, skimmers serve as one of the most environmentally sound forms of oil collection. However, like booms, skimmers are difficult to maintain.

• Oil-absorbing products and chemicals soak up oil. When they are removed from the area, the oil is removed with them. These products are often used to clean up oil on land but have also proved effective for oil spills in water.



reducing Water PollutionTherearemanywaystoreducewaterpollution.Farmerscankeepfertilizeroutofrunoffbyusingonlysmallamountsatatimeorbyswitchingtofarmingpracticesthatrequirelessfertilizer.Theycancuttheiruseofpesticidesorswitchtobiologicalcontrols.Forexample,theymightusenaturalpredators,suchasladybugs,toeatinsectpests.

TherehavebeenimprovementsinwaterqualityintheUnitedStatesthankstotheCleanWaterAct.Forexample,itisagainstthelawtodischargeanytoxicpollutantsintosurfacewaters.Inaddition,moststateshavenowpassedlawsthatrequirepowerplantsandotherfactoriestocoolwaterbeforereleasingitbackintoriversandstreams.Eventhoughsomesourcesofwaterpollutionhavebeenaddressed,muchmorecanbedone.

Protecting Water resourcesOnewaytoprotectwaterresourcesisthroughconservation.Wecanconservewaterbycut-tingtheamountweusedaily.Somescientistsestimatethatabout60percentofthewaterpeopleuseiswastedthroughleaks,evaporation,andotherlossesthatcouldbeprevented.Forexample,theaverageleakyfaucetcanwasteasmuchas2,000gallonsofwaterayear—that’senoughwatertofill40bathtubs!

Industriesandfarmsalsowastewater.Waterusedincropirrigationisoftennotusedefficiently.Forexample,irrigatingcropsintheheatofthedayiswastefulbecauseasignificantamountofwaterevaporatesbeforeplantrootscantakeitup.

Tosavewater,everyoneneedstouselessinhisorherdailylife.Installinglow-flowshowerheadsandtoiletsandfixingleakypipesandfaucetsarefewwaysyoucanconservewater.Farmersareswitchingtodrip-irrigationsystems,inwhichtubesdeliverwaterdirectlytoplantroots.Gardenerswholiveinaridclimatesmightconsidergrowingnativeplantsthatareadaptedtodryconditions.

Currently,

40 percent of

the world’s people

live with serious

water shortages.



land Degradation and PollutionIfyoulookcloselyatashovelfulofsoil,youwillnoticethatthereisalotmoretoitthanyoumighthavethought.Soilcontainserodedrock,organicmatter,water,air,minerals,nutrients,andorganismssuchasearthwormsandotherkindsofdecomposers.

SoilSoilhaslayers.Thetoplayer,orlitterlayer,consistsofleaves,twigs,fungi,animalwastes,andpartiallydecomposedorganicmaterials.Thelitterlayeristhinandusuallydarkbrownorblack.

Thenextlayer—themostfertile—iscalledtopsoil.Thedepthandfertilityoftopsoilarefactorsthatdeterminewhatkindsofplantscangrowinaparticularenvironment.Topsoilcontainsmostoftherootsofplantsandmostofthesoil’sorganicmatterandisthestorehouseforwaterthatplantsneedtogrow.Decomposers,suchasmushroomsandotherfungi,intopsoilmakenutrientsavailabletoplants.

oAk tree

wood sorreL

eArtHworm

moLeLeAF Litter

topsoiL

subsoiL

root system

red eArtH mite springtAiL bActeriA

Fungus

Actinomycetes

nemAtode

pseudoscorpion

Honey Fungus

miLLipede

Fern

bedrock

Soil layers

in most soils, the layers include the litter layer, topsoil, subsoil, and bedrock.



Underneaththelitterlayerandtopsoilisthesubsoil.Thislayerconsistsofbroken-downrockmaterialsincludingsand,silt,clay,andgravel.Thislayerdoesnotcontainanynutrientsororganismsthatcansupportplantgrowth.Belowthesubsoilisbedrock,theunweatheredrockthatwasbrokendowntomakethesoil.

Soil ErosionSoilerosionisanaturalprocess.Windwearsdownmountains.Sediments,carriedinrivers,buildupdeltas.Wind,water,andiceallcontributetonaturalsoilerosion.However,thelitterandtopsoillayersofsoilhelppreventerosionbecausetheycontainplantrootsandairspacesthatabsorbwater.Whenplowingdigsuprootsorloggingremovestreesfromthesoil,topsoilbecomesexposedtothenaturalforcesoferosion.Whentopsoilislost,thesoilbeneathitisoftenlessfertileandunabletoabsorbwater.Farming,logging,mining,construction,overgraz-ingbylivestock,andburningforestsalldestroythesoilplantcoverandspeeduperosion.Today,soiliserodingfasterthanitformsonaboutone-thirdofEarth’scroplands.

Signs of erosion and land degradation include the following:

• Mud and silt on sidewalks and driveways after a rain

• Exposed tree roots where the soil has been washed away

• Roadside ditches filled with sediment

• Muddy water in a stream or river

• Caved-in stream banks



land PollutionPaperandplasticbags,aluminumcans,glassbottles,orangepeels,eggshells,oldtires,oldhomeworkassignments,andworn-outclothingarejustsomeofthetrash,orsolid waste,thatpeoplethrowawayeveryday.GarbagetrucksacrosstheUnitedStatescollect132milliontonsofsolidwasteeveryyear.

Mostsolidwastesaredumpedinsanitarylandfillsandthencoveredwithalayerofsoil.Wastessuchasgrassclippingsandspoiledfoodarebiodegradable,thatis,theywereonceliv-ingorganisms,sonaturalprocessescanbreakthemdown.Wastessuchasplasticsorglassbottlesarenonbiodegradable—naturalprocessescannotbreakthemdown.Nonbiodegradablewastesmaylastforhundredsorthousandsofyears.Sometimes,evenbiodegradablewastesinlandfillsdonotdecaybecausetheoxygenthatmostdecomposersneedtobeginthedecayprocessdoesnotreachtheburiedtrash.

Hazardous WastesYoumightthinkthegarbagethathouseholdsandbusinessesthrowoutmakesupthelargestpercentageofsolidwaste,butmorethan98percentofsolidwasteactuallycomesfromindustriessuchasmining,agriculture,andoilandnaturalgasproduction.Thesolidwasteproducedbyminingandmanyindustriescanpollutetheair,water,andsoil.Somesolidwastesarehazardousbecausetheycontaintoxiccompoundsorreleasetoxicfumes.

Sometimes,hazardouswastesareburiedinmetalcontain-ers.Improperlycontained,toxicsubstancescancorrodethroughthemetalandseepintothesoil,eventuallycontaminatinggroundwater.MuchofthegroundwaterintheUnitedStateshasbeencontaminatedwithagriculturalorindustrialchemicals,orwithoilandotherpetroleumproductsthathaveseepedintothesoilandthenintothegroundwater.Thesewastesmaybetoxictobothanimalsandplants.

Currently in the United States, about 55 percent of solid waste goes into landfills; about 30 percent is recycled; and about 15 percent is incinerated, or burned.

Each year,

American office

workers discard

about 4 million

tons of paper.

That’s enough to

build a 12-foot

wall from New

York City to

Los Angeles.

Hazardous

wastes are any

solid wastes that

contain toxic

compounds, are

unstable, catch

fire easily, or

corrode metals.



WithfundingfromthefederalSuperfundprogram,theEnvironmentalProtectionAgencyisinvestigatingandcleaningupmorethan85,000hazardouswastesitesacrossthecountry.

Anabandonedpieceofcommercialorindustriallandthatiscontaminated(orissuspectedofbeingcontaminated)byahazardoussubstanceisknownasabrownfield.Abandonedfactoriesandgasstationsareexamplesofbrownfieldsites.Arealorperceivedhealthdangermakesitmorecomplicatedtoredevelopthesitefornewuses.Anewlaw,however,allowscommunitiesanddeveloperstoreclaimbrownfieldsbyworkingwiththeEPAtocleanupthesites.TheEPAdetermineshowmuchcleanupneedstobedonetomakethesitesafeforitsnewuse.Cleaned-upbrownfieldshavebeenredevelopedforofficesandstores.Somehaveevenbeenturnedintoparkswithbikepathsandplaygrounds.

Solutions to land Degradation and PollutionLossoftopsoilisoneofthemostseriouslanddegradationproblemstoday.MostofthetopsoilthaterodesintheUnitedStatescomesfromlandusedtoraisecropsorgrazecattle.AccordingtotheNaturalResourcesConservationServiceoftheU.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,morethan5billiontonsofsoilerodefrompasture,rangeland,andcroplandintheUnitedStateseveryyear.Nearlyfivetimesasmuchsoilerodesfromcultivatedcroplandasfromuncultivatedland.

If you take used

motor oil to an oil

recycling center,

it can be cleaned

and reused, which

saves energy.

Recycled oil

can be used

to generate

electricity for

homes and

businesses.



Soil conservationFarmersaroundtheworldhavelearnedtouseavarietyofmethodstoconservesoilandpreventsoilerosionontheirfields.Inthepast,bare,newlyplowedsoilwasoftenleftexposedtowindsandrainformonthsatatime.Morerecentfarmingpractices,however,recommendthatfarmersleaveaplantcoveronthesoilatalltimes.Inno-tillfarming,specialmachinespokeholesthroughthelayeroforganicmatterleftoverfromthepreviouscropandplantnewseedsintotheunplowedsoil.Otherkindsofsustainablefarmingpracticesreducetheneedforfertilizersandpesticidesandalsoimprovethesoil’sabilitytoholdwater.

Farmersinveryhillyormountainousareasconservesoilwithterracing.Terracingcreateslevelfieldsalongtheslopeofahill,preventingsoilerosionandholdingwaterforthecrops.Onmoregentlyslopinglands,farmersconservesoilbycontourfarming.Theyplantcropsinrowsthatgoacrosstheslopedlandratherthanupanddown.Instrip-cropping,farmersplantdiffer-entcropsinstripsthatalternate.Sometimestheyplantcropsthataregrownasfeedforlivestockbetweenrowsoftrees.

terracing (left) and contour strip-cropping are soil conservation practices that farmers use to help prevent soil erosion on fields.



Streambankscanbeprotectedagainsterosionbyusingplants,rocks,orstructuralmeasures.Inwoodlands,planting,thinning,pruning,andproperharvesttechniquescanhelppro-tectthesoilandclimate,maintainbeauty,improveconditionsforwildlife,andmaintaincoverforerosioncontrol.

reduce, reuse, recycleThethreeR’s—reduce,reuse,andrecycle—canbeappliedtodecreasetheamountofsolidwastethathumanactivitiesgenerate.

rEDUcEToreducetheamountofsolidwasteyouthrowout,simplydonotbringhomethosematerialsinthefirstplace.Buyloosefruitsandvegetablesratherthanproducepackagedinaplastic-wrappedfoamtray.Chooseitemsthatdonotuseexcesspackagingmaterials.

Toreducetheamountoforganicmatterthatyouthrowaway,putkitchenscrapsandgrassclippingsintoacompostpile.Overtime,thematerialwilldecomposeandbecomeanutrient-rich,organicfertilizer.

Weallcanchangeourhabitstoproducelesswastejustbybeingmindfulofthethingswebuy.Industries,businesses,andgovernmentagencieshaveallbeguntochangethewaytheybuysuppliesanddisposeofwastes.Reducingwastesavesmoneyandhelpstheenvironment.

Using compost to help control erosion is a new technology being implemented in the United States.



rEUSEEverytimeyouturnapieceofpaperovertowriteonthebackinsteadofusinganewpiece,youarereusingaresource.Ifyoubringfoodhomeinplasticbags,youcanreusethebagstocarryyourgymclothes.Ifyouuseapapercuptogetadrink,youcanreuseittoplantseedsforyourgarden.Plasticandglassbottlesandcontainersthatheldfoodcanbewashedandreusedoverandover.

Industriesandbusinessesalsoreusematerials.Somestoresselldrinkingwaterinreusableplasticjugs.Manyhotelsandmotelsoffergueststheoptiontonothavetheirsheetsandtowelswashedeveryday,whichsaveswaterandenergy.

rEcyclEPaper,plastics,glass,andaluminumcanberecycled—collectedandusedtomakenewproducts.Newspaperscanberecycledintonewnewspaper.Glasscanbecrushed,melted,andmoldedintootherglassitems.Aluminumcanbemeltedandformedintonewcans.Plasticscanbebrokenup,melted,andreformedintonewplasticproducts.Theserecyclingpro-cessesconserveourresourcesandreducewasteinlandfills.

About 65

percent of all

the aluminum

beverage cans

sold in the

United States

are recycled. It

takes the same

amount of energy

to make one can

from aluminum

ore as it does to

make 20 cans

from recycled

aluminum.



Because paper

products are

made from trees,

you help reduce

the number of

trees that need to

be cut when you

recycle paper. In

the United States,

about 40 percent

of all used paper

is recovered

and recycled.

Mexico, Thailand,

Denmark, South

Korea, and Taiwan

all recycle at least

70 percent of their

waste paper. The Problem With PlasticsMost plastics are made from petroleum and are nonbiodegradable. Plastic items make up about 20 percent of all municipal solid waste. Plastics are more difficult to recycle because there are so many different types, and they must be separated according to type. Currently, it is cheaper to make new plastics from petroleum than to recycle most plastics. In addition, recycling often uses more energy than making new plastics. Therefore reusing plastic containers or, better yet, purchasing fewer plastic items reduces the amount of plastics in landfills more efficiently than recycling them.



three species that have become extinct are (1) the giant ground sloth, (2) the hairy mammoth, and (3) indricotherium, the largest land mammal that ever lived.

1 2 3

Hazardous WastesBecauseofthedangershazardouswastesposetotheenviron-mentandthedifficultiesassociatedwiththeirdisposal,reduc-ingtheproductionofhazardouswastesisthemostdesirablegoal.Variouslocal,state,andfederallawsregulatethedisposalofhazardouswastes.

Somehazardouswastescanbetreatedtoremovethetoxicmaterialswithbiologicalcontrolssuchasbioremediation.Whenbioremediationprocessesareused,organismssuchasplantsandbacteriadestroyhazardouswastesormakethemharmless.Bioremediationissometimesusedtohelpcleanupoilspillsandtocleanupstreamsandgroundwatercontami-natedwithhazardouswaste.

Endangered and threatened SpeciesDuringEarth’shistory,manyspecieshavebecomeextinct,thatis,alltheindividualsofagivenspecieshavedied,andthespecieshasdisappearedfromEarth.Scientistsestimatethat99percentofallspeciesthathaveeverlivedonEartharenowextinct.Somespecies,suchasthegiantgroundsloth,diedoutgraduallyastheenvironmentchangedandthespecieswasunabletoadapttothenewconditions.Others,suchastheCarolinaparakeet,havebecomeextinctbecauseofhumanactivities.


Aspeciesthathassofewindividualsleftthatitisindan-gerofextinctioniscalledanendangered species.Someendan-geredspeciesincludethegiantpandaofChina(only1,600leftinthewild),theblackrhinocerosofAfrica(3,100remain),andthewhoopingcraneofNorthAmerica(fewerthan500areleft).About500species,bothplantandanimal,areendangeredintheUnitedStates.

The Last Passenger PigeonIn 1810, an ornithologist (a scientist who studies birds) named Alexander Wilson saw a flock of passenger pigeons one mile wide and 240 miles long. He estimated that the flock was composed of more than 2 billion birds. Over the next 100 years, settlers destroyed much of the pigeons’ forest habitat when they cut down trees to make farms and home sites. Hunters killed millions of the birds for food. The last passenger pigeon in existence died in 1914 in a zoo in Cincinnati, Ohio.

in recent years, thanks to efforts by wildlife workers, the whooping crane population has enjoyed some growth.



Threatened speciesarespeciesthatarelosingmembersatsucharatethattheywillbecomeendangeredifnothingisdonetochangethesituation.Africanelephantsareanexampleofathreatenedspecies.Eventhoughtheremaystillbe500,000elephantsinthewild,thisnumberisdownfromthe3to5millionofthe1930s.IfpeoplecontinuetoillegallyhuntAfricanelephantsfortheirivorytusks,theelephantsmaybecomeendangered.

causes of ExtinctionManyscientistsbelievethatthefossilrecordindicatesthatmanyspecieshavearisen,dominatedlandorsea,andthenbecomeextinct.TheybelievethatseveraltimesduringEarth’shistory,therehavebeenmassextinctionsinwhichsomecatastrophewipedoutmostofthethen-existingspecies.Duringonesuchepisode,scientistssay,thedinosaursdied.Scientistsbelievethatanoutsideevent,suchastheimpactofahugeasteroid,causedmostmassextinctionsbychangingEarth’sclimate.

OnEarthtoday,however,extinctionsarehappeningatanalarmingrateasaresultofhumanactivities.Scientistsestimate50to200speciesbecomeextinctdaily.Humansareseverelydamagingsomeofourcriticalecosystems,suchastropicalrainforestsandcoralreefs.Unfortunately,thesetwoecosystemshavethegreatestbiodiversityofanyecosystemsonEarth.

many species of manatee are endangered or threatened.



Threats to BiodiversityThe World Wildlife Fund has identified five key threats that contribute to decreases in biodiversity and increases in threatened and endangered species.

Habitat loss. The clearing of forests, prairies, and other wild lands for home building, farming, and other con-struction forces animal species that once lived in these places to move deeper into the remaining natural areas. With limited habitat remaining, significant population declines occur that threaten species’ survival.

introduced species. Introduced species are plant or animal species that are not native to a particular area. Introduced species compete with native species for nutrients, water, and space and may crowd out the native species. For example, during the 1930s farmers in the southeastern United States planted kudzu, a vine native to Asia, to control erosion. The kudzu vines choked out native plants and were so difficult to control they soon covered telephone poles and abandoned buildings.

Pollution. Pollution can damage an ecosystem and harm organisms. For example, an oil spill near a coastal area may wipe out entire populations of plants and animals in the affected area.

Population growth. Each year more than 90 million people are born, placing increasing strain on the natural resources that all life on Earth rely upon.

overconsumption. Overconsumption refers to using up natural resources faster than they can be replenished. For example, if we use forest products such as paper faster than the forests can regrow, forest habitat that is critical for the survival of many species of plants and animals is lost.



Extinction SolutionsLawsarenowinplacetopreserveandmanageendangeredspecies’naturalhabitat.Recoveryprogramsalsohavebeendevelopedtocapturesomeoftheindividuals,helpthemreproduceincaptivity,andthenputthembackintoasuitablehabitat.Thisapproachisoftenusedwhenthereareonlyafewindividualsofanendangeredspeciesremaining.SuchprogramshavesavedanimalssuchastheAmericanalligatorandtheCaliforniacondor.

Inaddition,legallyprotectedwildernessareasthatpre-serveentireecosystemshavebeensetaside.National,state,andinternationalparksandwildliferefugeshavebeenestab-lishedtoprotectwildlife.IntheUnitedStates,theNationalWildlifeRefugesystemincludesmorethan500protectedeco-systems.Mostoftheserefugesarewetlandsthataremanagedtoprotectmigratorywaterfowl,buteveryotherorganismintheseecosystemsbenefitsfromprotectionaswell.Evenso,protectedwildlifesanctuariesmakeuponly6percentofthelandareaworldwide.Regulatedwildlifemanagementprogramsprotectspecieswherehuntingisallowed.Theymakesurepopulationsofwildanimalsarenotoverhunted.

peregrine FALcon

bLAck-Footed Ferret

the dodo was a flightless bird that lived only on the island of mauritius, near madagascar. it was abundant there when sailors first arrived in the 1400s. the dodo was hunted for its meat and became extinct in 1680, less than 200 years after sailors first saw it.

Endangered species in the United States that are being bred in captivity and released to the wild include the peregrine falcon and black-footed ferret.



The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) is an agreement that went into effect in 1975. CITES bans commercial international trade of endangered species and regulates trade of other species that might become endangered. Some 28,000 species of plants and 5,000 species of animals are protected by CITES. More than 160 countries uphold this agreement.

assessing Environmental impactsNowthatyouhaveseenhowhumanactivitiesaffectthebiosphere,youcanbegintounderstandhowharditistopre-dictalltheenvironmentaleffectsofanyconstructionproject.Whatmightseemlikeasimpleproject—buildinganewhouse,forexample—mayhavemanyenvironmentalimpactsbeyondsimplydisturbingthesoilon-site.Whathappenstothemolesandshrewsthatliveinthesoil?Whathappenstotheredfoxandthegreathornedowlthatpreyuponthemolesandshrews?Howwillsoilerosionfromthesitebecontrolled?Willthetop-soilbesavedandputbackafterconstruction?

Environmental impact StatementsWhenafederalagencyproposesnewregulationsoractionsthatmayaffecttheenvironment,itisrequiredbylawtoprepareanenvironmentalassessment(EA)oranenvironmentalimpactstatement(EIS).Federal,state,andlocalagenciesandthegen-eralpublicmayreviewtheproposedactivitybeforeitbegins.AnEIS,whichmaybeaslongas1,000pages,mustdiscussfiveenvironmentalconcerns:

• Theenvironmentalimpactoftheproposedaction

• Anyharmfulenvironmentaleffectsthatcannotbeavoided

• Alternativestotheproposedaction

• Short-termuseoftheenvironmentversusmaintainingandenhancingtheenvironment’slong-termproductivity

• Anypermanentcommitmentofresources

Taking Action.

TakingActionNowthatyouhavecompletedmostoftherequirementsfortheEnvironmentalSciencemeritbadge,thinkaboutwhatyouhavelearned.Howareorganismsandtheirenvironmentsconnectedinyourcommunity?Whataresomesourcesofairandwaterpollu-tioninyourcommunity?Whataresomewaysyoucanpreventpollutionandconserveresourcesathomeandatschool?

think Globally, act locallyAsaBoyScout,youareexpectedtoleaveyourcampsitecleanerthanyoufoundit.Wouldn’titbegreatifeveryoneonEarthfeltthesamewayaboutprotectingtheenvironment?

Sometimesitmayseemthatenvironmentalproblemsaretoobigforanyonepersontosolve.Butifeachpersonstartsdoingthingsthatwillhelptheenvironment,itcanmakeahugedifference.Themorepeoplebecomeinvolvedinpreventingpollutionandconservingresources,thebetteritwillbefortheenvironment.


.Taking Action

Ten Ways to Reduce Pollution• Walk, bike, or

arrange to carpool with friends to cut down on air pollution.

• Pack your lunch in reusable containers instead of using foil or plastic wrap. Carry your lunch in a reusable nylon bag or lunch box instead of using a new paper bag each day.

• Use rechargeable batteries. Recycling programs for disposable alkaline are not widely available, so batteries end up as solid waste in landfills.

• Use environmentally friendly cleaning solutions such as baking soda and vinegar instead of chemical cleaning products.

• Recycle used clothing and household items by having a garage sale or taking them to resale shops.

• Volunteer to pick up trash in a park, at a beach, or along a river.

• Encourage your family to buy locally grown fruits and vegetables. Since locally grown food does not have to travel great distances, fewer greenhouse gases and other pollutants are emitted as the produce is transported from field to market.

• If you live in a house with a yard, suggest that your family not use chemical fertilizers on the lawn. Pull weeds by hand instead of using chemical weed killers.

• Use a rake instead of a leaf blower. Gas-powered leaf blowers produce as much air pollution as some cars.

• Keep organic matter out of landfills by making compost. Place leaves, grass clippings, raw kitchen scraps, and other plant material in a pile or a bin. Keep the pile moist and mix it regularly. Over a period of about six months, the material will break down and can be used in the garden as a replacement for chemical fertilizers.


Taking Action.

Ten Ways to Conserve Resources• Turn off lights, fans,

radios, and televisions when leaving a room—even if you are going to be gone only a few minutes.

• Shut off the faucet when you are brushing your teeth or washing your face.

• Reduce, reuse, and recycle paper products, glass, aluminum, steel, and plastic items.

• Save water and energy by running the dishwasher and the washing machine only when they are full.

• If you wash dishes by hand, rinse them in a sink or dishpan of water rather than under running water.

• Ask your family’s permission to lower the thermostat. If each American household were to lower its average heating temperature by 6 degrees over a 24-hour period each day, the equivalent of 500,000 barrels of oil would be saved.

• Suggest that your family eat fewer meals that include meat. The production and processing of grains requires far less water and land than does meat.

• If you notice leaky faucets or pipes, ask if you can help fix them.

• Ask your parents about installing water-saving showerheads in your home if you don’t already have them.

• Have your family consider replacing incandescent lightbulbs with compact fluorescent lightbulbs. CFLs use 75 percent less energy and last 10 to 13 times longer than standard bulbs.


.Taking Action

Oneveryimportantthingyoucandothatwillhavelong-rangebenefitsfortheenvironmentisplanttrees.Plantingtreeshelpsconserveforestresourcesandprovidehabitatforwildlife.Plantingtreesalsohelpscounterairpollution.Likeallplants,treestakeincarbondioxideforpho-tosynthesis.Moretreesmeanslesscarbondioxideenterstheatmosphere.Contactalocalconservationgroupandfindoutifyourtroopcouldhelpwithtreeplantingsinanaturalareathatisbeingrestored.Oraskpermissiontoplanttreesatyourschooloratalocalpark.Youmightevenorganizeaclassorschoolfund-raisertoprotecttropicalrainforestsinCentralandSouthAmerica.Doingpositivethingslikethesemakesyouanenvironmentalactivist.

Environmental activismSupposeyouorganizedyourtrooptocleanupalocalcreekorplant100trees?Youcanmakeadifference.

Howmuchofanimpactwouldyoumake?Everytimeonepersonstartsanenvironmentalproject,talksaboutit,advertisesit,andthencompletesit,otherpeoplenotice.Theyfigurethatifyoucandoit,socanthey.Thisishowanenvironmentalmovementbegins.

Even though

laws restrict

pollution, there

are not enough

law enforcement

officers to watch

every potential

polluter. That

is why private

citizens, like you,

must help protect

the environment.

After all, it is the

air you breathe,

the water you

drink, and the

land you inhabit.

the outdoor code As an American, I will do my best to— Be clean in my outdoor manners. Be careful with fire. Be considerate in the outdoors. Be conservation-minded.


Careers in Environmental Science.

CareersinEnvironmentalScienceThinkingaboutacareerinenvironmentalscience?Environ-mentalscienceisthestudyofhowhumansandalllivingthingsinteractwithoneanotherandwiththenonlivingenvironment,sojustabouteveryscientificfieldinvolvesenvironmentalscience.

Tohaveacareerinscience,youmustgotocollegeandearnatleastanassociate’sdegreeforatechnicalposition,abachelor’sdegreeforaprofessionalposition,andamaster’sdegreeordoctoratedegreeforaresearchorteachingposition.Toworkinenvironmentalscience,youmaywanttoexploreacareerinthenaturalsciences,physicalsciences,orengineering.

occupations you might chooseCompaniesandagenciesworkinginthefieldsofenvironmentalscienceorconser-vationhireemployeesforagreatvarietyofoccupations.GovernmentagenciesfromtheU.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineerstotheEnvironmentalProtectionAgencyhirescientistsandmanagerstowriteandreviewenvironmentalimpactstatements.Scientistsandengineersworkingovernmentandindustrylaboratoriestodevelopwind,solar,geothermal,andotheralternativefuelstoreduceourneedforfossilfuels.Environmentallawyershelpcompaniesfollowenvironmentallaws.Environmentalengineersdesignprojectsthatareenviron-mentallysound.

.Careers in Environmental Science

Manufacturershirechemists,engineers,physicists,mathema-ticians,planners,andmanagerstodevelopmoreefficientmanu-facturingtechnologies,newenvironmentallysafeproducts,andtechnologiestoreduce,reuse,andrecyclewasteproducts.Othercompaniesemploypeopletoproperlytransportanddisposeofmunicipal,agricultural,andindustrialwastes.

Scientistsworkinginecology,toxicology,physiology,meteorology,geology,andmanyothersciencesdevelopproductsthataremoreenvironmentallyfriendly.Theyalsoresearchtheenvironmentalimpactsofhumanactivities.

Farmers,agronomists,entomologists,geneticists,water-resourcemanagers,soilscientists,foresters,wildlifemanagers,andrangemanagershelpconservewildlife,soil,andwaterresourcesthroughimprovedfarmingtechniquesandmanage-mentofwildliferesources.Theyalsohelpreducetheenviron-mentalhazardsofpesticidesbydevelopingandtestingpest-controltechniques.

Oceanographers,fisherybiologists,andfisherymanagersworkondevelopingwaystomaintainfishstocksandavoidoverfishingandwaterpollution.Wildlifemanagers,zoologists,gamemanagers,andnaturalistsworktopreservewildlifepopu-lations,breedendangeredspecies,protectnaturalhabitats,andreintroducerecoveringspeciesintothewild.

Landscapearchitects,land-useplanners,anddevelopersworktobalancetheneedsofever-growingurbanandsuburbanpopulationswiththeneedforwildernessandnaturalrecreationalareas.Teachers,writers,illustrators,televisionreporters,journalists,andmanyotherswhopromoteenvironmentaleducationalsoareenvironmentalists.

Being an EnvironmentalistEvenifyoudonotchooseacareerasanenvironmentalscientist,youcanandshouldbeaconservationistandenvironmentalistinyourownlifeandinanycareeryoupursue.Youcanbringanenvironmentalawarenesstothechoicesyoumakeeverydayasacitizen,anemployee,andacon-sumer.Youcanchoosetheenvironmentallyfriendlyoptionwhenshopping,usingresources,anddisposingofwastes.

Nomatterwhatvocationyouchoose,remembertoleave“yourcampsite”—ourplanetEarth—cleanerthanitwaswhenyouarrived.

The USDA Forest

Service maintains

the world’s

largest natural

science research

organization.


.Activities in Environmental Science

ActivitiesinEnvironmentalScienceTheseactivitieswillhelpyoufulfillrequirementsforearningtheEnvironmentalSciencemeritbadge.

How Does the Environment affect living things?Youhavelearnedthatthenonlivingpartsoftheenvironmenthaveimportanteffectsonlivingthings.Inthisexperimentyouwilllearnhowlightaffectsearthworms.

ProcEDUrEStep 1—Cuttheshoeboxlidinhalf.Puthalfofthelidontheshoeboxsothatitshadesonesideofthebox.

Step 2—Placealampnexttothemiddleoftheshoebox,closeenoughthatitshinesontheuncoveredpartofthebox.

Step 3—Place10earthwormsonthecenterlineofthebottomoftheboxsothatthewormsarehalfinthedarkandhalfinthelight.

Step 4—Observethewormsforfiveminutes.Notetheirbehaviorinyournotebook.

Step 5—Whenyourexperimentisover,takethewormsoutsideandreturnthemtothesoil.


Activities in Environmental Science.

oBSErvationS

1.Whatdidthewormsdoatthebeginningoftheexperiment?

2.Howmuchtimedidthewormsspendinthelightedpartofthebox?Intheshadedpartofthebox?

3.Whatnonlivingenvironmentalfactordoesthelamprepresent?

conclUSionSAnorganism’sresponsetolightiscalledphototropism.Anorganismthatrespondstolightbymovingtowarditissaidtobepositivelyphototropic.Anorganismthatmovesawayfromlightisnegativelyphototropic.Whichtypeofresponsedidyourwormsshow?Whywouldearthwormsreactthiswaytolight?

an Ecosystem StudyEveryecosysteminvolvescomplicatedinteractionsbetweentheenvironmentandtheorganismsthatlivethere.Youhavelearnedaboutsomeoftheseinteractions.Inthisprojectyouwillusethisknowledgetostudyanecosystem.

Locateabeach,pond,lake,forest,meadow,undevelopedland,orothernaturalareaoutdoors.Choosetwooutdoorstudyareasthataredifferentfromoneanother.Forexample,aforestandagrassymeadow,orasandybeachandscrubwoodland,oradesertandawetland.

canada goose



Onceyouhaveselectedyourstudyareas,visitthesitesandwriteyourgeneralobservationsinyournotebook.Recordthetypesofecosystems,theweather,soiltypes,dominantspe-cies,andtheseason.

Aftermakinggeneralobservationsaboutyourstudyareas,selectONEofthefollowingtwoprojectstocompleterequire-ment4.Beforeyoubeginyourecosystemstudy,getpermissionfromthelandowner.Tellyourparentorcounselorthelocationofyourstudyareaandwhenyouaregoingtovisitit.Considergoingwithabuddy.

Study Plots activity

ProcEDUrEStep 1—Inyourchosenstudyareas,identifytheecosystemtypes.

Step 2—Beginatoneofthetwoecosystemsyouhaveselected.Usingayardstick,stakes,hammer,andapieceofstring,markoutashape,suchasasquare,thatcontains4squareyardsinsideitsboundaries.Thisisstudyplot1.

Step 3—Sitbesideplot1.Beginyourstudybywritinginyournotebookinformationaboutallthenonlivingfactorsaroundyou.Notethedate,timeofday,temperature,andwhetheritissunnyorcloudy,windyorcalm,rainyordry.Ifanyofthesefactorschangeasyouobservetheplot,makenoteofthechange.Notealsowhethertheplotisflatoronaslope.

Step 4—Next,lookatthelivingthingsintheplot.Ifyoucanseeanynonplantspecies(fungi,insects,birds,etc.),notetheircommonnamesordrawpicturesinyournotebookforlateridentification.Identifyallthedifferentplantsyousee.Useafieldguidetoidentifyeachspeciesbyname,ormakeadrawingofeachinyournotebook.Useamagnifyingglass,ifneeded,toseethefeaturesofeachplantandnonplantspecies.

Step 5—Estimatehowmuchspaceeachplantspeciesoccupiesintheplot.Forexample,inagrassymeadow,onespeciesofgrassmightoccupyabout90percent(nine-tenths)ofthespaceintheplot.Recordthisestimatenexttothenameofeachspeciesinyournotebook.



Step 6—Usingayardstick,measuretheheightrangeofidenti-fiedplantspeciesandaddthedatatoyournotes.Usethesemeasurementstodrawasideviewofyourstudyplot.Trytodrawtheplantstoscale.(Seetheillustrationshownhere.)

Step 7—Gotothesecondecosystem.Repeatsteps1through6forplot2.

oBSErvationS

1.Howmanynonplantspeciesdidyouidentifyineachstudyplot?Howmanyplantspecies?

2.Whatwasthedifferencebetweenthenumberofnonplantandplantspeciesinthestudyplots?

3.Whichplotwasmorebiodiverse?

4.What,ifany,speciesdidyoufindinbothplots?

nature Study activityInthisactivity,youwillmakethreevisitstoeachofthetwostudyareas,stayingforatleast20minuteseachtimetoobservethelivingandnonlivingpartsoftheecosystem.Yourresultswillvarydependinguponwhenyouchoosetoobservethearea.Yourvisitsmustbespreadoutenoughthatyourobserva-tionsshowdifferencesbetweenyourvisits.

Side view of a study plot

stAke string

pLAnt 1 36 incHes

pLAnt 3 24 incHes pLAnt 5

24 incHes

pLAnt 2 8 incHes

pLAnt 4 4 incHes

pLAnt 6 12 incHes

ground LeveL


ProcEDUrEStep 1—Decideonyourscheduleforvisitingeachofthestudyareas.Makesureyourparentorcounseloragreeswithyourplan.

Step 2—Onyourfirstvisit,arrivequietly,makingaslittlenoiseaspossible.Findagoodplacetoobservewildlife.Makeyourselfcomfortableandhaveyournotebookandpenorpencilhandy.Notethedate,timeofday,temperature,andotherinfor-mationsuchaswhetheritiswindy,calm,sunny,cloudy,rainy,ordry.Notewhetheryourstudyareaisflatoronaslope.Drawasmallmapoftheareainyournotebook,showinghowitlooksfromwhereyouaresitting.

Step 3—Onceyouaresettledandhavenotedtheenvironmen-talconditions,beginyourobservationperiod.Identifyanyplantsyousee(byusingfieldguidesorbydrawingtheminyournotebookforlateridentification).Notethestageoflifecycleforeachplantspecies—thatis,lookforbuds,leaves,flowers,seeds,andsoon.Recordthesedatainyournotebook.

Step 4—Eachtimeyouseeanotherspecies,writedownitscommonnameanddescribeitsappearanceorbehavior.Ifyoudonotknowitscommonname,makeadrawingofitandnoteitssizeandcolorsothatyoucanidentifyitlater.Ifyouhaveacamera(onethattakesphotographsquietly!),youmaytakephotographs.

Step 5—Noteanddescribeanysoundsyouhear.Ifyouhaveabattery-operatedrecorder,turnitonandletitrunforthe20-minuteobservationperiod.Whenananimalmakesasound,notethetimeinyournotebooksothatyoucanidentifythetapedsoundlater.

Step 6—Ifyouhavebinoculars,trytoidentifynonplantspeciesthatarefaraway.Fortinyorganismssuchasinsectsandworms,useamagnifyingglass.Donotpickupordisturbanyorganisms.Yourroleistoobserve,nottointeractwithlivingthings.



Step 7—Afteryourobservationperiodofatleast20minutesisover,markyourspotwithanaturaltrailmarkersuchascrossedsticksorastonecairn.Collectyourmaterialsandleavequietly.Completeyournotesbywritinganyotherobservationsthatyouwerenotabletonoteduringthestudyperiod.

Step 8—Visittheareaandrepeatyourobservationstwomoretimes,accordingtothescheduleyousetupinstep1.Besuretoobservefromexactlythesamespoteachtime.

oBSErvationS

1.Duringyourstudyperiods,whichchangesdidyouobserveintheplantspeciesthatyouidentified?

2.Atwhichtimesdidyouseemorenonplantspecies(e.g.,birds,insects,fungi)duringyourobservationperiod?

3.Howdidthetimeofdayorseasonaffectyourobservations?

4.Howdidenvironmentalconditionsaffectyourobservations?

conclUSionSWriteareport,basedonyourobservations.Includeyourgeneralobservationsabouttheecologyofyourstudyareas.Alsoincludeyourfindingsandconclusionsfromyourdetailedstudy.

the Greenhouse EffectThisactivitydemonstrateshowtheatmospheretrapsthe

sun’senergytowarmEarth’ssurface.

ProcEDUrEStep 1—Usingscissors,cutthetopsoffoftwo2-litersodabottles.Makeyourcutabout4inchesfromthetop.Labelonebottle“A”andtheotherbottle“B.”

Step 2—Pour2cupsofgardensoilorpottingsoilintoeachbottle.

Step 3—Placeathermometerinsideeachbottle.Makesurethethermometersareplacedatthesame

distanceabovethesoilineachbottle.

Step 4—CoverthetopofbottleBwithclearplasticwrapandsecureitwitharubberbandortape.



Step 5—Placealamponatable,removingthelampshadetoexposethelightbulb.Positioneachbottleexactly1inchfromtheexposedbulb.Besuretoturnthebottlessothatthethermometersfaceawayfromthelightbulb.(Youmayneedtoshadethethermometersfromdirectlighttogetaccuratereadingsofairtemperatures.)

Step 6—Withthelightoff,recordthetemperatureineachbottleinyournotebook.

Step 7—Turnonthelamp.

Step 8—Usingawatch,waitthreeminutes,andthenrecordthetemperaturesagain.Recordthetemperaturesineachbottleeverythreeminutesfor15minutes.

oBSErvationS

1.Didthetemperatureineachbottlechangeduringyourexperiment?

2.Explainwhatthelightbulbandtheplasticwraprepresentinthismodelofthegreenhouseeffect.

conclUSionSCompareyourexperimentalsetuptorealconditionsonEarth.Usingyourdata,explainwhythegreenhouseeffectmakesitpossibleforlifetoexistonEarth.



air PollutionInthisexperiment,youwillobservesomeoftheparticulatesthatpolluteair.

ProcEDUrEStep 1—Spreadathinfilmofpetroleumjellyontwopaperplatesortwowhite3-by-5-inchindexcards.Thesewillserveasyourairpollutioncollectors.

Step 2—Placeonecollectorinanurbanenvironment,suchasnearabusystreet.Placetheothercollectorinanonurbanenvironment,suchasinafieldoraforestedarea.

Step 3—Protecteachcollectorfromprecipitationbyplacingacoveraboveitorplacingitunderneathanoverhangingroofortreelimb.

Step 4—Leavebothcollectorsinplaceforoneweek.

Step 5—Retrievethecollectors.Usingamagnifyingglass,lookatthesurfaceofeachcollectortoidentifyanyparticulates.

Step 6—Placeasheetofclearplastic,markedoffinagridof1-inchsquares,overonecollector.Usingthemagnifyingglass,countthenumberofparticulatesinfourofthesquares.Findtheaveragenumberofparticulatesinasquareandrecordthisnumber.

Step 7—Repeatstep6fortheothercollector.



oBSErvationS

1.Whatwastheaveragenumberofparticulatesonthecollectorleftinanurbanenvironment?Inthenonurbanenvironment?

2.Whatdotheparticulatesonthetwocollectorssuggestaboutthelevelofairpollutionineachenvironment?

conclUSionSUsingyourdata,reportwhatyoulearnedabouthowparticulatescontributetoairpollutioninurbanandruralenvironments.

acid rainInthisexperimentyouwilltesttheeffectofacidrainonlandplants.

ProcEDUrEStep 1—Labelfivepottedplantsofthesamesizeandspecieswiththenumbers1through5.

Step 2—Measuretheheightofeachplantwitharuler,andrecordtheheightsinyournotebook.Countthenumberofleavesoneachplantandrecordthisalso.

Step 3—Useamagnifyingglasstoexamineeachplant.Draweachplantandcolorinanyareasthatshowdamage.



Step 4—Putonsafetygogglesandanaprontoprotectyoureyesandclothing.Measuresomedistilledwaterandvinegarintofivelabeledbottles,usingtheproportionsshowninthetable.

Step 5—Placeallfiveplantsinasunnylocation.Watereachonewiththesameamountoftapwater.Donotoverwatertheplants.

Step 6—Sprayplant1withbottle1,plant2withbottle2,plant3withbottle3,plant4withbottle4,andplant5withbottle5.Makesureyouspraythesoilineachpot,becauseplantsabsorbwaterthroughtheirroots.Usethesamenumberofspraysoneachplanteachtime.

Step 7—Waitonedayandexamineeachplantwithamagni-fyingglass.Measuretheheightofeachplantandcountthenumberofleaves.Recordthesedata.

Step 8—Repeatsteps6and7everydayforfivedays.

oBSErvationS

1.Duringtheexperiment,whatkindsofchangesdidyouseeintheleavesofeachplant?

2.NormalrainwaterhasapHofabout5.6.HowdidthepHoftheplantsintheexperimentcomparetothatofnormalrain?

3.Explainwhyyoudrewapictureofthedamagedareasontheplants’leavesbeforeyoubeganyourexperiment.

conclUSionSUseyourdataandobservationstoexplainhowacidrainaffectslandplants.

Bottle number vinegar Water pH5 1 cup none 24 4 teaspoons 1 cup 33 3 teaspoons 1 cup 42 2 teaspoons 1 cup 51 none 1 cup 7



cleaning Up oil SpillsWhenanoilspilloccursinanaquaticenvironment,thefirststepinthecleanupprocessistryingtocontroltheoilandkeepitfromspreadingtocoastalareaswhereitwouldaffectmanywildlifespecies.Waterfowlareespeciallyvulnerabletooilspills.Theoilcoatsthebirds’feathers,causingtheirfeatherstoclumptogetherandlosetheabilitytokeepthebirdsinsulatedfromthecold.Oil-soakedbirdsoftenfreezetodeath.Othersdieafterconsumingthetoxinsfromtheoilastheyattempttoridtheirfeathersoftheoil.Atleastahalfmillionwaterbirdsdieeachyearasaresultofoilspills.Inthisexperimentyoucanexamineseveralmethodsthatareusedtocleanupoilspillsatseaandspeculateuponwhichmethodsmightworkbesttoreducetheeffectsofthespillonwaterfowl.

ProcEDUrEStep 1—Labelfouraluminumpiepans“A,”“B,”“C,”and“D.”

Step 2—Usingameasuringcup,pour1cupoftapwaterintoeachpieplate.

Step 3—Measure4tablespoonsofvegetableoil.Add1tablespoonofvegetableoiltothewaterineachpieplate.

Step 4—InpanA,useaplasticspoontostirtheoilintothewater.Then,usingastraw,trytoblowtheoilintoonepartofthepan.Becarefulnottotouchthewaterwiththestraw.

Step 5—InpanB,stirtheoilanduseapieceofstringtotrytocollecttheoilandcontainitinonearea.

Step 6—StirtheoilinpanC.Usingapapertowel,trytoabsorbtheoil.Thenusestripsofnewspaper,cottonballs,andfabricscrapstotrytoabsorbtheoil.Recordandcomparehowwelleachmaterialworked.

Step 7—StirtheoilinpanD,thenadd1teaspoonofliquiddishwashingdetergenttothewaterinthepan.



oBSErvationS

1.Whathappenedtotheoilandthewaterwhenyouusedastrawtoblowtheoilaway?Whatconditionsatseamightthisrepresentthatwouldmakecleaninganoilspillmoredifficult?

2.HowwelldidthestringworktocontaintheoilinpanB?

3.WhichofthematerialsusedinpanCworkedbesttoabsorbtheoil?

4.Whathappenedwhenyouaddedliquiddishwashingdeter-genttopanD?Canyouexplainwhy?

conclUSionS Scientistshavedevelopedmanymethodstocleanupoilspills.Inthisexperiment,youexploredseveral.Explainwhichtreat-mentworkedbesttocleanupyouroilspill.Wouldthistypeoftreatmentbepracticalinanactualspillatsea?Considerhowcleanupmethodsmightaffectwaterfowlandotherorganisms.Isatreatmentbetterorworseforthemthantheeffectsofthespillitself?Comparethemethodsyouusedwiththemethodsexplainedintheboxaboutmethodsofoil-spillcleanupinthesection“HumanImpactontheBiosphere.”

thermal Pollution of WaterRecallthatthermalpollutionoccurswhenasourceofheatraisesairorwatertemperatureabovenormal.Thenormaltem-peraturerangesforourlakesandriversare:above68degreesforwarmwaterwheremostbassliketolive;between68and55degreesformoderatewaterwheresalmonliketolive;andbelow55degreesforcoldwaterwheremosttroutliketolive.Inthisexperimentyouwilldiscoverifalgaearesensitivetothermalpollution.

ProcEDUrEStep 1—Setuptwo10-gallonaquariumtanksorotherclearlargecontainers.Placeoneoftheminalocationwhereitwillnotgetabove60degrees.Fillthembothwithtapwater.Beverycarefulifyouattempttomoveatankafteryouhavefilleditwithwater.



Step 2—Placeathermometerineachtankandaddaheatsource(aquariumheater,externallightbulb,ordirectsunlight)tooneofthetanks.Thistankshouldberaisedtoatemperatureover70degrees.

Step 3—Feedeachofthetankswithenoughfishfoodorliquidplantfertilizertofeedseveralfishorplantsinthetanks.Recordthedate,time,andtemperatureofeachtankinyournotebook.

Step 4—Repeatstepthreeseveraltimeseachdayforthenextsevendays.Inadditiontotheaboveinformationalsorecordanypresenceofalgaegrowingonthesidesofthetankinyournotebook.Describethealgaeandmakeasketchortakepicturestoshowthegrowthofthealgae.

Step 5—Attheendoftheexperiment,besuretocleanthecontainersandremovethealgaebuildup.

oBSErvationS

1.Whydidyoufeedthewaterinbothtanksatthebeginningandthroughouttheexperiment?Whynotjustfeedtheheatedtank?

2.Whatwasthedifferenceintemperatureofthetwotanks?Whatactivitieswouldincreasethetemperatureofariverorlakenearyoubythismuch?

3.Didyounoticeanychange(color,appearance,pattern,etc.)inthealgaeduringtheexperiment?Whatdoyouthinkmighthavecausedthis?

conclUSionSUsingyourdata,explainhowthermalpollutionmayaffectaquaticorganisms.Recallwhatyoulearnedabouthowfertiliz-erscanpromotealgaeblooms.Whyisincreasedgrowthofalgaebadforanaquaticenvironment?Howwouldthermalpollutionaffectfish,waterplants,orotherorganismsthatcannotescapefromthesourceoftheheat?Canyouspeculateabouttheeffectsofthermalpollutionintheair?



Soil ErosionInthisexperimentyoucanfindouthowsoilerosionhappensandlearnaboutonewaytopreventsoilerosion.

ProcEDUrEStep 1—Getpermissionbeforeyoudigupanysoilforthisexperiment.

Step 2—Placecut-upstripsofnewspaperintoabucketandfillthebucketwithwater.Stiroccasionally.Leavethenewspaperinthewateruntilitfallsapartandbecomesamushymixofpaperandwater.Thismaytakeafewdays.

Step 3—Buildthreelong,narrowboxesoutofwood,shoeboxes,orplasticormetalpipe.Ifyouusecardboard,linetheboxeswithplasticbagsorfoilandcoveranyseamswithadhesiveorducttapetopreventleaking.

Step 4—Atoneendofeachbox,cutalargeV-shapednotchabouthalfasdeepastheendwallofthebox.Labeltheboxes“1,”“2,”and“3.”

Step 5—Fillboxes1and2withgardensoilsothatthesurfaceofthesoilisabouthalfaninchbelowthetopedgesoftheboxes.

Step 6—Fillbox3withsoilthathasgrassgrowingonit.Makethesoilsurfaceabouthalfaninchbelowthetopedgeofthebox.



Step 7—Drainoffthewaterfromthenewspapermix.Takeahandfulofthemush,squeezeoutmorewater,andspreadthisontopofthesoilinbox2.Continuetodothisuntilthesurfaceofthesoilinbox2iscoveredwiththenewspapermixture.Letitsitovernight.

Step 8—Thefollowingday,lineupthethreeboxesinarow.Placeabrick,largerock,orbookundertheuncutendofeachbox.Placeacollectingpan,jar,orcupunderthelowerendofeachboxbelowthecutoutV.Photographormakeadrawingofeachbox.

Step 9—Fillthewateringcanwithameasuredamountoftapwater.Standingatthehigherendofbox1,sprinklethewateronthesoilsurfaceuntilthecanisempty.Waitaboutthreemin-utesuntilthewaterstopsrunningfromtheVnotch,andthenobservethewaterthatcollectsinthepan,jar,orcup.Measuretheamountofwaterandnoteitscolor.Recordthedatainyournotebook.

Step 10—Repeatstep9forboxes2and3,usingthesameamountofwatereachtime.Photographormakeadrawingofeachboxtoshowthechanges.

oBSErvationS

1.Describethedifferencesinthepaththewatertookineachofthethreeboxes.

2.Howmuchwaterendedupineachcollectingpanafterthreeminutes?Whatwasthecolorofthewaterineachcollectingpan?

3.Howdidthecolorandtheamountofwaterdifferineachcollectingpanafterthreeminutes?

4.Howmuchsoilendedupineachcollectingpan?

5.Thenewspapermixtureusedinbox2resemblesamixturesprayedonbaresoilatconstructionsitestopreventerosion.Basedonyourexperiment,whydoyouthinkthisisagoodidea?

conclUSionSUsingyourexperimentaldataandphotographs(ordrawings),showyourresultsonaposter.Presentyourpostertoyourcounselor.



Biodegradable Packing materialsItemspurchasedonlineorfrommail-ordercatalogsareshippedinboxesandprotectedwithpackingmaterialsthatrangefromplasticbubblewraptopopcorn.Packingmaterialssometimesendupaslitteralongroadsidesortakeupspaceinlandfills.Inthisexperiment,youwillfindoutwhichpackingmaterialsarebiodegradable.

ProcEDUrEStep 1—Labelfourresealableplasticbags“1,”“2,”“3,”and“4.”

Step 2—Pouracupofsandintoeachplasticbag.Thenaddacupofgardensoiltoeachbag.Carefullymixthesandandsoilbysqueezingthemixtureineachbag.

Step 3—Inbag1,placesixsmallstripsofnewspaper.

Step 4—Inbag2,placesixfoampackingpeanuts.

Step 5—Inbag3,placesixpiecesofunbuttered,unsaltedpoppedpopcorn.

Step 6—Inbag4,placeasmallpieceofplasticbubblewrap.

Step 7—Filleachbagalmosttothetopwithgardensoil.(Leaveenoughspacetoallowthebagtobeclosed.)

Step 8—Pourhalfacupoftapwaterintoeachplasticbag.

Step 9—Closeeachbag.Placeallfourbagsnearasunnywindow.

Step 10—Aftertwodays,opentheplasticbags,stirthesoil,addhalfacupoftapwater,andreclosethebags.

Step 11—Waitthreemoredays,thenemptyeachbagontoasheetofnewspaperandlookforthepackingmaterialsineach.Useamagnifyingglasstoexamineeachmaterial.

oBSErvationS

1.Whichpackingmaterialsshowedsignsofdecomposition?

2.Whichdoyouthinkwerebiodegradable?Whichwerenonbiodegradable?

3.Explainthedifferencesbetweenthematerialsthatarebiodegradableandtheonesthatarenonbiodegradable.



conclUSionSBasedontheresultsofthisexperiment,makeastatementaboutwhichkindsofpackingmaterialsarebiodegradableandwouldcreatelesssolidwaste.Whatotherkindsofbiodegradablepack-ingmaterialswouldprotectfragileitemsduringtransport?

oil Pollution on landWhathappenstotheoilthatleaksoutofenginesontoasphaltparkinglots?Whenitrains,thatoiliswashedontothesoil,whereitseepsdowntowardplantroots.Dothisexperimenttofindouthowoilpollutiononlandaffectsplants.

ProcEDUrEStep 1—Setoutapitcheroftapwaterfor24hours.Obtainfoursmallpottedplants,suchaspansiesoranotherfast-growingannualflower.Labelthepots“A,”“B,”“C,”and“D.”

Step 2—Onday1,placethefourplantsinasunnywindow.Watereachplantwiththesameamountoftapwaterfromyourpitcher.

Step 3—Usearulertomeasureeachplant.Inyournotebook,recordtheirheights,numberofleaves,andanyotherimportantcharacteristicsyouobserve.

Step 4—Pour1teaspoonofmotoroilonthesoilofplantB,makingsurenottogetanyoilontheleaves.Pour2teaspoonsofoilonthesoilofplantC.Pour3teaspoonsofoilonthesoilofplantD.DonotputanyoilonthesoilofplantA.

Step 5—Onday2,watereachplantwithhalfacupofwaterfromthepitcher.Donotoverwatertheplants.

Step 6—Examineeachplantdailyforthenextthreedays.Writeyourobservationsinyournotebook.Onday3,againmeasuretheheightofeachplantandrecordthenumberofleaves.Alsorecordinyournotebookanycolorchanges.

Step 7—Attheendofyourexperiment,disposeofthesoilcontaminatedwithoil.ContactyourlocalEPAofficesorhazardouswasteagencytofindoutwheretotakethesoilforproperdisposal.



oBSErvationS

1.WhywasitnecessarynottoputanyoilonthesoilofplantA?

2.Whywatertheplantsafterpouringoilonthesoil?Whatenvironmentalconditionsdidthisactionimitate?

3.Whatkindsofeffectsdidyouseeintheplantsthatweretreatedwithoil?

conclUSionSOilisoneofmanytoxicsubstancesthatcanbeabsorbedbysoil.Explainwhyitisimportanttokeepcarsmaintainedsotheydonotleakoil,andtocollectusedoilfromgasstationsandgaragesforrecycling.

Endangered SpeciesEndangeredspeciescanbefoundineverystateandinmostcountriesaroundtheworld.Findoutaboutendangeredspeciesbydoingthisactivity.

ProcEDUrEStep 1—Toresearchtheendangeredandthreatenedspeciesinyourstate,contactyourstate’sdepartmentsoffishandgame,wildlife,orparksandrecreation,oryourenvironmentalprotec-tionagency.TheU.S.FishandWildlifeDepartmentreportstheendangeredandthreatenedspeciesbystate.Formoreinforma-tion,seetheresourcessectionattheendofthispamphlet.

Step 2—Listtheendangeredorthreatenedspeciesinyourstate.Chooseonespeciestostudy.

Step 3—GotothelibraryoraccesstheInternet(withyourparent’spermission)tofindinformationaboutyourchosenspe-cies.Useatleastfourdifferentreferencesources.Researchhint:Askyourlibrarianifthelibraryoffersaccesstomagazine-articledatabasessuchasProQuestorEBSCOhost.

Step 4—Findoutwhatthenaturalhabitatofthespeciesis,whyitisendangeredorthreatened,andhowmanyindividualorganismsofthespeciesareestimatedtostillliveinthewild.Ifthespeciesisnowprotectedbystateorfederallaw,explainhowthisprotectionhashelpedthespeciessurviveandwhatelseneedstobedonetoprotectthespecies.



Step 5—Preparea100-wordreportonyourendangeredspecies.Makeadrawingofyourspeciestoincludeinyourreport.

Step 6—Presentyourreporttoyourpatrolortroop.

How Does an Endangered Species recover?Sometimesacommitmentoftime,money,andotherresourcescanbringaspeciesbackfromtheedgeofextinction.Inthisactiv-ity,youwillresearchonesuchspeciesandlearnitsrecoverystory.

ProcEDUrEStep 1—Usingresourcesyouhavefoundatthelibrary,athome,orontheInternet(withyourparent’spermission),makealistofendangeredspeciesthathaverecovered.YoucouldwritetotheWorldWildlifeFundandotherorganizationsthatfocusonplantorwildlifeconservation.Seetheresourcessectionattheendofthispamphletformoreinformation.

Step 2—Chooseonespeciesthathasrecoveredfromnear-extinctionandresearchhowitrecovered.Findoutwhatisthestatusofthespeciestoday.

Step 3—Writea100-wordreportonthespecies.

Step 4—Discussyourreportwithyourcounselor.

Bald eagle



Environmental impact assessment Inthisactivity,youwillidentifytheitemsthatwouldneedtobeincludedinanenvironmentalimpactstatementforahypothetical(imaginary)constructionproject.

ProcEDUrEStep 1—Inyournotebook,describeaconstructionprojectthatmightbeproposedforyourcommunitybyyourlocalorstategovernment.Suggestedprojectsincludebuildinganewhigh-wayorbridgeinaruralarea;buildinganewschoolorlibraryonfarmland;buildingabicyclepathornaturetrailinawoodedarea;orpavingoveravacantlotforparkingcars.Includeadescriptionofthesizeandnatureoftheprojectandhowthecommunitywillbenefitfromit.

Step 2—Chooseasuitablesiteforyourprojectandvisitit.(Theprojectisimaginary,butthesitemustbearealplace.)Recordthefollowingdatafortheprojectsite:

a. Whattypesofplantandanimallifeareatthesite?

b. Whattypeofecosystem(forest,grassland,desert,etc.)isit?

c. Hasitbeendisturbedbefore?

d. Isitahabitatforanendangeredorthreatenedspecies?

e. Doesitslope?Wouldthesoilbeindangeroferosionduringconstruction?

f. Aretherestreamsorwetlandssuchasswampsatthesite?

g. Istherereasontobelieveimportantfossilsorartifactsareatthesite?

h. Arethereactivitiesonlandsnexttothesite?

Step 3—Describehowtheproposedprojectfitsintoexistingplansforthearea.Forexample,isthesitethelastemptylotinahousingsubdivision?Ifyouareplanningahighway,woulditcutthroughastateorlocalpark?Willabikepathallowarearesidentstobicycletoschoolorworkratherthandrivecars?



Step 4—Suggestwaystheproposedprojectwilllikelyaffecttheenvironment.Answerthefollowingquestions:

a. Willtheprojectcausesoilerosion?

b. Willitdisturbforests,grasslands,deserts,orotherecosystems?

c. Willitdisturbanyhabitatsofendangeredorthreatenedspecies?

Step 5—Identifyanyeffectsoftheprojectthatprobablywillbeharmfulbutcannotbeavoided.Abridgeoverarivertoconnecttwoexistingroads,forexample,probablycannotbebuiltelsewhere,sotheproject’snegativeeffectsmayhavetobeaccepted.

Step 6—Suggestalternativestotheproposedprojectthatwouldprotecttheenvironment,yetstillmeettheneedsofpeople.Alternativesmayincludedifferentprojectdesignsatthesamesiteorthesameprojectbuiltatadifferentsite.

Step 7—Discussthetrade-offsbetweentheshort-andlong-termenvironmentallossesandtheshort-andlong-termbenefitsoftheproposedproject.

Step 8—Determinehowtheproposedprojectwouldpermanentlypreventotherusesofthesite.Ifavacantlotispaved,forexample,thenthatlandcouldnotbeusedforacommunitygarden.

conclUSionSBasedonyourreviewoftheproposedproject,tellyourcoun-selorwhatinformationwouldneedtobeincludedinanenvironmentalimpactstatementandwhetheryouthinktheprojectshouldgoaheadasdesignedorbestopped.Ifyourecommendstoppingtheproject,tellwhyandsuggestanyalternativedesignsorprojectsthatyouwouldsupport.


.Environmental Science Resources

Scouting literatureConservation Handbook; Fieldbook; Animal Science, Chemistry, Citizenship in the Community, Citizenship in the Nation, Citizenship in the World, Energy, Engineering, Fish and Wildlife Management, Fishing, Forestry, Gardening, Landscape Architecture, Mammal Study, Nature, Oceanography, Plant Science, Pulp and Paper, Soil and Water Conservation, and Weathermeritbadgepamphlets

Adams,Douglas,andMarkCarwardine.Last Chance to See.HarmonyBooks,1990.

Bickerstaff,Linda.Oil Power of the Future: New Ways of Turning Petroleum Into Energy.TheRosenPublishingGroupInc.,2003.

Bowden,Rob.Waste, Recycling, and Reuse.RaintreeSteck-Vaughn,2002.

Carson,Rachel.Silent Spring.HoughtonMifflin,1962.

EarthworksGroup.50 Simple Things Kids Can Do to Recycle.EarthworksPress,1994.

Elkington,John,etal.Going Green: A Kid’s Handbook to Saving the Planet.VikingBooks,1990.

Fasulo,Mike,andJaneKinney.Careers for Environmental Types and Others Who Respect the Earth.McGraw-Hill,2001.

Hall,EleanorJ.Garbage.GaleGroup,1997.

Koebner,Linda.For Kids Who Love Animals: A Guide to Sharing the Planet.AmericanSocietyforthePreventionofCrueltytoAnimals.LivingPlanetPress,1991.

Leopold,Aldo.A Sand County Almanac.OxfordUniversityPress,2ndEdition,2000.

MacEachern,Diane.Save Our Planet.BantamDoubledayDell,1995.

O’Connor,RebeccaK.Acid Rain.LucentBooks,2004.

EnvironmentalScienceResources

For more information about Scouting-related resources, visit the BSA’s online retail catalog (with your parent’s permission) at http://www.scoutstuff.org.


Environmental Science Resources.

OfficeofSolidWasteandEmergencyResponse.Guide to Environmental Issues.U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency,1995.

Patent,DorothyHinshaw.Biodiversity.HoughtonMifflin,2003.

Pringle,Laurence.Global Warming.SeaStarBooks,2001

———.The Environmental Movement.HarperCollins,2000.

ProgrammeResourceMaterialonConservation.Help to Save the World.WorldOrganizationoftheScoutMovement,WorldScoutBureau,1990.

Rathje,William.Rubbish! The Archaeology of Garbage.HarperCollins,1993.

Rybolt,ThomasR.,andRobertC.Mebane.Environmental Experiments About Land.EnslowPublishersInc.,1993.

Wilson,EdwardO.The Diversity of Life.Norton,1992.

U.S.DepartmentofAgricultureForestService.Investigating Your Environment.1993.

organizations and Web SitesEarth 9111375N.ScottsdaleRoad,Suite360Scottsdale,AZ85257Telephone:480-889-2650Website:http://www.earth911.com

Environmental Protection agencyArielRiosBuilding1200PennsylvaniaAve.,NWWashington,DC20460Telephone:202-272-0167Website:http://www.epa.gov

Keep america Beautiful1010WashingtonBlvd.Stamford,CT06901Telephone:203-323-8987Website:http://www.kab.org

natural resources conservation ServiceAttn:ConservationCommunicationsStaffP.O.Box2890Washington,DC20013Telephone:202-720-3210Website:http://www.nrcs.usda.gov

Society of american Foresters5400GrosvenorLaneBethesda,MD20814-2198Telephone:301-897-8720Website:http://www.safnet.org

U.S. Fish and Wildlife ServiceMainInterior1849CSt.,NWWashington,DC20242-0001Toll-freetelephone:800-344-9453Website:http://www.fws.govEndangeredSpeciesWebsite:http://fws.gov/endangered/


.Environmental Science Resources

USDa Forest Service1400IndependenceAve.,SWWashington,DC20250-0003Telephone:202-205-8333Website:http://www.fs.fed.us

advocacy organizations and Web SitesSave our EnvironmentWebsite:http://www.saveourenvironment.org

Sierra clubNationalHeadquarters85SecondSt.,SecondFloorSanFrancisco,CA94105Telephone:415-977-5500Website:http://www.sierraclub.org

World Wildlife Fund125024thSt.,NWWashington,DC20037Telephone:202-293-4800Website:http://www.worldwildlife.org

acknowledgmentsTheBoyScoutsofAmericagivesspe-cialthankstothefollowingindividualswhocontributedtheirexpertise,time,andotherresourcestothisrevisededi-tionoftheEnvironmental Sciencemeritbadgepamphlet:TimBeaty,nationalpartnershipcoordinator,Senior,Youth,andVolunteerPrograms,USDAForestService;E.LynnBurkett,publicaffairsofficer,BureauofLandManagement,U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior;StuartL.Carlson,USDAForestService;VicShelburne,Ph.D.,associateprofes-sor,DepartmentofForestResources,ClemsonUniversity;andGaryM.Stolz,Ph.D.,U.S.FishandWildlifeService.

Fortheirinvolvementandcontribution,thanksalsotoAllanBatterman,EnvironmentalProtectionAgency;JerryBernard,NationalResourcesConservationService;DavidJ.Kinsey,VirginiaOfficeofEnvironmentalEducation;LorraineV.Loken,WaterEnvironmentFeder-ation;PhilipMonson,SobranInc.;JimRyckman,EnvironmentalQualityBranch,DepartmentofPreventiveHealthServices;andDr.VonMcCaskill,thedepartmentheadofPesticideRegulationatClemsonUniversity.

WearegratefultoMarilynS.ChakroffandEagleScoutR.PaulChakroff,whocoauthoredthe1998editionoftheEnvironmental Sciencemeritbadgepamphlet,uponwhichthisneweditionisbased.Fortheircontributiontothe1998edition,thanksalsotoDr.KerryL.Cheesman,Columbus,Ohio;EagleScoutGaryA.Jacob,Medway,Mass.;RobertE.Phelps,Columbus,Ohio;JimMcKenzie;JayneBrown,Columbus,Ohio;andtheScoutsofTroop502,Westerville,Ohio.

WeappreciatetheQuicklistConsultingCommitteeoftheAssociationforLibraryServicetoChildren,adivisionoftheAmericanLibraryAssociation,foritsassistancewithupdatingtheresourcessectionofthismeritbadgepamphlet.


Environmental Science Resources.

Photo and illustration credits

HAAPMediaLtd.,courtesy—cover(recycle bin)

NationalOceanicandAtmosphericAdministration/DepartmentofCommerce,courtesy—page26

NewYorkStateDepartmentofEnvironmentalConservation,courtesy—page39

©Photos.com—cover(all except merit badge and recycle bin); pages4,9,11–14(all), 16–17 (both), 18(bottom),19,24–25(all),26 (top), 27(all),34(top row, left and right; center row, left and center; bottom row, right),35(inset), 37,40,43–44(all),47,49,51,53,54(left),57,69,73(both),76,79–81(all),83,and92

NaturalResourcesConservationService,courtesy—page10

NaturalResourcesConservationService/TimMcCabe,courtesy—page28

NaturalResourcesConservationService/LynnBetts,courtesy—page54(right) and72

U.S.FishandWildlifeService,courtesy—page68

U.S.FishandWildlifeService/DickBailey,courtesy—page18(top)

U.S.FishandWildlifeService/LeeEmery,courtesy—page89

U.S.FishandWildlifeService/LutherGoldman,courtesy—page59(top)

U.S.FishandWildlifeService/RyanHagerty,courtesy—page59(bottom)

U.S.FishandWildlifeService/PaulMarinari,courtesy—page62(bottom right)

U.S.FishandWildlifeService/DebbieMcCrensky,courtesy—page23

U.S.FishandWildlifeService/PhilMillion,courtesy—page62 (bottom left)

U.S.FishandWildlifeService/GaylenRathburn,courtesy—page60

Wikipedia.org/AndrewDunn,courtesy—page55

AllotherphotosandillustrationsnotmentionedabovearethepropertyoforareprotectedbytheBoyScoutsofAmerica.

JackBrown—page65

TomCopeland—pages32and84

DanielGiles—pages5–6(both)and70

JohnMcDearmon—allillustrationsonpages20–22,29–31,36,38,42,46,50,58,62,and74

Merit badge libraryThough intended as an aid to Boy Scouts, Varsity Scouts, and qualified Venturers in meeting merit badge requirements, these pamphlets are of general interest and are made available by many schools and public libraries. The latest revision date of each pamphlet might not correspond with the copyright date shown below, because this list is corrected only once a year, in January. Any number of merit badge pamphlets may be revised throughout the year; others are simply reprinted until a revision becomes necessary.

If a Scout has already started working on a merit badge when a new edition for that pamphlet is introduced, he may continue to use the same merit badge pamphlet to earn the badge and fulfill the requirements therein. In other words, the Scout need not start all over again with the new pamphlet and possibly revised requirements.

American Business 2002American Cultures 2005American Heritage 2005American Labor 2006Animal Science 2006Archaeology 2006Archery 2004Architecture 2008Art 2006Astronomy 2004Athletics 2006Automotive Maintenance 2008Aviation 2006Backpacking 2007Basketry 2003Bird Study 2005Bugling (see Music)Camping 2005Canoeing 2004Chemistry 2004Cinematography 2008Citizenship in the

Community 2005Citizenship in the Nation 2005Citizenship in the World 2005Climbing 2006Coin Collecting 2008Collections 2008Communication 2009Composite Materials 2006Computers 2009Cooking 2007Crime Prevention 2005Cycling 2003Dentistry 2006Disabilities Awareness 2005Dog Care 2003Drafting 2008Electricity 2004Electronics 2004Emergency Preparedness 2008Energy 2005

Photography 2005Pioneering 2006Plant Science 2005Plumbing 2004Pottery 2008Public Health 2005Public Speaking 2002Pulp and Paper 2006Radio 2008Railroading 2003Reading 2003Reptile and

Amphibian Study 2005Rifle Shooting 2001Rowing 2006Safety 2006Salesmanship 2003Scholarship 2004Scuba Diving 2009Sculpture 2007Shotgun Shooting 2005Skating 2005Small-Boat Sailing 2004Snow Sports 2007Soil and Water

Conservation 2004Space Exploration 2004Sports 2006Stamp Collecting 2007Surveying 2004Swimming 2008Textile 2003Theater 2005Traffic Safety 2006Truck Transportation 2005Veterinary Medicine 2005Water Sports 2007Weather 2006Whitewater 2005Wilderness Survival 2007Wood Carving 2006Woodwork 2003

Engineering 2008Entrepreneurship 2006Environmental Science 2006Family Life 2005Farm Mechanics 2008Fingerprinting 2003Fire Safety 2004First Aid 2007Fish and Wildlife

Management 2004Fishing 2009Fly-Fishing 2009Forestry 2005Gardening 2002Genealogy 2005Geology 2005Golf 2002Graphic Arts 2006Hiking 2007Home Repairs 2009Horsemanship 2003Indian Lore 2008Insect Study 2008Journalism 2006Landscape Architecture 2008Law 2003Leatherwork 2002Lifesaving 2008Mammal Study 2003Medicine 2009Metalwork 2007Model Design and Building 2003Motorboating 2008Music and Bugling 2003Nature 2003Nuclear Science 2004Oceanography 2009Orienteering 2003Painting 2008Personal Fitness 2006Personal Management 2003Pets 2003

BOY SCOUTS OF AMERICA • SUPPLY GROUP

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EnvirOnmEnTal SciEncE - Nampatroop112nampa.org/.../Environmental_Science_Merit...12 EnvironmEntal SciEncE The Roots of Environmental Science. The Roots of Environmental Science American