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This article was downloaded by: [Duke University Libraries] On: 05 October 2014, At: 20:12 Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ujrd20 Enhancing Youth Leadership Through Sport and Physical Education Daniel Gould a & Dana K. Voelker b a Department of Kinesiology , Michigan State University , East Lansing , MI 48824 b Department of Kinesiology, Sport Studies and Physical Education , College at Brockport, State University of New York , Brockport , NY 14420 Published online: 26 Jan 2013. To cite this article: Daniel Gould & Dana K. Voelker (2012) Enhancing Youth Leadership Through Sport and Physical Education, Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 83:8, 38-41, DOI: 10.1080/07303084.2012.10598828 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07303084.2012.10598828 PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content. This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http:// www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

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Page 1: Enhancing Youth Leadership Through Sport and Physical Education

This article was downloaded by: [Duke University Libraries]On: 05 October 2014, At: 20:12Publisher: RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: MortimerHouse, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & DancePublication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ujrd20

Enhancing Youth Leadership Through Sport andPhysical EducationDaniel Gould a & Dana K. Voelker ba Department of Kinesiology , Michigan State University , East Lansing , MI 48824b Department of Kinesiology, Sport Studies and Physical Education , College atBrockport, State University of New York , Brockport , NY 14420Published online: 26 Jan 2013.

To cite this article: Daniel Gould & Dana K. Voelker (2012) Enhancing Youth Leadership Through Sport and PhysicalEducation, Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 83:8, 38-41, DOI: 10.1080/07303084.2012.10598828

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07303084.2012.10598828

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) containedin the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make norepresentations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose ofthe Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors,and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be reliedupon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shallnot be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and otherliabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to orarising out of the use of the Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematicreproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in anyform to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

Page 2: Enhancing Youth Leadership Through Sport and Physical Education

38 JOPERD • Volume 83 No. 8 • October 2012

If you ask physical educators, coaches, and parents what psychosocial benefits are derived from youth sports participation, the development of important life skills is often cited. Leadership is one such life skill that may be more important to develop in today’s youths than at any other time in our history. For example,

polling shows that this is the first generation of parents who expect their children to be worse off during their lifetime (Mendes, 2011). With the birth of the seven bil-lionth baby, food resources are a greater concern. The United States in particular is facing an obesity crisis, and the world is trying to climb out of the worse economic recession since the Great Depression. These are the types of issues that today’s youths will face well into their adult years, and we therefore need good leaders to deal with them effectively. Of course it would be foolish to assume that coaches and physi-cal educators will resolve all of these problems alone. However, sport and physical education contexts are seen as socialization vehicles for young people and certainly provide numerous interactive, enjoyable, and motivating opportunities for youths to learn leadership skills. In fact, physical education and sport may offer some of the most potent contexts for learning leadership within schools.

Unfortunately, of all the venues that may be used to develop leadership in young people, competitive sport appears to be one of the most underutilized. In an exami-nation of coaches’ views on youth sports today, Gould and colleagues found that poor leadership was the sixth most frequently cited problem among players (Gould, Chung, Smith, & White, 2006). In a focus group study with British youths, leadership was identified as a key interpersonal life skill needing development (Jones & Lavallee, 2009). Finally, in a qualitative study with former high school sport captains, none reported being formally trained or prepared by their coaches for their leadership role (Voelker, Gould, & Crawford, 2011). Despite the apparent need for youth leadership development, the evidence suggests that this is not intentionally occurring in sport and physical activity contexts. Why?

Contrary to popular belief, mere participation in sport and physical activity does not automatically foster leadership in young people. For example, research indicates that simply being an athlete does not correlate to adult leadership (Extejt & Smith, 2009; Kuhn & Weinberger, 2005). Youth leadership development requires intentional efforts on behalf of effective coaches and physical educators, where youths are not only given leadership opportunities but are also taught how to be effective in those roles (Gould, Voelker, & Griffes, in press). In addition, perhaps researchers and prac-titioners have not provided adequate educational opportunities to train coaches and physical educators on how to develop leadership most effectively in young people. Lastly, coaches and physical educators may not have the time and resources neces-sary to devote to youth leadership development. The purpose of this article, then, is to provide a brief summary of the principles of developmental youth leadership, including ones derived from the general psychology and sport psychology literatures, and to offer information on what coaches and physical educators need to know about youth leadership development practices using a case study approach.

Enhancing Youth Leadership Through Sport and Physical Education

daniel gould dana k. Voelker

Leadership does not result from simple participation in sport. It must be intentionally taught.

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39JOPERD • Volume 83 No. 8 • October 2012

Research on Fostering Youth LeadershipThe primary goal of this article is to discuss the practical implications of the existing youth leadership research for coaches and physical educators. However, we refer the in-terested reader to several books, chapters, and manuscripts in the area that provide more detailed reviews and sum-maries of the research literature (e.g., see Gould, Voelker, & Blanton, 2012; Martinek & Hellison, 2009; van Linden & Fertman, 1998; Voelker et al., 2011). Here we will summarize the main points.

Leadership has been defined as a “process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal” (Northouse, 2010, p. 3). While thousands of studies have been conducted on leadership in adults, far fewer have specifically examined leadership in youths, especially in sport and physical activity contexts. One could argue that the large knowledge base on adult leadership may be used to inform our understanding of that in youths. However, review-ers warn against blindly applying adult leadership theories to youth populations due to the distinct differences in age, experience, and developmental level (MacNeil, 2006; van Linden & Fertman, 1998). Youth leadership research, theoreti-cal developments, and measures are clearly needed.

However, empirical interest in youth leadership develop-ment through sport and physical activity has increased in recent years. For example, our research team as well as several other scholars in the field (e.g., Dupuis, Bloom, & Loughead, 2006; Wright & Côté, 2003) have been examining youths in formal leadership roles. From this work, we have reached the following main conclusions: (1) youth leadership, like that in adults, is dynamic in nature, such that it involves a complex and flexible interaction between the person, the situation, and his or her followers; (2) youth leadership is learned in phases and stages; and (3) youths can and do learn to lead if leadership is intentionally developed through extracurricular activities, including sport and physical activities.

Other theoretically driven work provides insight into the types of leadership that may be developed in youth sport and physical activity participants. For example, of the many leadership theories developed, transformational leadership is one of the most popular theories examined today. More often, scholars contend that this type of leadership can and should be fostered in young people (e.g., Zacharatos, Barling, & Kelloway, 2000). Transformational leadership by definition involves individual consideration (e.g., cares for others), inspirational motivation (e.g., talks optimistically), intellectual stimulation (e.g., promotes problem-solving), fostering acceptance of group goals and teamwork, high performance expectations, appropriate role modeling, and giving contingent rewards (e.g., providing encouragement and support; Bass, 1998; Callow, Smith, Hardy, Arthur, & Hardy, 2009). Continued work in these areas will improve our understanding of the leadership capacity of youths; of when, how, and what types of leadership should be devel-oped; and of the role that important mentoring adults play in the process.

Implications for Professional PracticeCoaches and physical educators cannot meet all of the lead-ership needs of today’s youths on their own. Parents, peers, community members, and teachers also play important roles. However, coaches and physical educators are in an optimal position to develop leadership intentionally in athletes and physical activity participants as a means of improving team performance as well as enabling youths to be more productive members of society. Although youth leadership research is still in an early stage, preliminary studies reveal several key prin-ciples and best practices that may assist coaches and physical educators in developing leadership in young people.

1. Recognize that All Youths Can Learn to Lead. Although certain youths will have characteristics and experiences that will increase their capacity to lead and even enhance their leadership effectiveness, all can benefit from learning leader-ship skills, such as becoming positive role models, developing effective communication, contributing to team goals, and demonstrating personal and social responsibility.

2. Be Intentional in Your Youth Leadership Development Practices. Leadership is not acquired by simply participating in sport or physical education activities. To the contrary, coaches and physical educators must be “purposeful” in choosing, implementing, and assessing specific leadership development strategies.

3. Model and Develop Transformational Leadership. Trans-formational leadership theory provides a useful set of skills and attributes that youths need to become effective leaders. As its name suggests, transformational leadership involves inspiring and empowering others, often to accomplish things they did not think were possible. It is a process by which a leader focuses on understanding and connecting with those he or she leads, helping them define their values and goals, and then motivating them to achieve those objectives (Nort-house, 2010). For youths to develop into transformational leaders, they must learn to care for others and demonstrate optimism and inspirational motivation, as well as promote problem-solving, foster acceptance of group goals, and en-courage teamwork. Transformational leaders must also learn to set high performance expectations, serve as appropriate role models, and provide encouragement and support to team or group members.

4. Employ a Diversity of Leadership Development Techniques.

Lindsay Emerson

Dana Voelker conducts a leadership session at the High school Girls and sport Conference.

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40 JOPERD • Volume 83 No. 8 • October 2012

Learning to lead is multifaceted. Youths learn leadership through observational and experiential learning, mentor-ship, trial and error, and formal education. Provide examples of good leadership, talk to youths about what leadership involves, allow youths to practice leadership skills, offer feedback on their leadership behaviors, and allow them to learn from their own mistakes. Finally, encourage youths to take advantage of formal educational opportunities (e.g., workshops, conferences, books).

5. Understand and Educate Youths on Real Leadership. Leadership means more than wearing a “C” on a jersey or being selected as a group leader in a class. Nor are leaders merely the kids with the loudest voices. In contrast, true leader effectiveness depends on the reciprocal interaction of leader characteristics, follower characteristics, and situ-ational demands. For example, a young captain who is shy and uncomfortable facilitating team communication might be very effective on a mature and senior-laden team that already communicates well. However, that same captain may be far less effective with a team that has difficulty working as a unit, interpersonal problems, and a coach who does not emphasize communication and effective listening. In the latter case, it would be highly beneficial if the captain and coach worked together to develop their communication skills to meet the unique needs of the team and the situation. Youths, then, need to learn not only how leaders should behave (e.g., being model citizens, making good decisions, encouraging others), but also how to understand the needs of their peers, read a situation, and adapt their leadership style in order to be effective.

6. Adopt a Youth-centered Focus. Cultivating leadership in youths is difficult when adults dominate their environment. In fact, it is our experience that this may be the single most important deterrent to the development of leadership in sport and physical education. Youths cannot exercise leadership if they are not permitted to do so. Developing leadership instead requires empowering kids. Simply put, adults who want to develop leadership in young people must be ready to give up some control and allow them to participate in meaningful decision-making, take on real responsibilities,

and become agents in their own development. 7. Be Patient. Young people learn leadership in stages,

moving from a basic understanding and awareness of lead-ership to successful implementation and mastery of leader-ship skills. First, young people must realize that they have the capacity and potential to lead, as many do not already perceive themselves to be leaders. Next, youths may benefit from learning the fundamentals of leadership (e.g., how to communicate, listen, and provide encouragement) before adopting more complex leadership skills (e.g., taking varied input from the group and devising group goals). Understand that young people will make mistakes in this process.

8. Be Mindful of the Developmental Level of the Youths with Whom You Are Working. Youth leadership is developmental. It is therefore critical to adjust your expectations for youths at various developmental stages. For example, elementary and middle school students may have difficulty seeing the world from another perspective, whereas high school students may be more ready to empathize and understand the needs of others. Similarly, younger children may benefit from concrete examples of leadership, while older youths may be able to think about leadership more abstractly.

What Does this Mean in the Real World?To assist in making these principles come to life, we have provided two youth leadership development scenarios in the context of sport and physical education. We have also offered useful strategies that may be used to address these common issues.

For Coaches. You are a high school girls’ soccer coach. The team has voted two captains for the upcoming season, Sarah and Jessica. Sarah is a senior who has developed both as a player and as a leader over the course of her high school athletic career, and you are excited about her new role as captain. Jessica, however, is only a junior. While she is one of the best players on the team, she does not have the leadership experience that Sarah does. What can you do to develop these athletes as leaders and prepare them for their captaincy role?

•Foryourself,clearlydefinewhatleadershipmeansforyou and what you expect from your captains, including roles, duties, and responsibilities (e.g., model good behavior on and off the field, help lead warm-ups, hold team meetings, meet weekly with the coach to discuss team issues, and help plan practice segments). In addition, consider what they should expect from you as a coach.

•Setupameetingwiththenewly-selectedcaptainstodiscuss these expectations. Ensure that they understand and accept their assigned responsibilities. Then ask them what they expect from you as a coach and from each other, as well as what they want from their captaincy experience.

•Holdregularcaptainmeetingsthroughouttheseasonto provide feedback on their leadership behaviors. Always start by building on their strengths, focusing on what they are doing really well. Then discuss ways they could improve and ask how you can help them in that process.

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an athletic director facilitates a meeting of a high school student-athlete leadership group.

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41JOPERD • Volume 83 No. 8 • October 2012

• Teach your captains about leadership by sharing re-sources (e.g., The Team Captain’s Leadership Manual by Jeff Janssen, Michigan High School Athletic Association Student Athlete Guide edited by Daniel Gould, Wooden on Leadership by John Wooden and Steve Jamison).

•Askforcaptaininput(e.g.,whatdoyouthinkaboutthisweek’s practice plan?).

•Provideyourcaptainswithleadershipopportunities(e.g.,allow them to lead warm-ups, engage in peer coaching, or lead team meetings).

•Beaccessibleandapproachable.Ifyourcaptainsknowand understand that you are willing to help, they are more likely to ask for guidance.

For Physical Educators. You are a middle school physical education teacher. Enthusiastic about promoting life skills through physical education, you have decided that your class could benefit from learning about leadership. However, you really do not know where to start. How might you incorpo-rate leadership development practices into your physical education curriculum?

•Allowyoungpeopletolead(e.g.,selectdifferentstudentsto help lead activities for the day, build in peer-teaching opportunities where children pair up and teach their peers a particular skill).

•Takeadvantageofteachablemoments.Participatingingames and sports offer many opportunities to teach leader-ship. For instance, if one group of students dominates play in a particular activity, you may stop that activity and ask them to reformulate it so that everyone is involved. Or, if you witness students picking on others, you may consider encouraging those students to empathize with those they are bullying, remind them that they are a class leader because of their skill level, and discuss the fact that part of being a leader is to protect and help others—not to belittle them.

•Providefeedbackandreinforcementforpositivelead-ership behaviors. Catch your students providing examples of good leadership throughout the class (e.g., showing care for others, making optimistic versus pessimistic comments, helping classmates solve problems).

•Pickapartofaclassperiodtoformallytalkaboutleader-ship and why it is important in physical education and life. For example, you might discuss bullying with your class, asking the students how it must feel to be bullied, what they would feel like if they were bullied by someone older or more experienced (e.g., a high schooler), and what their role is if they observe peers bullying others.

Developing leadership in young people is critically im-portant to the future. Sport and physical education offer numerous opportunities and teachable moments that may significantly contribute to this effort. However, leadership development will not happen through mere participation. Physical educators and coaches must be intentional in their efforts and employ youth leadership development strategies on a consistent basis. It is our hope that this article provides you with the tools necessary for beginning and continuing this important journey!

AcknowledgmentParts of this article are based on the Raymond A. Weiss Award Lecture given by the first author at the 2011 AAHPERD Na-tional Convention in San Diego, CA.

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Daniel Gould ([email protected]) is a professor in the Department of Kinesiology at Michigan State University, in East Lansing, MI 48824. Dana K. Voelker ([email protected]) is a faculty member in the Department of Kinesiology, Sport Studies and Physical Educa-tion at the College at Brockport, State University of New York, in Brockport, NY 14420.

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