English language teaching For use with Chapter 9 of: Galloway,
N. and Rose, H. (2015). Introducing Global Englishes. Routledge.
Dr. Heath Rose and Dr. Nicola Galloway
Slide 2
Review of Lecture 8 (1) Attitudes are complex. Attitudes are
influenced by many factors: culture, familiarity, vitality and
prestige, pedagogical context, race, proficiency, and motivation.
Language attitudes are subject to change. There is a need for both
short- and long-term studies. Research into the attitudes of
learners can provide teachers with an awareness of their learners
beliefs, help inform curriculum development, increase self-
awareness among the learners, foster autonomous learning, and
encourage them to think critically about the language.
Slide 3
Review of Lecture 8 (2) Studies reveal that NE is highly valued
and many in the education context prefer to follow a NES model.
However, many of the studies have limitations regarding methodology
and very few investigate the possible reasons for attitudes. Can
they be used to justify the dominance of the NE model? Do learners
need more choice? More studies are needed. Lecture 6 looked at
influence of GE instruction on attitudes and attitudes towards
English teachers.
Slide 4
Overview The native English speaker Global Englishes language
teaching (GELT) Barriers to innovations in ELT Relevant research
studies
Slide 5
Introductory activities Look at the job advertisements (Figure
9.1) in the introduction to Chapter 9, then discuss the questions
below. 1.What is your reaction to the job advertisement in Figure
9.1? A re they typical of job advertisements for English teachers
in your home country? Why do some institutions value the nativeness
of a teachers English over formal qualifications? 2.Think of
English language teachers in a context you are familiar with. What
qualifications are needed to teach in this context? Is there a
divide between native English-speaking teachers (NESTs) and
non-native English-speaking teachers (NNESTs)? If so, why does this
divide exist? 3.Why are some native varieties of English preferred
over others, from an English teaching standpoint? Why do you think
these varieties are preferred? 4.In Chapter 2, it was shown that
English speakers in NES countries tend to adhere to a standard
English ideology for written English, but attach identity and pride
in the diversity of spoken Englishes. Why, then, does the English
language teaching profession in NNES countries promote a standard
language ideology that speakers should aim to emulate the certain
types of native English speakers (namely standard American and
British RP)?
Slide 6
The native English speaker Part 1
Slide 7
The native English speaker in ELT Positive attitudes towards NE
in relation to ELT (Lecture 5). The uncrowned king of linguistics
(Mey, 1981, p. 73). Traditionally, theories about language learning
have posited the NES as the goal: Chomskys (1965) use of the
expression native speaker as the ideal speaker-listener. Even when
the focus shifted from the Chomsky-inspired idea of linguistic
competence to the Hymesian notion of communicative competence, the
NES continued to serve as the yardstick for comparison, even if
that was not the original intention.
Slide 8
Current hiring practices perpetuate stereotypes that NE is
correct and that English should be learned from a NEST Native
English speaker and university degree required (education
preferred) (Japan, ohayosensei.com) Native Speaker of English with
a neutral accent (Poland, TransitionsAbroad) Native English
speakers with a neutral native dialect (China, Pearson Longman
School) English teachers from the Outer and Expanding Circles have
never filled teaching positions in well- established private
schools, colleges and universities in the GCC (Ali, 2009, p. 36)
India's teachers face native-only bar (Guardian Weekly, 10 April
2012) On a global level, the ELT profession is perhaps the worlds
only occupation in which the majority faces discrimination (Ali,
2009, p. 37)
Slide 9
Figure 9.1: Job advertisements
Slide 10
NE ownership is further perpetuated in ELT materials and
examinations The Cambridge Grammar of English (Carter and McCarthy,
2006) has error warning symbols. The Oxford Advanced Learners
Dictionary notes that You cannot say discuss about something.
Practical English Usage (Swan, 2005) has a section called Dont say
it which outlines 130 common mistakes. A Native English Speaker
Would Say it This Way (Williamson and Katsuki, 2005). How Your
English Sounds to Native Speakers (Thayne and Koike, 2008).
Slide 11
Are things changing? Despite their dominance, the idealistic
notion of the NES prevalent in the 1960s has been called into
question in recent years: Are new goals required? Is a native
accent more intelligible? Why is a native accent no longer
relevant? What exactly is a native accent and who is a native
speaker? There is a need to explore attitudes and stereotypes in
depth (Lecture 5): Cook (1999, p. 196) this acceptance of the
native speaker model does not mean these attitudes are right.
Holliday (2009) how far would students preferences be provided for
if, for instance, they requested male or white teachers? The
prevalence of NES norms are evidently complex, yet this complexity
should not act as a deterrent for a critical examination of current
ELT practice. A possible decline in importance is evident in the
three areas shown on the following slide.
Slide 12
Figure 9.2: The demise of the native English speaker
Slide 13
1. Terminology problems (1) Problematic definitions A
substantial body of literature exists on what defines a NS, and
many scholars have attempted to provide a workable and rational
distinction between a NES and a NNES: Paikeday (1985) the NS exists
only as a figment of a linguists imagination, preferring the term
proficient user. Rampton (1990, 1995) in addition to language
expertise (the main criterion), the concept of a NS includes
language affiliation and language inheritance. Davies (1991, 2003)
five defining features of a NS, although these are neither
necessary nor present in all average NESs. No exact definition of a
NS to which everyone subscribes and distinctions are blurry
(Lecture 1). Some studies also reveal that many self-ascribed NNESs
can pass for NESs in certain situations (Inbar-Lourie, 2005), and
that self-ascribed NESs can be taken for NNESs by their students
(Moussu, 2006). If we cannot define a native speaker, then can we
define a non-native speaker of English?
Slide 14
Legitimacy problems Ascribes power to NESTs while presenting
the NNESTs as lacking something (Holliday, 2005)? Perpetuates
stereotypes? A life-long apprenticeship for the L2 speaker
(Tollefson, 1995) that has negative effects on SLA? Cook (1999)
refers to Labovs (1969) classic argument that one group should not
be measured against the norm of another. Unrepresentative Implies
homogeneity (Seidlhofer, 2003, p. 183)? Lectures have shown that
most NESs dont speak a standardized version and monolingualism is
no longer the norm: The concepts native speaker and mother tongue
speaker make little sense in multilingual societies where it may be
difficult to single out someones mother tongue (Kirkpatrick, 2007,
p. 9). Can we label speakers based on their mother tongue? 1.
Terminology problems (2)
Slide 15
2. Teaching competence Phillipsons (1992a) native speaker
fallacy the belief that the ideal teacher of English is a native
speaker: NS abilities could be instilled in NNS through teacher
training. NNSs have undergone the process of learning a (second)
language and are therefore better qualified to teach the language.
Language teaching is no longer synonymous with the teaching of
culture, and thus could be taught by teachers who did not share the
same culture as the language they taught. As highlighted in Lecture
5, Dorneyi has revisited the notion of integrative motivation, and
it is clear that the target English-speaking community is now
difficult to define. Research suggests that NE is not necessarily
most intelligible (Jenkins, 2006) e.g. BELF training for NESs
(Lecture 4). Kim and Elders (2009) study of air traffic controllers
and NES/NNES pilot communications in Seoul NNESs easier to
understand and experience was found to be more important than
English use or experience. The NES episteme may still dominate, but
it is becoming increasingly clear that NESs may not necessarily
provide the best model.
Slide 16
3. Growing awareness of GE Despite the spread of English,
lectures have highlighted that NE still dominates and NNE continues
to be seen as inferior and illegitimate by many. As introduced in
Lectures 3 and 4, the issue of expecting near-native proficiency
has also been heavily discussed in relation to the WE and ELF
research paradigms. Are new competencies required to make English
more relevant for ELF usage? Does the NES model fail to equip
students for real-world uses of English, at least for those who do
not require English for NES contexts? The unquestioned assumption
that the language norms and practices associated with
native-speaker varieties should be regarded as automatically
relevant and legitimate has been considerably lessened (Leung and
Street, 2012, p. 88). Although many students and teachers still
cling to NES norms (Lecture 5), a number of proposals have been put
forward for change and it is a popular topic.
Slide 17
Examples of a growing literature Jenkins, 2009b; Kirkpatrick,
2007, 2010a, 2010b; Kachru and Nelson, 2006; Melchers and Shaw,
2011; Seidlhofer, 2011. WE, GE, and ELF book sections and chapters
on ELT Alsagoff et al., 2012; Dogancay-Aktuna and Hardman, 2008;
McKay, 2002; Matsuda, 2012; Sharifian, 2009; Walker, 2010. Entire
books Jenkins, 2012; Alptekin, 2012; Baker, 2012; Cogo, 2012b;
Sowden, 2012; Suzuki, 2011; Jenkins et al., 2011; Kirkpatrick,
2011. ELF-related articles in language teaching journals Debate
surrounding the global presence of English has gradually become
more commonplace at ELT conferences and publications (Jenkins et
al, 2001, p. 305).
Slide 18
Global Englishes language teaching (GELT) Part 2
Slide 19
Global Englishes language teaching The pedagogical implications
of the global spread of English is clearly becoming an increasingly
important area. Several proposals have also been put forward for a
change in ELT, and Galloway and Rose (2015) group these into six
key themes: 1.Increasing WE and ELF exposure in language
curriculums. 2.Emphasizing respect for multilingualism in ELT.
3.Raising awareness of Global Englishes in ELT. 4.Raising awareness
of ELF strategies in language curriculums. 5.Emphasizing respect
for diverse cultures and identities in ELT. 6.Changing English
teacher hiring practices in the ELT industry.
Slide 20
Exposure to WE; legitimacy; endormative nativized models.
Exposing students to as many varieties of English as possible would
do more to ensure intelligibility than trying to impose a single
standard on everyone (Dsouza, 1999, p. 273). To be able to
communicate successfully with people all over the globe, students
need to comprehend different varieties so that they are better
prepared to deal with English interactions in international
contexts (McKay, 2012, p. 73). Needs analysis. 1. Increasing WE and
ELF exposure in language curriculums Diversity; multilingualism;
usefulness of L1. It is important that we, as language educators,
recognize this fact and work to preserve and promote all languages
that an individual has access to (McKay, 2012, p. 36). Kirkpatrick
(2012) norms of successful Asian multilinguals and adapt the Common
European Framework of Reference (CEFR). Friedrich (2012, p. 50) If
the only constant in lingua franca situations is diversity, then we
should anchor our practices in that assumption and educate students
to encounter such diversity with respect, curiosity and wisdom. 2.
Emphasizing respect for multilingualism in ELT Direct teaching of
issues surrounding GE. (Galloway, 2011, 2013) raise awareness of
use and increase confidence. Whole course or elements (Galloway and
Rose, 2013, 2014). 3. Raising awareness of Global Englishes in
ELT
Slide 21
Community of practice. Strategies to shuttle between
communities (Canagarajah, 2005, p. xxv). Focus on multilingual and
multicultural communicative practices, and on negotiation and
communicative strategies. Interaction strategies (McKay, 2002);
awareness of ELF usage (House, 2012). 4. Raising awareness of ELF
strategies in language curriculums Culture as a fluid concept. Move
from monocultural/monolingual norms to look at the communicative
practices of multilingual and multicultural speakers to understand
ELF communication (Baker, 2012, p. 46). Intercultural competence.
Pragmatics orientated approach (House, 2012, p. 200). 5.
Emphasizing respect for diverse cultures and identities in ELT More
NNESTs or multilingual English teachers (METs) (Kirkpatrick, 2009,
2012). Re-examine the concept of qualified teachers (McKay, 2012).
Large talent pool 80% of the English teachers worldwide are NNESTs
(Braine, 2010, p. x). 6. Changing English teacher hiring practices
in the ELT industry
Slide 22
Table 9.1: Differences between ELT and GELT ELTGELT Target
interlocutorNative English speakersNative English speakers and non-
native English speakers OwnersNative English speakersNative English
speakers and non- native English speakers Target cultureFixed
native English cultureFluid cultures TeachersNon-native
English-speaking teachers (same first language) and native
English-speaking teachers Non-native English-speaking teachers
(same and different first language), native English-speaking
teachers NormsNative English and concept of standard English
Diversity, flexibility, and multiple forms of competence Role
modelNative English speakersSuccessful ELF users MaterialsNative
English and native English speakers Native English, non-native
English, ELF, and ELF communities and contexts First language and
own culture Seen as a hindrance and source of interference Seen as
a resource IdeologyUnderpinned by an exclusive and ethnocentric
view of English Underpinned by an inclusive Global Englishes
perspective
Slide 23
ELT > GELT Epistemic break (Kumaravadivelu, 2012, p. 14)
defined as a thorough re- conceptualization and a thorough
re-organization of knowledge systems. The native-speaker episteme
has not loosened its grip over theoretical principles, classroom
practices, the publication industry, or the job market. What is
surely and sorely needed is a meaningful break from this epistemic
dependency if we are serious about sanitizing our discipline from
its corrosive effect and sensitizing the field to the demands of
globalism and its impact on identity formation. How and where do we
start? (Kumaravadivelu, 2012, p. 15). This epistemic break requires
a shift in materials design, views on ownership, cultures, norms
and role models, as well as a change in those who teach it.
However, this approach does not necessarily mean that teaching
methods have to be changed, but that the assumptions about the
English language are changed, which permeate into ELT materials,
language assessment, cultural ideology, language ideology, and
recruitment practices. In addition, such proposals are not
suggesting that we abolish all teaching discrete linguistic items
nor that we ignore the pull that nativeness still has over learners
and users (Friedrich, 2012, p. 50). Instead, it simply involves a
re-examination of current ELT practices in light of the changes in
the use of English (Galloway and Rose, 2015).
Slide 24
Barriers to innovations in ELT Part 3
Slide 25
What are teachers to do? Theory/practice divide the volume of
such academic attention does not seem to have had a tangible impact
on actual classroom reality (Saraceni, 2009, p. 177). Five possible
barriers to innovation in ELT that have caused this theory/practice
divide (Galloway and Rose, 2015): 1.A lack of materials. 2.Language
assessment. 3.Teacher education. 4.Attachment to standard English.
5.Teacher recruitment practices.
Slide 26
Few teachers have a rich enough knowledge of and personal
experience with all of the varieties and functions of Englishes
that exist today, and thus they need to rely on teaching materials
in order to introduce students to the linguistic and cultural
diversity of English (Matsuda, 2012, p. 168). Dominance of NE in
materials. Some GE-related books, but limited coverage of ELF,
limited audio, aimed at a relatively advanced audience, and few
include practical activities. 1. A lack of materials Focus on NES
norms. Pearson (www.pearsonpte.com) note that the ability to
communicate effectively in English is crucial to international
success, yet in their scoring guide, the Pearson Test of English
General scores are related to the CEFR.www.pearsonpte.com
Proposals: communicative strategies (Canagarajah, 2007),
accommodation skills (Jenkins, 2007), define achievement (McNamara,
2012). But far more difficult (and expensive). The consequences are
likely to be as revolutionary as the advent of communicative
language teaching some forty years ago (McNamara, 2012, p. 202). 2.
Language assessment
Slide 27
MSc TESOL/App Ling. Jenkins (2012, p. 492) doesnt believe it is
our place to tell teachers what to do. Dewey (2012) change must
come from working with teachers themselves, but much of what is
taught in teacher training programmes is at odds with ELF research.
Dewey (2012) and Widdowson (2012) need for teachers to
reconceptualize the notion of language, the very subject they
teach. 3. Teacher education Teachers have often spent time on NES
goal. Quirk (1990, p. 6) teaching NNE is a cheat. 4. Attachment to
standard English Socially ingrained ideology of NES recruitment.
NESs attract business. 5. Teacher recruitment practices
Slide 28
Relevant research studies: attitudes towards English teachers
Part 4
Slide 29
Attitudes towards English teachers TopicStudyCountryResearch
design Studies that involve attitudes when non-native
English-speaking teachers share the same first language Barratt and
Kontra (2000) Hungary and ChinaHungary (116 students and 58
teachers), China (100 students and 54 teachers) Free writing Benke
and Medgyes (2005) Hungary422 students Questionnaires Lasagabaster
and Sierra (2005) The Basque country76 university students
Questionnaires (open and closed) Cook (2005)Six countriesYoung L2
students (aged 14 on average) and adults (sample size unspecified)
Questionnaire Studies that involve attitudes toward non- native
English-speaking teachers with a different first language Kirsty
Liang (2002) (cited in Braine, 2005, 2010) USA20 ESL students Audio
recordings of six ESL teachers (five non- native English speakers
from different language backgrounds and one native English speaker)
Mahboob (2004) USA32 students from diverse language backgrounds
Opinion essays
Slide 30
The ideal English teacher TopicStudyCountryResearch design The
ideal English teacher Pacek (2005)UK2 groups of university students
Questionnaires and interviews Cheung (2002) (cited in Braine, 2005,
2010) Hong KongQuestionnaires (420), interviews (10) with students,
and classroom observations. 22 teachers were also used, 60% of whom
were native English-speaking teachers Galloway and Rose (2013)
JapanQuestionnaires (71 students in the first questionnaire, 236 in
the second). Focus groups one with 4 student assistants (one native
English speaker and three non- native English speakers) and one
with 4 teachers (three native English speakers and one non-native
English speaker).
Slide 31
NNESTs self-perceptions Medgyes (1992, 1994) was one of the
first to explore this issue. In 1998 the Non-Native English
Speakers in TESOL (NNEST) Caucus was established, which is now an
Interest Section of the TESOL organization. Studies include:
Medgyes (1992) in various countries. Reves and Medgyes (1994)
worldwide. Samimy and Brutt-Griffler (1999) in a US university.
Arva and Medgyes (2000) in Hungary.
Slide 32
Conclusion of studies Varied results. Students do not focus on
the nativeness of their teachers as much as literature and societal
beliefs might suggest. Students rank personal and professional
qualities of a teacher over the nativeness of their English
language proficiency helpful for GELT proposals.
Slide 33
StudyCountryN SizeMethodResults Shim (2002) Korea27 TESOL
masters students (own students) Tape recordings of 5 different
female NESTs and NNESTs 3rd study in 1998, after World Englishes
exposure through TV (a programme called Crossroads Caf) 23 wanted
an internationally accepted model (although this is not explained)
as a teaching model 27 felt there is a need to understand NNESs 27
would be willing to participate in an ELT programme that introduced
NNESs. Change in attitudes, but influence as teacher/researcher not
discussed, little info on course, and little info on students e.g.
motivation and experience Derwing et al. (2002) Canada64 first-
year Canadian uni. students Survey (pre and post) on response to
foreign- accented Vietnamese English 3 groups both types of
instruction (cross-cultural awareness and explicit linguistic
instruction); only cross-cultural training, and no instruction. 8
weeks Instruction led to improvement in confidence that they could
interact with NNESs The influence on language attitudes of Global
Englishes instruction
Slide 34
StudyCountryN SizeMethodResults Kubota (2001) America17
American high school NESs Survey about 6 speech samples (Australia,
China, India, Ecuador, Nigeria, and France) Observ; Int WE course
Only some showed positive reactions, and some biased views towards
NNES were reinforced Indicates a need for starting early Galloway
(2013) Japan52 uni. students Survey (pre and post) Int Quasi-
experimental GE course (13 weeks) Influential motivation for
learning English, attitudes towards NNE and NNESTs, question
notions of standard English, helpful for future ELF communication,
and raised confidence Empirical basis for GELT Galloway and Rose
(2013) Japan120 uni. students; 5 NNES assistants; 4 lecturers
Survey Focus groups 4 week module on GE, NNES guest speakers and
classroom assistants The curriculum, and the existence of expert
ELF users as role models in the programme, played a large role in
shaping the opinions of the students in the programme Students
displayed a more ELF-oriented view of English use than language and
business-content teachers
Slide 35
Summary of Lecture 9 Traditionally ELT has posited NE as the
main goal of English learning. Nevertheless, the importance
attached to NESs is declining. Studies show that students see NESTs
and NNESTs as having different skills, the former being preferred
for their perceived fluency in the language. Recent years have seen
many proposals for the way ELT is approached. GELT is clearly very
different from traditional ELT, and the NES and the NNES are placed
on equal footing with the aim to emancipate the NNES from the norms
of a minority group of English users. However, a number of barriers
exist, including an attachment to standard English, the prevalence
of standardized language tests, and the continued recruitment of
NESTs.
Slide 36
Key terms Language ideology Language standardization Yardstick
Linguistic competence Communicative competence Prejudice Proficient
user Multicompetent language users Interlanguage Fossilization
Expert ELF users EIL-related matters Shuttling between communities
NEST NNESTs Linguistic competence Communicative competence Native
speaker fallacy Norms Endormative Exonormative Multilingual English
user (MET) Episteme Epistemic break Paradigm Paradigm shift
Strategic competence Intercultural competence
Slide 37
Further reading On native speakerism in ELT Phillipson, R.
(1992). Linguistic Imperialism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. On
non-native English-speaking teachers Braine, G. (2010). Non-native
Speaker English Teachers. Research, Pedagogy, and professional
Growth. New York: Routledge. On Global Englishes language teaching
and barriers to ELT innovation McKay, S. L. (2002). Teaching
English as an International Language: Rethinking Goals and
Approaches. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Kumaravadivelu, B.
(2012). Individual identity, cultural globalization, and teaching
English as an international language: The case for an epistemic
break. In L. Alsagoff, S. L. McKay, G. Hu, and W. Renandya. (eds.),
Teaching English as an International Language: Principles and
Practices (pp. 927). New York: Routledge. Seidlhofer, B. (2011).
Understanding English as a Lingua Franca. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.