SEPT. 27, 1901.]

FOREIGN COMPETITION IN SHIPPING AND SHIPBUILDING.

'l;HE progress made by some of our industrial coml?etitors in shi:pbu~lding and shipowning is very considerable, and 1ts tnftuence in the diversion of commerce is still more marked than statistics sug­gest. So long as the shipper has sufficient cargo for one, or even severa~ ports consecutive upon an ocean route, to fill a Rht p of moderate size it may be just as c~nvenient to charter a '~tramp " steamer belongmg to any nation always provided that the freight is low enough,' and the British '' tramps" are excellent in this respect. But with

E N G I N E E R I N G.

whence coasting vessels, as well as river steamers distribute the German manufactures locally ~ indeed, the principal communication with Siam, and practically the whole local t rade, is now in the hands of the Germans. India, China, Japan, and Australia have arrivals from Germany every fortnight. There is a large subsidy for maintaining these services, which are conducted by the Hamburg-American and North German Lloyd companies, working conjointly. Recently a new contract was entered into for a service which will embrace not only the East Coast of Africa, as hitherto, but also the West Coast; and larger and fasters steamers are being built for the purpose,

Fitf.l. MERCHANT FLEETS OF THE WORLD. Frfl. Z. .. YEAR 189Q

( ) YEAR 1900.

•

GREAT BRITAIN

A • . ,. .... IOJ

GERMANY

UNITED STATES

FRANCE

NORWAY

ITALY

SPAIN

RUSSIA

SWEDEN

DENMARK

HOLLAND

AUSTRIA HUNGARY

the beginnings of foreign commerce, the general experience is that the consignments are compara­tively small, and that much canvassing over a wide area is necessary to secure a complete cargo even for a series of ports. In such a case it is of great impor tance to have trading steamers as distinct from the '' tramp,'' and that these steamers shall leave the manufacturing country at regular intervals, so as to distribute goods at stated periods. It will be recognised that, hitherto at all events, Britain has held an advanced lead, and that foreign nations have commonly had to send their foreign goods vid London or Liverpool, to the disadvantage of the growth of their trade. The transshipment necessary in such case is not only costly, but results in breakage, as well as inconvenience. Germany fully recognised this a few years ago, and the results have been very striking. At t he present time she has as many sailings across the Atlantic as Britain. She has a splendid fortnightly service to the Far East, her ships call at convenient ports,

•

r ' •

•

•

under a subsidy which will insure a return upon the capital involved. The East African steamers have been running monthly for some years, and it is an evidence of the advantage of such regular com­munication that the value of goods carried has in­creased in seven years from 610,000l. to 1,966,960l. sterling, of which 300,000l. and 956,000l. respec­tively were German manufactures. There is also a regular service to the West Indies and South America, and it will be seen that although the German Merchant Navy is now only one-fifth in point of tonnage that of the British Merchant Navy, its effect on the distribution of consign­ments of German goods is greater than mere comparisons of tonnage suggest.

The French fleet has not been materially in­creased, notwit hstanding heavy subsidies, although the Messageries Maritimes and the French Trans­Atlantic Company have done great service in the promotion of French foreign trade; both have their own shipbuilding yards-inadequate as regards

\

433 the former company- and beyond these establish­ments litt le is done in merchant shipbuilding, a. result in large measure due to the high protective tariffs, which are not fully compensated for by the­shipping and shipbuilding subsidies.

In the United States, on the other hand, t here­seems every prospect of a new subsidy scheme­being brought forward, as it is recognised that· much good might accrue from regular sailings to· foreign ports. The only distinctly American lines are those to Southampton, and another across the Pacific ; and Americans reproach themselves with the surprising fact that only 13 per cent. of the foreign import trade, and 7 per cent. of the foreign export trade, is carried in American vessels ; whereas in the days of the old wooden sailing-ships, 25 per cent. to 30 per cent. was the average : the decrease has been very gradual. The increase in American merchant shipping in recent years has been largely on the Lakes and in the coasting trade of the United States. But a new period is at hand, when the United States will endeavour to gain the same position with a modern merchant fleet that she once enjoyed with her famous wooden sailing ships.

Diagram Figs . 1 and 2 illustrate by a series of flags the growth of the principal merchant fleets of the world during the past ten years. In this diagram it is assumed that three sailing-ship tons ~re only equa~ to one steam ton; thus the diagram IS on the basts of steam tonnage, and is conse­quently a more accurate measure of the carrying capacity of the respective fleets than if sailing and steam tonnage had been reckoned of equal import­ance. Reckoned on this basis, the British tonnage has increased from 8, 584,600 to 11,700,000 ; the German tonnage has increased from 1, 146,000 to 2,116,000; and the United States tonnage from 952,900 to 1,131,151 ; the only other increases worth noting are those of Norway, from 693,000 to 1,066,600; of Russia, from 246,500 to 476,900; and of Sweden from 279,900 to 466,000. Generally speak­ing, each nation has considerably increased its carry­ing capacity, although in varying proportions. The

T ADLE I.-Reckoning Sail and Steam Tonnage as Eq1tal the Tonnage in 1890 and 1900 was as FoUows :

1890. 1900.

No. tone. No. tone. United 1\ingdom •• • • 9167 10,241.856 8914 13,241,446 British Colonies • • •• 2904 1,355.250 192! 1,019,808 America, United St~tes of •• 3272 1,823,882 2820 2,035,062 Austria-Hungary •• • • 368 269,648 270 416,084-Danish . • • • •• • • 808 280,065 802 519,011 Dutch •• • • • • • • 544 378,784 406 530,277 French • • • • • • • • 1380 1,045,102 1214 1,350,562 German . . •• • • • • 1876 1,~9,311 1710 2,650,03S. Italian • • • • •• • • 1b55 816,567 1176 983,65& Norwegian •• • • • • 3369 1,584,355 2380 1,640,812 Russian . . • • •• • • ll81 427,335 1246 720,901 Spanish .. • • •• • • 883 534,811 597 694,780 Swedish .. • • •• • • 1470 475,964 1433 637,272

vast value of the shipping trade of the world may be indicated by an approximate estimate. In a com­putation of the exports of all the principal countries in the world, it is found that the value of all the exports from the contributing countries in 1886 increased in value by over 200,000,000l . sterling by the time they became imports at their destination ; and w bile some part of this increase may be due to profits, insurance, &c., a large proportion is to be accounted for by transport charges. In 1898 the corresponding advance--& rough measure of the value of the world's transport trade-was 228,000,000l. sterling. The increase here is at & much less percentage than the addition to the volume of trading, indicating much cheaper transport. It becomes of interest to ascertain whether or not Britain's share of this great transport trade is a relatively increasing or a decreasing quantity. The only method of arriving at such a result is to take as a basis the tonnage of merchant ships entering into, and clear­ing from, the harbours of different countries. This is shown by two contrast diagrams (Figs. 3 and 4) in which the totals are given on & line divided to indicate the total tonnage, the tonnage owned by the country itself, and the tonnage of foreign ships other than British. The years compared are 1880 and 1899. In the case of the United States, the British pro­portion has in t wenty years increased from 61 per cent. to 67 per cent. of the total, the British ton­nage frequenting American ports having gone up from 16,000,000 to 26,000.000. The German ton­nage has increased from 2! millions to 4,614,000 tons ; but with the exception of Norway and Sweden, the other increases are barely propor-

•

•

434

tionate to the total. As regards the shipping in French ports, our proportion in twenty years ha~ in­creased from 40 to 47 per cent., while the home ton­nage has decreased by several points. In the case of Germany we find that a. very considerable increase has been made in the total, and that the home tonnage has more than kept pace with this increase, the proportion having gone up frorn 39 to over 44 per cent., while Britain's proportion has con-

' •

E N G I N E E R I N G.

diagram, Fig. 5, shows the tonnage entering or result of the recent extended use of wood pulp for clearing with cargoes (excluding ships in ballast), papermaking. The Danish and Dutch advance is and indicates the total British owned, and the accounted for by the large amount of dairy produce foreign owned, for a period of fifteen years. The being sent from those countries; and here it may diagram needs no further explanation. be said that the steamers engaged in this t rade are

Diagram, Fig. 6, shows the nationality of the largely run by dairy associations promoting this steam vessels which have thus entered into, or 1 particular trade. · cleared from, British ports during fifteen years; it Another way of indicating the relative progress refers only to steam vessels, as British owners have 1 of steam shipping is by showing the proportion of

BRITAIN$ Ov~RSEA SHIPPING WoP.x FOR fOREIGN CouNTRIES 1880

I

•

I

• IU!! TDitS. ro "10 ao 4o ~o .58 736 ooo

l=====~====~===~t====~~;;;;;;;;;;;;:m~m;;;;;;m;m; SHIPPINB IN HARBOt/RS

I

GERMANY

RUSSIA

-""""'""' n"ALY

SWEDEN

I

UNITED STATES

BRITISH Slf/PPING.

SHI/JPIN6 OWNED BY NATION rTSfLF.

FOREIGN SHIPPING.

I

I I I I I I I I I

I I I

OF UNITED K1N6DOM.

•

•

- - - - - - - - - -- -.- - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - -- -- - -- --- - - ---- ..J

/11/LL~ TONS. TO

BRITAIN's 0V£RSEA SHIPPING WORK FOR fOREIGN Now

30 50

CouNTRIES .

Fig.J.

•

8 0

F i9. 4.

91:78 .817

SHIPPING I N

HARBOURS OF

I UNITED KINGDOM

I I I I I I I I I I I NORWAY __________ _ --- --- --- -- -------- -- - --- -- - - - -- -- - - -- -- - - ------- ---

Fig.5. TONNAGE OF STEAM VEssELS OF fOREI6N FLEETS ENTERING·& CL!ARIN6 FROM 8RI77SH PORTS. TONNAC£0FV£SSEtS£KrERIN6 & Ci.EARINGUKJIARBOORS WITH CARGOES.

Prg)ar.diromJJcar-dof Tr.a.de./®unl/~218(/900} P..aqe-8&9. Fig 6 (11 Bonr.d of Tr..ade Tables N°2l8. P..ag.e8&9. ) • • rom. I • ' - •

00000 •

) 00000 •• -

/ • '

loo ....

11 D

I

8D,DDD,J!bo

" -- I ~

/ D --/

oP_tf. --r-......., 1/

e~( sr.! ....

D ;,../'

~0

riS~ oV'r V ~~;

aa ...... ""' .... ~ (J()

00

28,()00,000

VI,DOO,O

() ~ o.,.,'l'lefJ v fOMIG

·......! _....

:to.ooo1oo

IS,DOO,IXJD

... DG

85 u 81 88 89 go 9/ 91 g) ~ 9$ 96 97 (7l)

sidera.bly decreased-from 37 to 32 per c~1~t. As regards Russia., it will be seen that our pos1t10n has improved, but that Italy has captured the la.r~er proportion of the augmented tonnage frequent~ng her own ports, the ratio of Italian t?nnage havmg increased from 34: to 44 per cent., whlle ours has de­creased to 26 per cent. In the Belgian tonnage the foreigner has made greater progress than ourselves, due largely to German ships, w~i~e in ~weden and N orwa.y we fail to hold our pos1t10n ; 1n respect to Holland our position has barely kept pace w1th the total tonnage. . .

As to Britain, it may be sa1d that t~e foreign tonnage frequenting our harbou;s. has 1n t~enty years increased from 17-! to 35 milhon to~s_; 1f we eliminate ships in ballast and ta~e only si!'Ilmg an~ steam vessels with cargoes, the Increase lB p~a?tl­call in the same proportion, 13f to 27! million toui Of the total increase in fif~een years,. of 25,000,000 tons of shipping entering or lea.vmg the tTnited Kinadom w1th cargo only, 13,000,000 · d to the t:>foreigner and barely 12,000,000 ~~ th~e British ships. Of all shi~ping in_ our har­bours in 188o, 29.6 per cent : carr1ed foreign flags, while now the propor tion IS 34: per cent. The

•

000 - ..,_,l " I . ii I

Q"' I ~~ y l 'I

~~ ~' ! oop:;;

~ I

I I I

I I I

"

JfO

~0

l I I I

t / / I • ... I /

I .........

~, ~

"~ / / I ~;_ .. / .. , 6fl?

17 I / I I / I ;' I ·, ~; v· I I -··

Zfi

', ;' - V / / I ,· ,/ ........ I

/ '~ -··- I ,

~. , ..... , • 0,000 .. \: l ,/ I /I \ ,· .-·- • I ..,,

/ I / i--- - I ,

V/ • tl~~t/ ... Cl ~~- I ,

I , .oJ I (' ~ ...... ,-- ·· '

/ ~f.~'~:··

·1 V

/ I ~0~·, , .. ' ' I /

I/ 7

•

2fJO

7,8

98 99 /90(1

2

V , / 17 ,,-' / , I ,.,,. ,

// ......

"' / ./ - ....... ~--/' • ,' --

~:::~-f~~~f!l: V - -· . ... --._ .. ....- • ·---- ----- ,~ ', ,

/ -· ,/

' 4.., .. ... _7'...:: /' .. ..--·· ,

' ... , , oqooo ;

.... ~ V ''V -.-" ,· ••

-···- • -- ~HiD' 8~~~---- ,., ... ............. ~,., -_ ....

~ ~-·· ........ .. --- / --- "" /

.....__ ...,., .-·" ·" " . /V \ ~--···/

~-o ..... ~=-/ I ··-~

~- ---1-- ---qooo

I \ I OOfJOO u.s. /

12 •

•

8

6

40

• IB#J 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 9'1 95 96 97 98 gg ISOO

practically discarded sailing vessels, so that for tonnage owned by the respective Powers passing most purposes ~t.eam vessels c?mpete m?re a.ggre.s- through the Suez Canal, the gateway between sively with British owned ships. The Increase In the Western and Eastern countries. This is all cases, it will be seen, is marked. The drop indicated in diagram, Fig. 7, which shows, for in the United States line in 1898 was due to ten years, the total tonnage of ships of all the war which necessitated the American line nationalities passing through the Canal, as well steamers' being enlisted for service as cruisers. as the tonnage of vessels of British, German, The N orwegia.n and Swedish increase is largely a. French, and Dutch nationalities. It will be

•

•

SEPT. 27, I 901. J E N G I N E E R I N G.

F IREWOOD-SPLITTING MACHINE. •

•

CON 'TRUCTED BY 1\JE • R~. M. GLOYER AND CO., ENGI NEERS,

(For Descritdic.n, sr.e Foge 413)

LEEDS.

~ • • •

• • •

• •

• •

•

•

• •

•

• . . • •

•

•

-•

•

•

•

seen that so far as genertil t rade is concerned we hold our own. · Coincident with development of home tonnage for home requirements, there has been a steady aim in competing countries to' develop the ship­building industry. The tendehcy during the past decade to increase naval artbaments has enormously assisted this, for patriotic reasons have suggested t he building of those warships at home ; at the same time the great shipowning companies were encouraged- a· stronger word might even be used :._to have their vessels built at home. Existing shipbuilding yards have thus been largely deve­loped to undertake a class of work which fifteen years ago was unknown to t hem. Formerly all large passenger steamers for Germany, Austria, :America, and other countries were built in Great Britain, and it was the rule that complete drawings had to be supplied with each ship. I t might be easy from t his source to trace the evolution of the large ships built by some of our industrial competitors, but, at the same time, it must be frankly admitted that there have been, paTlicularly in recent years, departures which suggest distinct originality. At the present time our greatest competitor in ship­building is Germany ; t his is due in some measure to the combination of cheap labour with efficient tnachine tools ; in fact, some of the works of Germany are at least as well equipped as those on the Clyde. Without entering into details, it may be said that wages are lower. The engineers, for instance, working on the construc~ion of the great Atlantic liners are paid about half the hourly rate obtaining in some establishments in this country; and althotrgh the economy or efficiency of the labour may be less, the total labour cost of work is under that ruling in this country. In America, on the other hand, wages are higher, and since labour· sad ng ma~hinery can €ntel' into the c':'st of

•

• • •

' • •

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

building ships only to a more or ]ess restricted extent, the labour cost of a ship is greater, probably from 10 per cent. to 15 per cent. Material, on the other hand, is cheaper in America ; and wherever it is possible machinery has been adopted to a greater extent than in this country. In spite of high labour, new shipbuilding yards are being in­stalled in the United States, for the execution of Govei'nment, as well as of private, contracts.

I t is difficult to ·obtain accurate comparative data on the relative cost of ships, because of the great variations in design, and the fact that the ocean steamer of British build differs much from the coasting or lak e steamer as constructed in America. Lake steamers are efficient cargo carriers. The largest of t hese carry 7900 tons, and, fitted with q uadru pie-expansion engines supplied with steam from water- tube boilers, costs at present from 9l. to l Ol. per ton of dead weight, while 3000-ton steamers cost from lll. to l ll. !Os. per ton . In this country the ocean " tramp," to take 4000 tons at 9 knots, costs lOl. ; the 6000-ton 10-knot steamer, 9l. !Os. , and t he 10,000-ton 11-knot steamer, 12l. per ton dead weight carrying capacity; so that, even allowing for the lighter scantlings, t he American lake ship is not much costlier than the British steamer. In the Lake districts, where there are special facilities in the way of steel and co~r, t he only chance of compe.tition at present with British builders appears to be in the event of a t rade being developed be­tween the Lakes and the Atlantic; a practice already inaugurated. The canal lock which limits the dimensions for vessels to trade between the inland Lake ports and the Atlantic is 270 ft. long, 45 ft. wide, and 14 ft. deep.

In the prices given above there has been an ad­vance of 50 per cent., so far as Britain is concerned, as co'mpared with thoce of a few years ago, largely 6wing to the cost of labour, not only in the ship-

• - -

435

building yard, but at the steel works ; ib is _doubtful if in the immediate future labour rates wtll recede to their former level. It is interesting to note the relation of the cost of labour to the total cost in regard to British ships. Table II. indicates such costs now and ten years ago for different c!asses of ships constructed at works which ar_e amono-st the best in this country, so far as machi­nery :nd management are concerned. I t should be noted t hat wages have considerably. increased during the ten years referred to, so t hat In the COJ?­parison some allowance must be made for t~1s, where the intention is to ascertain the effect of Im· proved mechanical appliances towards the greater economy of labour. In the oase of the hull there

•

•

•

•

Fig.?. TONNA6EOFSHtPSPASSING THRdTHE !JUEZCA

NDICATING TlOHAlJTY. P,.gJ__gr_.edfromJ3cqrdofJ'r~lalJl4 roHS

• •

~!~ ~-+~----~.-4--r-+-~-T~r-1

9'~~-r-+--r-i-1--r-~----~~~ I~

7.2040001---t--l--t-+--t--+-t---t---t---1

6.400P 11--t---t---il---t--r----t-+--t--+--1

~oo.~~~~-r~~· +-~-+----r-~-+~

' ~~~~----+--t--+----~;--+~-----t--r~ •

S2040001---t--r--t-+--t--+-t--;--r-;

~BOQOI:00 .• ~-+--1--t-+--t---t-~. -t--t----i

~0~100n •• ~.-r-+----~~~--t----r-~~~

•

J.600PfJOt---t--t---t--t--t---t-t--t--t---1

J.20QO<XJ1t---t--t--t--t--t---t-t--t--t---1

uo~~~·-r~----r-~-+-;----r-;-~· +-~

WQ0001!---t--l--t-+--t---t-t--t--+-~ . ZDOQOO'.OI--t--t-+--+--+-r-~-+---l~, , (~ ,

. y ~-~ ~p ... ;". ­

lZOQOOOr-t---t--t-;--r~-~~~r-+,-:,.~ .~,.~

800000 ... -- -· 7 .......... ·- •. ··-. -~~~---~~ .. ~.-~-t-_,==T-~-+-.~., DJ!j CH .-· - ·- - - .... . - ·" fOO.OOO • ·-· ·--~

1890 91 9l 93 gf 95 9o 91 ~ g~ iV/11 ff4)

•

•

•

I

•

seems practically no change, the slight increase shown in several cases being probably due to the higher rate of wage. Genera1ly there has been a slight decrease in t he labour cost of t he engines, which is, perhaps, the result of the introduction of automatic machine tools and increased cutting speeds in lathes and the like. But in the case of boilers there is no marked improvement. Modern high pressures demand more careful workmanship, so that the labour bill is necessarily higher.

Commendation may here be expressed for a practice now being int roduced in one or two of the American works, where a mathematician is specially engaged to work out formulre for establishing the length of time necessary for any job in the machine shop; t he needed speed, cut, and traverse being thus ascertained, the machine-man, when he gets the job, has these data given him, and is thereby informed of the time a job should take, and how it may be accomplished within that time. The result is said to be a markf'd economy.

The limited Rpplication of machinery posPib~e in the build ipg of the ship has till now militated

•

•

against the extension of the American merchant marine; but should Congress pass a subsidy Bill, it will compensate the shipowner for the higher capital charge involved in building in the States owing to dearer labour, and there will then be every prospect of a great extension in American merchant shipbuild­ing in the immediate future. At present there are about ten yards on the United States seaboard capable of producing the largest vessels, besides a number of firms who have facilities for moderate­sized steamers, so that the economic condition is the only obstacle to pronounced succeAs. This is being improved by the extensive additions to the American Navy now decided on and under con­eideration.

E N G I N E E R I N G.

tube in connection with the rain-water pipes, so that a portion of the rainfall was diverted to the tubular earth. The author alluded to the immense amount of damage to property annually occurring which might be prevented if efficient conductors were installed. He mentioned that instead of every church having its lightning conductor, not 10 per cent. were so provided ; and in the case of other public buildings the percentage was not much larger, the reason in the case of the former class of build­ings being that a vicar wishing to safeguard his church has usually to pay the cost out of his own pocket.

The discussion on Mr. Hedges' paper was opened by Mr. Currie, who said there appeared to be a

TaBLE !I.-Showing Labour Cost in Ship Construction. change of front in regard to the manner in which lightning conductors should be fixed. Formerly it

Cost of Labour in Relation was considered they should not be in contact with to Total Cost. the building. The Lightning Committee then said

Date. they should follow the building line, but now Mr.

Hull. I Hedges had gone back to the first-named plan.

Eogines. Boilers. H l h Id e wou d be glad to know which architects s ou

Ohannel passenger steamer 1690 1900 ,.

Oruiser . . •• • • . . 1887 , , .. • • • • • . 1 99

. . 1891

. . 1897 Battleship • • • •

, , .. • • . . 1889 . . 1900 . . 1891

Cargo steamer • • .. Paddle steamer

• • ••

" • • . . 1898

per cent 41.7 41.6 42.3 46.6 46.8 49.6 38.2 40.1 40.9 42.0

per cent 28.4 28.8 29.4 20.4 21.8 24.7 23.8 22.7 82.6 80.5

per cent 88.6 30.7 88 8 35.2 40.0 41.6 35.0 S9.9 8i .8 88.8

In Germany there has been a steady advance in the number of shipbuilding works, as the following Table indicates:

Table Showing Growth of Shipbuilding in Germany.

advise. Professor Jaruieson gave details of laboratory

experiments, and illustrated by means of the b1ack­board certain principles in regard to the action of lightning. He would be glad to know why rods should be preferred to flat strips for conductors. Another speaker gave instances of bad earths he had met with.

J\'lr. F. G. Bailey pointed out that the author had said that architects, as a rule, treat the question of lightning conductors in a very brief manner, and in their specifications seldom say anything as to the way in which they are to be run, or of the necessity for good joints and good earth connec-

Year. Number ot Works.

Number ot Workers.

Shipbuildiog tions. The speaker thought it would be hupeless Slips. Docks. to expect architects to pay more attention to the

---:-----;-----:-------- matter until electricians and engineers had decided ~~~ 1~ ~:~gg !~ ~ what should be done. As yet the practice was far 1890 25 21,800 108 17 from being settled. There was no proof that all 1900 89 87,750 154 27 these elaborate copper strips were necessary, for

I no case was on record of copper rods having fused. Simultaneously with this increase in the number The author, in reply to the discussion, said that

of such works, there has been a material growth in Mr. Currie was quite right in regard to the change auxiliary industries, particularly in the production in practice. He had recommended keeping the of steel plates for shipbuilding, which are now conductor away from the building, because that was exported to the Clyde and elsewhere. Again, the plan followed on the Continent, where lightning although raw material is admitted to Germany free storms were much more frequent than in this of duty, the quantity importfd in 1899 was only country. It wa~ very difficult, in following the 39,000 tons, as compared with 52,000 tons in the shape of a building, to avoid corners and sharp preceding year; at the same time the total tonnage turns, which would prevent the current from follow­of steel actually used had increased from 69,000 ing the conductor. In a case in which a chimney to 85,000 tons. had been struck at Wallsend, the lightning went

THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. (Continued from page 404.)

. THE ENGINEERING SECTION. SECTION G met again on Monday, September 16,

the President, Colonel Crompton, occupying the chair. The first paper taken was a contribution by Mr. Killingworth Hedges on

PROTECTION FRO?tf LIGHTNIN(}. The author compared Continental and American

practice, and gave an account of his rearrangement of the system used at St. Paul's Cathedral, where the conductors, erected as recently as 1872, were found to be totally inefficient, both as regards the conductivity of the joints and the resistance of the earth connections. In the plan recommended, both for this installation and for the more recent one at Westminster Abbey, the number of ordinary con­ductors from air to earth had been greatly increased ; and, besides these, horizontal cables were run on the ridges of the roofs and in other prominent positions so as to encircle the building, being inter­connected to the vertical conductors wherever they cross one another. The horizontal cables were furnished at intervals with aigrettes, or spikes, which were invisible from the ground level, and designed to give many points of discharge. At the same time they, in conjunction with the cables, would receive any side flash which might occur should any portion of the building receive a direct stroke of lightning. The unreliability of soldered joints for conductors, whether of cable or tape, led the author to design a special joint box. Owing to the difficulty of sinking an earth plate of sufficient area on account of old foundations at St. Paul's, a tub~lar earth had been designed. It needed little space, and had the advan~ge that, if a ~uitable moist ground were not o btatnabl~, the des1re~ low elect.rical resistance could be attatned by leadmg a

•

to the chimney first, then to the conductor, and after that back again to the chimney, knocking part of it down. He had preferred round rods to flat strips, on the authority of Dr. Oliver Lodge ; and agreed that architects might get puzzled if first one thing were recommended and then another. He would, however, prefer not to lay down any rules as absolutely definite until more results were brought in from the various persons who were making observations all over the country. It was in order to get these data that the Lightning Com­mittee had been constituted.

TaE Col\rnERCL\L IMPORTANCE oF ALUMINIUM. A paper by Professor E. Wilson on the '' Com­

mercial Importance of Aluminium " was next read by the author. This paper we publish on page 464. After referring to the great increase in the production of this metal, the author proceeded to ·state that as far as was known aluminium existed nowhere uncombined in the metallic state, and its production was essentially a chemical operation. Aluminium could be used to produce an enormous number of alloys, some of which, con­taining l to 2 per cent. of other metals, combined the lightness of aluminium with greater hardness and strength. Other alloys, containing from 90 to 99 per cent. of other metals, exhibited properties of those metals, but much improved for certain purposes. The purest aluminium obtained corn­mercially contained traces of iron and silicon; since the weight of a given volume of a metal might govern its financial value, copper being 3.37 times as heavy as aluminium. The prices of metals fluctuated very much~ but taking copper at 70l. and aluminium at 130l. per ton, aluminium was consider­ably cheaper than copper. The use of aluminium as a conductor of electricity was engaging the atten­tion of engineers very much at the present time, and already large quantities of it had been used. Weight for weight the conductivity of thiQ alqminiurn

[SEPT. 27, 1901.

was double that of copper, or, for equal conduc­tivity, half the weight of aluminimn would be re­quired; or for a given length of conductor carrying the same electric current with the Eame loss-that was, the same fall of potential-the relative weights would be as one of copper to half of aluminium. This necessari1y involved a great s11ving in trans­port, and there was the additional advantage that fewer and lighter poles were required for erecting overhead conductors. It had been urged against aluminium that it gave trouble in jointing. The ordi­nary metals were strongly electro.negative to alu­minium, so that if other metals than aluminium were used in jointing, galvanic action would occur in the presence of moisture. In power transmissions mechanical joints had been made with success; but, with proper precaution, aluminium wire could be welded either by the use of the blow-lamp or electrically. Aluminium could be melted in plum­bago or sand crucibles without becoming brittle or taking up silicon, provided that the temperature did not much exceed 626 deg. Cent. or 1160 deg. Fahr., its melting point. The shrinkage of pure aluminium was .20 in. to the foot, as compared with .187 in. for copper. The addition of alu­minium to iron or steel had the great advantage of keeping the metal more fluid in the ladle, thus saving by the avoidance of blowholes. At high temperatures t he metal decomposed nearly all metallic oxides, and prevented blowholes by com­bining chemically with the gas which formed the holes. Its action was stated to be about twenty times as powerful as silicon, and the resultant steel was superior in toughness and ductility.

The discussion on Professor Wilson's paper was opened by Sir W. Preece, who said that, in common with many other engineers engaged in the practical application of electricity, he bad devoted a great deal of attention to aluminium, because he felt that if all the merits claimed for it were well founded, it would be of immense service for ex­tending telegraphs through new countries. For telegraphic and telephonic purposes they had been trying for several years to get the proper stuff manufactured which would withstand the variable strain to which the wires were subjected in storms-snowstorms particularly. In South Africa thousands of miles of telegraph wire had to be carried on the backs of negroes, and it was a very great point to save weight. But although therd were a good many miles of aluminium wire worked, up to the present the success had not been such as to give any cheerful hopes of its ultimate use. He did not know why it should be so. The manu­factured wire drawn down to the sizes required for telegraphic purposes was not uniform in its texture, and it had not, up to the present., suc­ceeded in withstanding the strain of air pressure like iron or copper. He looked upon that as entirely a defect of the manufacture, and not a defect of the material itself ; and he was sure it was only a. question of time to get it thoroughly cured. The question of joints had been entirely solved in telegraph wires, and would be in all other applications. They had only to wait for improve­ment in manufacture of the material.

Professor Barr pointed out the difficulty of solder­ing aluminium. He understood that the operation was carried out in a bath of solder, the parts having to be scraped clean, and kept from contact with the air. It was a misfortune that the coefficient of ex­pansion was high and that the metal would so readily take permanent set. Good castings could, however, be made. Another speaker said that Mr. Wilson had attributed the good effect of aluminium in molten iron and steel to be due to the reducing action causing gases to be absorbed. He, however, was inclined to attribute the result to the absorp­tion of nitrogen.

Mr. Nichol Brown said that the author's estimate of 500,000 tons of copper l?eing produced a year was about right. When he (the speaker) first went into the trade, some years ago, the quantity was about 100,000 tons; but if there were only the same use for copper now that there was then, the demand would only be about 150,000 tonR at the present time. That was to sa.y, the greatly­extended demand had come from new uses, and of these the applications for electricity were the chief. This pointed to the fact that unless more copper were discovered the price would go up. He doubted if aluminium could be bought at 130l. per ton. He thought the price was more nearly 150l.' a ton.

:Prof~ssor J amiesop bad been told by the trade

SEPT. 27, 190!.] .

E N G I N E E R I N G.

that it was Yery difficult to know what solder to described, and illustrated by lantern slides, a use for alun1inium. In a .ship upon which he b~d number of bridges in the prov~nces of Szechuan made a voyage 90 per cent . of the cooking utensils and Yunnan, in ·western China . There was, he were of aluminium. Another speaker referred to sai8, reason to believe that the form of the the rapid manner in which aluminium was corroded bridges 'found in these provinces was evolved in salt water. locally, although much of the decoration was

Colonel Crompton, in closing the discussion, said distinctly of Indian origin, and was, no doubt, that he had used a good deal of aluminium,- in- the- introaooed-with - the-B\iclahist faith. - The Chinese form of tubes, and also in the form of sheets, and had learned to use their materials with considerable he did not find that they could obtain in practice skill, and a thorough investigat ion of their handi­with any ?~rtain~y alu!llinium having the strength craft possibly would reveal whether they bad and elast101ty gtven 1n the paper. When they developed a forn'iula for their guidance or whether applied to those who supplied alun1inium .. t ubes, by long experience their bridge builders had and asked them to give some guarantee of what learned to turn out good work by empirical their power would be of withstanding mechanical methods. The subject as a field for scientific stress and vibration, the manufacturers insisted investigation was untouched, and would certainly upon a thickness so far in excess of what would be yield results of great interest when compared with necessary in copper and in still harder and tougher medimval and modern work in Europe. · alloys, that, practically, the saving in weight was so small, it was not worth ·while incurring t he risks of using the lighter metal. vVhen they dealt with a metal such as copper they could have tubes excessively thin and excessively durable. The question of the use of aluminium as a. conductor was of t he highest commercial importance ; but there seemed to ·be some uncertainty in'" its product ion, which was a. gr eat stumbling-block to its use in that direction. ny of the remarks he made were not in the direction of discouraging the producers of aluminium, but were simply intended to get authorities to look into the causes of the failures which occurred, and which appeared to be the real bar to the extended use of aluminiun1. In ·outh Africa they had found aluminium utensils a great boon, and the metal served a useful purpose in regard to electric conductora, as it kept the price of copper in check. .All present were anxious for t he success of aluminium, but it was best t o look at the facts clearly. It would be a great thing if the chief stumbling-block, the uncertainty of the product, could be removed. · ·

-RECORDI NG SouNniNOS BY PHOTOGRAPHY.

Mr. J. Dillon next described, by means of , dia­grams and black-board sketches, an apparatus· he had devised for taking and recording soundings. lie said that hydraulic and other engineers had long been considering the most suitable form of a ma­chine for ascertaining and recording the depths of rivers, harbours, and other waters. F or some years he. had been engaged in· pert_eoting a machine for this class of work which was attached t o a boat. It enabled the user to do much more work wi~h greater accuracy by reading oft' or recording from a movable scale the variable depths of water the boat was passing th~ough. He explained the method of working by means of charts and diagrams, and then showed how the records could be photographed.

A very ~rief discussion folJqwed, in which one speaker asked if the apparatus had been used for any important work and whether the speed of.ten knots as mentioned by the au~hor had been reached in practice. In reply, the author said he had tried the invent ion in a river abroad and~had used it a t a . . ..... speed of three mtles por hour.

• -THE HEIGHT OF w A YES.

In replying t o the discussion, the author said that the unreliability of aluminium was chiefly a defect when used for telegraph purposes, and not when it was ut ilised for the making of larger A paper by Mr. Vaugha.n Cornish on the size of cables for power distribut ion. He thought that wave~ at sea was next re~d. The author said the height was due to the relatively higher wind pressure on of the ocean waves in deep water, far from land, the smaller wires. In regard to what ·Professor has been determined with fairly concordant results Barr had said, it was doubtless a difficult matter by independent observers. - The values which we to solder aluminium effectively, but it could quote are the average of the heights of a number be done. The operators must , however, be of successive waves. well trained. The most troublesome · task was · to prevent the formation of oxides, but with __ .. -~;.__ ____ -;-_R_c_io_h_ts--:-in_ R_e_et_. --=--- ----practice this could be guarded against. The .. -~-c. question ·of thermal properties and permanent - Desbois. Pari~. Wilson

Barker. Mean.

Hurricane . . Strong gale .• Gale . . . . St rong breeze

• • • •

• •

• •

28.54 20.~4 16. 42 10.83

2n.43 16.67

• •

••

28 23 14 8

27.32 20.07 14.71 9.416

set was important and interesting. No doubt the expansion co-efficient was ver y great. H e was, of course, not certain tha t the explanation he had given of the _way aluminium afiecLed iron and steel castings in getting rid of blow-holes was the true one, but his knowledge of metals led him t o think so. These values are only about one-half of the 40ft. What was said about the absorption of nitrogen was, or 60 H. which experienced seamen frequently however, of interest. In regard to the relative de- state to · be the size of the waves met with in mands for copper and aluminium, he would point strong gales in the open ocean. The author has out that if the us~ of the latter metal were doubled, it observed during gales in the North Atlantic t hat would only equal 2 per cent . of the consumption of waves of a larger size recur at short intervals, and copper. There was evidently, then, a large field for that it was these which riveted the attention and aluminium without much affecting the copper which were dangerous. :ae thought that it was the supply. The tests he had quoted did not give the average size of "ordinary maximum'' waves which inconsistent results men t ioned during the discus- were commonly estimated by seamen at 40 ft. to sion. The experiments had all been most carefully 50ft., and he suggested that it is desirable to record made in Professor Capper's laboratory at JGng's Col- in future not only the general average height, but lege, London. In joining aluminium wires great care also the height of the ordinary maximum waves. must be taken not to introduce any other metal. This practice would do a way wit h much of the ap­He had no data as to whether a soldered joint parent discrepancy between the accounts of the size would last, but he considered it would be bad of waves at sea, and would give some not ion of the policy to expose it to air. He would not recom- simultaneous differences of roughness at different mend aluminium for marine construction, unless it points. The highest \vaves in deep water are recorded could be so well painted as to keep the salt water during storms, but the longest are the swells en­from it. It must have absolutely complete protec- countered in a calmer atmosphere. At sea, where tion, as the chlorine gases evolved from the salt the ship rises and falls, and there is no fixed object water would soon eat the metal away. He did not to provide a datum line, crests and troughs are see any reason why such different results should be judged less by actual elevation than by convexity obtained from different samples of tubes, as the or concavity of the water's surface. When the pro­process was now well under cont rol. Colonel files of two waves of nearly equal amplitude, but of Crompton here said the makers would not guarantee very different wave length, are combined, the result­certain specified results unless the thickness of ing wave line presents a series of inequalities, the metal were so increased as to render the lower wave length of which is fairly 1·egular, and equal, specified gravity of the metal of lit tle benefit, on the average, to that of the shorter component. because there was such a small saving in total The author illustrated by sketches on the black­weight-as to be hardly worth considering. board that when . the . two combining waves of very

different wave length are of equal steepness, the combination appears as a series of inequalities, which, although displaying minor sinuosities of outline, have the wp.ve length of the longer

CHINESE BRIDGES.

A paper by Mr. R. Lockhar t .Jack on "Bridges in N orthern Ohioa " w~s ne~t read. The ~\lthor

•

• •

437 component. Their average amplitude is also equal to that of the longer comp_onent. ~his in~cates that a swell. even of great amplitude JS not d1rectly measurable in a storm ; that a great swell scarcely affects the recorded average height and length of the shorter storm waves, but that it can cause irregularity of the kind referred to in the last Rec­tien-; and,-fu-rther, that the-appearance of the ·water may change somewhat suddenly from that of an irregular short sea to that of an irregular long swell, the longer component being the dominant wave.

There was no discussion on this paper, and the Section then adjourned.

Wednesdn,y, September 17, was the last day on which the Mechanical Section met. The Pre­sident, Colonel Crompton, again occupied the chair.

Sl\IALL SoaEw GAUGES.

The first business was the presentation of the report of the Committee on small screw gauges. No copy of this report was distributed, although it had been printed.

A PoRTABLE R ANGE-FINDER. Professor George Forbes read a paper on "A

Folding Range-Finder for Infantry." 'fhe author stated that the instrument shown belongs to the class known as a '' one-man portable-base range­finder. " It possessed great accuracy up t o 3000 yards. It is founded upon the original idea of Adie, whose instrument was liable to errors. B!lrr and Stroud, of Glasgow, and Zeiss, of Germany, have brought range-finders with short bases to great perfection, as they could give all the accu­racy required. Our Navy is fortunate in being sup­J?lied with the Barr and Stroud instrument. The mekometer is the instrument now used by our infantry, and it has done admirable work; hub a one-man instrument which allows the observer to -be under cover, and which is applicable to moving objects, is needed. It must be of good form, con­venient to hand~e, and extremely.:.pertable in spape, length, and weight. It should be useable without a stand, and the magnifying power of its telescope flhould certainly not exceed 12 diam~ters. It should have an accuracy so great that even at 3000 yards there should be no possibility of an error exceeding 2 per cent. in the hands of an average man. Its use should be attainable after a short training by an average man_. not accustomed to optical instru­ments. It should not require too much care, and should even be able to stand moderate rough usage. It is desirable that if it ever gets out of adjustment, the fact should be immediately apparent. It should work well on badly -lighted objects and those affected by mirage. These conditions are based upon the War Office specification, and the inst ru­ment shown at the meeting em bodied the inventor's desire to meet them. The instrument consists of a folding aluminium base, 6 ft. in length, and a field glass. The base is a square tube hinged at its middle part. Each part of the base has at each end a doubly reflacting prism. The rays of light from a distant object strike the outer pair of t.hese four prisms, are reflected at right angles along each tube, and are then reflected at the two middle prisms into the t wo telescopes of the binocular fixed to the base in directions parallel to the original rays inter­cepted by the outer prisms. It is the measurement of ~ the angle between these rays that tells the dis· tance of the object looked at. This angle is measured by two vertical wires, one in each tele­scope, seen by the two eyes. One of the wires is fixed and the other is moved by a micrometer screw until the two wires appear as one, and the object is seen distinctly. This gave the distance accurately to 2 per cent. at 3000 yards. But stereoscopic vision gives far greater accuracy. The wire seems to stand out solid in space, and the slightest turn of the screw causes the wire to appear to be nearer or farther than the object looked at, and when the wire appears to be exactly the same distanne, the micrometer reading gives the distance with an accuracy far greater than that attained by observing the duplication of images on the retina. The author proceeded to refer at greater length to t,he accuracy of stereoscopic vision. Dr. Wolf, of Heidelberg, had a stereoscopic comparator for de­tecting the motion of the stars from photographs taken at different dates. With this instrument the author had observed the movement of some of the stars at right angles to the sun's motion by means of two photographs taken at intervals of four years. The nearer stars appear with this gigantic base to stand out distinctly nearer than the others in the stereoscope, although no micrometer with the same

•

•

BLEACH! G C 0 N S T R U C T E D B Y !vi E S R .

•

. --

• • •

•

• •

•

magnify~ng power could detect the paralJax. The base we1ghs 3 lb., and the binocular weiahs llb. and magnifies twelve times.

0 '

The discussion on Professor Forbes' paper was opened by Professor Stroud, who said that he and Professor Barr had been engaged for a long time on r_ange.finders, but had not succeeded in getting an Instrument so light and portable as the one shown. Their inetrument was larger and more accurate. He did not consider the range-finder described would be useful for marine work. He thought that coincidence adjustment would be more accurate than stereoscopic adjustment .

Professor Barr joined with his partner in con­gratulating the author upon his paper. It was unfortunate that it was impossible to discuss the matter without comparing the range-finder which was the subject of the paper with the instru­ment he and his partner had introduced. The latter was the only one of the same kind which had preceded the present form, and, therefore, comparison was inevitable. At the present time almost every large ship in the Navy had two of the Barr and Stroud instruments, and over 400 had been supplied. He did not agree, as had been stated, that the success of their range-finder was due to accuracy of workmanship. A good engineer endeavoured to devise a machine which should not need ext reme accuracy for success. The defect of the range-tinder described by the author was its very small fitld. The centre of the object might be clearly defined, but the other parts would have less light in the image. The military authorities very much wished for an instrument that could be used as a telescope to pick up an object. He would also prefer prisms so as not to need silvered surfaces.

E N G I N E E R I N G. • -

PLANT AT THE GL SGOW ~lATHER A N D P LA T T, L I ni I T E D,

-•

' • •

•

-·

• •

•

. •

(For Desc1'iption, see Page 441.)

- -

• • •

• --- ---FIG. 1.

•

~I· --:] ~,{>;, .7~ I . '" pu~nn """"= ":! ....... . ., .

, tL

1 I

•

Boiling Kicr

I I _ Q. I

't:T p, t=

l;tr ' .. ~ l

~~ ~~ ~·

{sm o) I "-'

l ...

Cuide~o

Ct\

-1

~

~

t ~ ~

[SEPT. '1], 1 go~ .

EXHIBITIO •

EN G INEER , ,

li

~ ~ c

· ~ li

. -

\

I

l\I A N c H E I T E R.

Scourvtg ~ W""'hin9 Appa.rab.u

~

I.-._/ ,~-1_~--J 1

•

I

He did not agree that binocular vision was so accu- Dr. Henderson referred to the error of 2 per rate as the method of single coincidence. In the cent. at 3000 yards, men~ionecl by the author and Barr and Stroud finder one eye was on the object

1 considered that some error had been made i~ the

and the other on the scale. . calculation. •

•

•

•

• , •

• •

~ N C l N B E R t N C. •

43~ • • ,.

BLEACHING PLANT AT THE GLASGOW EXHIBITION.~ use on board ship, but he would not advise the one described in the papet: for ~arine. work. In regard to- what ha:d been said a boat the size of the field and the reflecting prisms, he could only say t here were many things that might have been altered or added to wit h advantage; but he had to work to a specification framed to meet certain general conditions.

CON TRUCTED BY ~lE • 'R ' . MATHER AND PLATT, LTD., ENGINEERS, MANCHESTER.

( For Desc'ription, see Page 441.)

• • • • •

• •

•

• ' •

• • •

• •

• •

' •

•

• •

•

•

. ~

•

. . . -

•

• •

•

• ..

• •

• • • •• • •

•

•

•

• •

•

• •

• • •

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

THE MAKING OF T YPE •

Mr. Mark Barr next read an interesting paper on '' The Manufacture of Type., After referring to

. the early history of type-making, t he author went on to say that the obvious development in this field is that the mechanic shall provide a means for accu­ratelyreproducing, in steel of minute dimensions, de­signs which are made in the freer mt:dlum of pencil or crayon in large size. I t is the place of engineering

. to tnus put t he capable modern designer m touch ~ with the required pruduct. Typ~ is cast in a metal

mould arranged in a simple automatic machine which produces thousands of pieces a day. The part of the mould which forms the printing ch~racter is called the matrjx, which is made in copper or brass . At first matrices were carved or engraved by hand. Then steel punches were made from which the

. matrices were stamped or sunk. · ~:t_-;~-j~·::;.f~· -;I_J..:ul" The carving of the character in relief is done I- · in an engraving machine. But it is necessary to

• . , t

•

• t

use an accurate pattern of large size. I t might be imagined, upon one's first contemplation of the problem, that some kind of pantograph could be used to carve the punch direct, in reduced copy, from the original drawing. But this is out of the

• • - • Fie. 3 . •

• I • • • •

question. The punch must be in relief with sloped sides, whereas the drawing is a mere outline on the fiat. The letter must be in 1·elief in the third stage. The first method of making patterns is to trace out the character at a fixed depth in wax or clay. The new process entirely dispenses with wax and electro-plating, and produces in 30 minutes a

• • • •

• •

• •

• • • • • •

• • • •

• •

- • • • . (' • • • • • • • • I •

• •

• •

• • •

• -• •

• •

• •

•

•

•

• •

t

• • •

•

• •

•

• f

•

•

• •

• • •

• •

• • . , . • •

• •

•

•

•

•

•

•

'

• •

•

• •

•

•

•

•

•

• • •

•

; •

• •

• • •

• • • •

•

•

•

•

• •

• •

•

•

•

• •

pattern cut direct from solid brass. The dtfficulty . . was to design a pantograph which would carry a

• 1

• • • direct-cutting tool without undue vibration, and · which, at the same time, would be easy to work .

•

•

•

•

•

•

The author overcame this difficulty by making the parts very heavy and rigid' and by using ball bear­

, ings of extreme accuracy and hardness throughout · the machine. He further increased the rigidity by

inserting a steel straight-edge or guide-bar which keeps the main fulcrum, the copying-tool, and the tracing end in alignment. And by the use· of t his bar it was possible to support the weight of the tracing end of the linkage. Further, it was possible to dispense with the long link and to thereby bring the operator nearer to his work .

The cutting-tool has approximate tractrix-formed bearings of steel on steel, and the speed of running is about 25,000 revolutions per minute. A quick­acting magnetic clutch is used for star ting and stopping. The drawing is traced round by a short post, tho diameter of which is homologous with the diameter of revolution of the copying cutt ing-tool. The difficulty was immense in the beginning, when it was at tern pted to carve rapidly in solid brass. A large amount of superfluous material had to be re­moved in order to leave the design in relief on a smooth plane, and the wear on the tool was prohibi­tive. But the difficulty was o"ercome in a very simple manner; two brass plates were soldered together under about 30 tons pressure, thus making a "sandwich" of perfect flatness, and without elastic irregularities. The top plate was of speciai brass, equal in thickness to the required relief of the character. The sandwich plate being put in the pantograph holder, the cutting tool (which is a steel

F w. 4. prism of rhomboid section) sinks just through the top plate, and is free to move without end-cutt ing in

Colonel Crompton Eaid that having lately been engaged in South Africa, where he had to place the largest guns yet uEed in the field, he had had some experience in t he need of range-finders. The supply was contemptible, and they invariably found them­selves without the necessary equipment in this respect. I t was usual for the artillery officer to take a bicycle and ride across country, carrying a theodolite, and in this way the district was portioned out and definite ranges plotted on a map. The reason of t he breakdown in the equipment was afterwards known. It is t he Service custom to place a rAnge­finder on the end guns of a battery only. When the big guns were sent to the front, this usual rule was followed, although they were only to be used singly. H e had made expe ~ iments himself some

the brass in obedience to the motions of the tracer­years ago when he was in the Army, and could bear end of the linkage. Rivets are put through the witness to the accuracy of stereoscopic vision. letter in several places, and the superfluous brass One of the requirements of a range-finder was that fa.lls away upon heating the pattern. A special brass · it should not be affected by mirage. I t was often alloy was necessary in order that the high-speed easy enough to get the range from hill-top to hill- tool would cut freely and without burr. I t took top ; but when the ob~ervation had to be made eight months to get the right kind of brass, but over a mountain side, it was often impossible to finally a very simple alloy was obtained which lay the gun or to point rifles. The extreme range actually cuts without a vestige of burr or rough­of the modern rifle was about 2000 yards. At the ness. But the author found that in the heating outer end of the range it was more important to necessary for the soldering, the braes became so hard secure accuracy than at the nearer positions, because as to break every tool. Then a special solder was at the first part the trajectory was flat, but toward~ made which melts in boiling water, and·the difficulty the end the bullet drops rapidly. disappeared. A solder which melts at 222 deg.

Professor Forbes, in reply, said he was glad that Fahr. was ultimately used. Messrs. Barr and Stroud were working on different By means of lantern slides the author illus­lines. Their instrument was admirably fitted for , trated some of the machines he had designed for the

•

440 E N G I N E E R I N G. work in q uestion; amongst them the hydraulic the rack by t he amount t he gap is wider than the press used for soldering, a milling machine with a :oll~ r. When the chain becomes elongated enough, special form of cutter, and an extremely accurate It w~ll be longer than the rack, and the rollers in grinding machine. It 1~1s.y be ad4ed. that by the the end spaces will press against the outer surfaces old hand. method the average, t ime (or cutting a of the last tooth spaces. In either of these cases punch suitable for good printing was six to eight of ~xtr~mes the~e is no backlash; but during the hours. By the machine system the average time· is pen od 1ntervenmg there would be lost motion or from 30 minutes to 1 hour. The average cost per backlash. punch by the hand method wa'S from 7s. to 10s . . The author next proceeded to discuss bhe ques­By the new system the year's production of punches twn of roller chain as against the plain block chain. has shown the average cost per punch to ·be He pointed out that in the latter, when the block about 1s. 3d. enters the tooth space it goes to the bottom.of the

The paper was of considerable interest, and we space at one side of it, and during about half a h~pe at a future date to be able to place before our revolution it has to creep under pressure to the readers fuller details of the beautiful machine-tools other side of the gap or space, then the chain described. . , straightens itself and takes it out of the tooth.

. 0IIAIN-D&IVING. The tooth and the block have very small areas of A paper entitled '' Some Recent Developments contact ; the outside of the block or roller is in the

in Chain-Driving" was next .read by Mr. C. R. best position for catching grit. The roller has the Garrard. After referring to the requirements same dirt and grit to contend with, and the same o_f ~hain driving, and the engineering prac- very small area of contact, but the movement does ~~c~ In regard to loads on bearings, the author not take vlace between the outside of the roller pomted out that an ordinary bicycle chain takes and the tooth ; the roller sticks and binds on the loads from zero to 600 lb. The pressure per tooth under the pressure, and its larger and better­square inch reaches 11,765 lb. When the load on protected area has the movement during· the creep the chain is only 400 lb., then the pressure is under pressure. · · · · 7843 lb. per square inch. This pressure cycle- The discussion on Mr. Garrard's paper was opened engineers have succeeded in showing to be per- by the President, who said t hat the aubhor had fectly possible and practicable, and are able to lay prepared this contribution at his special request, out a driving chain so that it will give way practic- as he considered that chain-driving had a great ally all over at once. If 'laid off with a bush suib- future before it, and by its aid many things would ably made, and the rivet or stud is correctly formed be done that had before been out of the range of !l.dd hardened, the bearing surface will not suffer ; engineering pracbice. it will improve with use. The author stated he Mr. Mark Barr said that no doubt many engi­was convinced that bearing surfaces of extremely neers presen t had not realised how much there was highly carbonised steel, correctly treated, give to consider in the design of driving chains. The the best result outside t he jewelled holes of the author had said, in regard to the use of ball-bear­watchmaker. After speaking on the subject of ings for electric motors, dynamos, &c., that when ball-bearings, the author said that the most severe the speed is high the noise is intolerable, and he conditions in chain-driving to be met with occur in had had to remove many sets, and a fast light line bicycle chains. The best observed result in his shaft had to have its ball-bearings removed for the experience was 5000 miles, ridden in 50 days ·net, same cause. This shaft took 10 per cent. more without it being necessary to adjust the chain. This power to drive it without the ball-bearings . Mr. chain was exposed. Barr, referring to this, said that if balls in bearings

In the construction of the modern roller chain were too large, noise would be inevitable ; to run

was a great thing, for it would be manifestly impos­sible to surprise an enemy by a machine that could be heard over. half a county. ~he efficiency of the cha,in drive was a great point in its favour, reaching, a~ it did, sometimes to 97 per cen t. If ordinary gear gave but 60 per cent., t here would be a saving of not far from 30 per cent. in the size of engines. If power trapsmission could be obtained with such small lo3ses, it would revolutionise the use of machinery. The wonderful improvement in the manufacture of power chains had been reached by perfecting details of practice, by perfect machine tools, and by the proper selection and t reatment of steel. This great advance was due to the rivalry of two men : the author of the paper and Mr. Hans Renold. It was a most pleasing incident in the proceedings of the Section to see Mr. Garrard exhibiting his rival's productions, and so fairly giving him credit for the good work done. . In' replying to the discussion, the author eaid

that in small chains they recognised no limit to speed, but with large chains the case was different. Th_e cr~tical point arose when the links commenced to ~haml!ler 9.!! the bottom 9.£ the tooth space of the sprocket ~heel. In small chains the distance was small and the parts light. In answer to a further q~estion by Sir F rederick Bramwell, the author said t h_at effect would be less noticeable in vertical running chains, although there would be the same tendency. The method of lubricating described by the Presi­dent of the Section had produced wonderful results. He, Colonel Crompton, had lubricated larger chains by drilling a hole in the rivet. The author hoped to do that with bicycle chains, so that there would be no lubr icating fron1 the outside. .

HARDNESS OF MATERIALS. A paper on ' ' The Measurement of the Hardness

of Materials," which was to have been read by Mr. T. A. H ea.rson, was not presented, owing to the absence of the author. This is to be regret ted, as the subj ect is one of interest, and a good discussion on it would be valuable.

THE C&ITIOAL PoiNT oF RoLLED J oxsTs. none of the hardened parts are in tension, it being silently they must be small, but this invqlve~ bad A paper on "The Critical Point in Rolled Steel all on the side links ; they are generally made mechanical design. The author had also said that Joists " was next read. The aut hor pointed out from cold-rolled Siemens steel, showing 60 to 65 ball-bearings are eminently suited for thrust, and phat in rolled steel joists for floors the two tons per square inch in t he cold-rolled state. The had given an instance in which, by the substitution elements which determine the section to be used rollers are generally bored and turned from bright of balls,-! horse-power was saved on one drill press with a given load per square foot of floor area drawn rods, and hardened usually by case-harden- when making 1-in. holes in the solid. Mr. Barr, are the stress per square inch produced by the ing. Sleeves are sometimes made the same way commenting on this, said he preferr~d thrust- load, and the deflection produced by the same load. as rollers, sometimes swaged up from cast-steel bearings to be of the tractrix form. At first, par ticularly with small spans, it is the strip and hardened. Lord Rosse pointed out that driving chains stress per square inch which is the governing ale-

The rivets or studs in the author's works are by wear were liable to get out of pitch. Sir ment; this stress must not exceed safe working made fro$ carbonised wire; the outer surface, to Frederick Bramwell next asked how it was known limits. As the span is increased the deflec­a depth of about one-sixth of the diameter, is that the wear took place on the slack side of a chain. tion becomes the ruling element, the stress per highly carbonised, whereas the centre portion is 'He anticipated i t might be so, but .what was the square inch falling into the background. The de­soft low carbon steel. One of the greatest diffi- proof ~ He would ask what was the ~imit of speed flection must not be sufficient to crack the ceiling culties to overcome is to fasten the parts together in a chain drive such as the author described 1 where there is one, nor sufficient to be unsightly substantially, so as not to have wear taking place Colonel Crompton said he had been interested where there is none. The author exhibited diagrams where it is not intended. In the case of a chain many years ago in chain-driving, in connection with two curves shown. The first was the curve of ' 'stretching," it will be found that t he parts that with the design of traction engines. As a bicyclist, a given maximum stress, and showed the loads a were intended to be driving fits and rivetted up tight later, he ·had also been brought into contact with . ~teel joist would carry for various spans. The other had become loose. It is only quite r~cently that the subject, and now ag~in as a designer ?f mili tary cur_ve .gave the load~ which l!roduce a def:lect~on it has been possible to harden the wearing surfaces tractors · he had to consider the problem 1n another wh10h IS a const9.nt g1ven fractwn of the span. 'Ihe intensely hard. . aspect. . What Lor~ Rosse ha~ said about chains curves cross each other, .a~d th~ p~~nt of ~ross~ng

In case-hardening, "crystalline" or "fine" gram stretch1ng and get~mg o.ut of p1tc.h was t.rue up to the a~th~r called the" critlCal point.. At thts p01nt can be produced as required. To get the hardest two years ago ; · but chams no~ made . ih.d not go t~1e dtstrtbu~ed load produces ~~e g1v~n s.tress and surface animal charcoal is used and the articles out of 'pitch at all. · He had r1dden a b1cycle for g1 ven deflectiOn. Before the cnt10al p01nt IR reached are he;ted in a closed pot to very nearly 1000 deg. 2000 miles with the . same chain. and the pitch was t l1e l?ad produces the sp~ci~~d stress, ~ut is in­Cen t., the time being proportionate to the dept~s t he same at the fi!l1sh as ab the st~_rt. . He hoped suffi01e?~ to pr?duc~ t he hmitmg d~fle?tLOn ; after desired. Seven hours will produce j 2 in. deep In he had1• h~lped to 1m.Prove m~tters l'n ~lus respec~. the critical po1n~ Is passed,. the dtst_n?uted ~oad suitable mild steel. If the articles · be plunged It was evident that ~t would be un?e~I~a~le to 011 produces the spe01fi~d deflectiOn~ but Is 1nsuffi01ent straight into cold water, there will be fo?nd on chains· _o? t~ _ ?u!stde~ -~s the lub_r1cant would t? ~roduce the ~peCI.fied stress ; In other wor.d~~ the f!acturing a crystalline grai!l· ~f the art10les be cause ~ gr1t to adlie;e, and the mtXture. would hmit of deflectiOn 1s reac~ed before .the h.mit of qeated a .s~con~ tim~ ":i.t~out any carbol).ising agen~, _ form a grinding medlUm that wou.ld work 1nt~ the stress: . Exa~1ples ~er.e. given of vanous siz~s of giving th .. em_ .~er~ly tun~ ~o .. get to th~ h:eat·: ?11'~ irollers . . _In ordei: to get over this, the lubn?ant steel J.Ol~t~ with the hm1t1ng .~~ressea a.nd deflect1~ns. would heat cast ·steel, taktR'g them on the ·r tsl'ng ,should be of a nature that would ~ot allow gn t ~o Gener~hsmg, up ~o the cnt10al p01nt ~he stress neat ana· que~chi11g' tlien1 again, there will be fo'un~ 'get in. . H e had concluded somethmg of a metalhc curv~ 1s the m~re 1mport!l'nt ; beyond tlus the ~e­a v ery · inuch finer · grain: in the .fr.acture, anq, tlie, nature would oe best, ~nd had therefor.e made a flectiOn curve JS more Important. The t\!o !m­surface is much hardet!. . mi!{ture of ftaked graphite worked up w1th ~llow portant parts of the curves taken together are ca.Hed . Some wear is inevita·ble, but one may set o~~ a and beeswax, eg.ual parts ?f each. 'l,he cha1!1 was the curve of loads. . . ,

olhin drive with solid wheels so that t he. relatiOn made hot and Immersed 1n the melted lubr10ant, . The formula used ID drawing the curves was will remain t rue until t he cha..in is worn right away. ·which would run in between the roller and the gtven, ~nd examp!es w~re quote~. ~0 Mr. Hans Renolcl, of Manchester, belongs the sleeve. When cold it would be extruded ~t the There was no d1scusston on tlus paper. u 0'nour of pointing out the way to accomplish this. ends of the roller very gradually, and would A C C .u . . . l d' h' l th t ld l t f , l R URRENTS IN HUROHES. The chain wheels w:hen new are -made greater In form a dust-exc u mg ve 1c e a wou a~ ~I . . . . p'i~h than the chain .; tHen, ~o gEtt ·phe chain around months. That was one way, and Mr. Garr~rd 1n his . The last paper read 1n t,h1s SectiOn at the .~ee~-, the~ wbee( or sprocket gaps are made_ wi~er than p_n.per had shown another. In answer to ~tr Fred~- mg was br Mr. J. W;, 'Ihomas and was . on Atr tlie~ rOI).er~ reg_uire. fn order to explain hts mean- riCk J3ramwel1, he had known cases. of hght ~ha1n Currents m Churches. The auth?r po1n~ed ?ut in ·; the "''author considered the sprocket opened driving up to ·a speed of 1400 per ~Inute, and t~1at th~t ~own draughts were n?t co~t1nuous m h1gh o\i~ ~g a rack. . W.hen new, . the two end rollers without . undue noise.. The A~er1can looomo~1les bUildmgs, but that the co.ld an· fallmg from t~e top te~s a ainst th.e sides of the end tooth spaces now often see.n runmng so nOiselessly .had h1gh- compress~s the la.y~r of an: b~neath, _and, ow.mg to.

fowardsg the middle, i.e., the ohai}l is shorter than e:peed chain dr1 ves. ·For war-tractors nOiselessness the elastic properttes of a1r, 1t rema1ned statiOnary

, .. • ••

•

• /t . •

• r ·,

•

•

•

•

near the floor of the building for some seconds, and afterwards an air current was formed, the result being that alternating air currents were produced at intervals of about half a minute. The pressure of the outer air when falling down a building at freezing point caused the pressure of the air inside the building to be increased greatly, whilst during the up current the pressure was reduced to its lowest limit . Alternating air currents upset the ventilation of high buildmgs with too much top exit, space, and caused the products of respiration to be breathed over again. The author 's remarks were illustrated by wall diagrams showing the effects referred to.

This brought the proceedings in the Section to a close.

Next year's n1eeting of the Aesocia.tion will be in Belfast, on September 10.

(To be ccmtinued.)

BLEACHING PLANT AT THE GLASGOW EXHIBITION.

ONE of the largest and most interesting stands in the Machinery Hall of the Glasgow Exhibition is that of 1Ylessrs. Mather and Platt, Limited, the well-known Salford firm ; it measures 112 ft . long and 22 ft. wide, and the fifty odd items shown are remarkable for their variety, including bleach­ing plant, water-softening and filtering appliances, sewage farm equipment, electric generators and motors, pumps, and steam heating plant ; and each item displays some originality in design or arrange­ment. In our general review of the Exhibition we had occasion to notice several of these exhibits, and at the time promised to return to the subject and to illustrate several of the important manufac­t ures on the stand. At present we propose to deal with the complete set of bleaching plant, which we illustrate on pages 438, 439, and 442. Fig. 1 is an engraving prepared from a photograph taken at the Exhibition, and shows the whole plant, a plan of which forms Fig. 2. One important departure, as compared with other systems,. is that the grey cloth is bleached in the batch instead of in the fold . The plant consists briefly of a wagon with roller (Fig. 3 illustrating the method of winding); of a saturating bath, where frictional rollers, as shown in Fig. 2, rotate the batch; of a t urntable and capstan for moving the wagon and passing it into the boiling kier, which is shown in perspective by Fig. 4, while a double kier is shown in cross-section by Fig. 6 ; and finally of a chemicking, souring, and washing bath, shown in perspective by Fig. 6.

This plant, which has been patented by Mr. William Mather, promises to play an important part in the development of the bleaching industry, espe­cially in connection with the treatment of the finer classes of textile goods, seeing that it provides for the treatment throughout in the full open width instead of making the cloth into a crumpled rope and passing it in this condition through a very large number of mechanical operations, as is done almost universally at the present time. Such a system of bleaching has long been sought after for all kinds of heavy goods, which are injured perma­nently by being creased, as well as raised goods and those having a pile face, also for the finer kinds of woven fabrics with a floral or other figure pro­duced in the' jacquard loom. This desideratum has been the occasion of the expenditure of very large sums in experiments and trials on a large scale. The system now introduced breaks new ground and marks a departure in principle from anything that has been attempted before, and its development will be watched with interest .

The dominant feature of the system is that the liquors are made to pass through the cloth instead of the cloth t hrough the liquors, and the mechanical details by which this is achieved are ingenious. In the process under notice the cloth is treated at its full breadth from the dry " grey " state to the full "bottom , white bleach, and this without handling the goods mechanically, or passing them through any running machinery. All the operations, as already stated, take place in the batch form, so that the goods are perfectly protected from mechani­cal injury, and no pul1ing or distortion of the fabric is possible, and goods bleached by this pro­cess are, in consequence of the method of operating, wider, heavier, and thicker than when bleached in the rope state, and are, of course, entirely free from stripes or band marks. As practically no running machinery is required, there is very great

E N G I N E E R I N G. economy effected in power for .driving, t~e expen­sive renewal of washing machtne bowls 1s entuely obviated, and the saving of water very great, amounting to about 75 per cent. , owing to the effective method of circulation adopted for washing. The labour of the bleach works is alEo reduced to a minimum. The economy in space will be seen at once from the general plan (Fig. 2) ; and to demon­t>trate on a practical scale the results that can be obtained from the new system, we understand that Messrs. Mather and Platt, Limited, have put down a complete bleaching plant in a special build· ina at t heir own works, to be worked continuously, bl~aching cloth for their clients in their own pre­sence.

The process of working consists generally in Ea.turating the cloth through the machine shown by Fig. 3, with a solution of hot alkaline li

1quor .

Fie 6.

• •

•

' •

•

•

In this machine the cloth is wound on to a batch of large dimension~, with one edge of the cloth in con­tact with a perforated suction end plate. The end is double-plated, with a space between forming a suction chamber, while the periphery is geared to facilitate the rotating of the batch in the kier, &c. Only the inner plate is perforated, as shown. The roller and end plate, with t he suct ion chamber, are carried by a special wagon, as shown in Figs. 3 and 4. 'l'he batch, when completed, as shown in Fig. 4, is about 5 ft. in diameter, and contains approximately t hree-quarters of a ton (dry weight) of cloth. This batch of cloth, saturated with hot alkaline liquor, is run into the patent kier shown in Figs. 4 and 5.

This apparatus, it will be seen, is of the hori­zontal type, with the well-known valve door, which is capable, without tho screwing up of any bolts, of making a joint perfectly steam tight against 40 lb. working pressure per square inch. After running the wagon or wagons into the kier, t he door is closed, the circulating liquor is admitted and then caused to circulate through the mass of cloth by means of the centrifugal pump placed under­neath the kier and with suita·ble pipe connections, the whole of the batch being submerged in liquor. The principle of· 4lction is that ·. t his liquor is drawn from the suction chamber behind the per­forated plate at the end of the batch, against which

• , I • • •

441

the cloth was previously forced tightly in . contact. The batch, with its perforat~d facepla~~, Is slowly rota fed during the whole t1me of b01lmg by. the gearing shown in Fig. 5 ; a very powerrul ?ucu­lation of the liquor takes place long1tudJnally between the convolutions of the batch from ~elv­edge to selyedge ~ith a:bsolute. evenness. After boiling, the alkalme hq~or IB let off, water admitted and the cloth IS thoroughly cleansed before r~moval from the kier ; the door is t~n raised, and t he wagon or wagon~, wit.h the cloth, drawn out and taken on the rails laid down for the purpose, to t he adjacent open,-width chloring, souring, and washing apparatus (F1g. 6, page 442) ; a handy jib crane transferring the batch from the wagon to the app~ratus in whi~h the whole of the subsequent operations of bleac~mg are_Performed.

This open-width apparatus Is prov1ded wtth a perforated plate and suction cb~mber, as well as with the arrangement for. cauEmg t~e b~tch to rotate slowly as desc.ribed In. connectlo~ w1t~ the kier. The suction chamber Is at one end, with a central bearing recess; while at the other end of the bath there is a bearing which is capable of longitudinal motion by s~rew and ha~d wheel placed outside, and by thts the. batch 1s for~ed close up against the per~orated dlSc of t~e suctwn chamber. As in t he kter, the batch IS rotated whilst the liquor is being circulated. The whole of the fi ttings are of special material that is not acted upon by acids or alkalies, and in this open apparatus the operations of chemicking or chloring, washing, souring, and the final wa hing are per­formed without removal and without a moment's loss of time. A powerful centrifugal pump effects the circulation of the liquor.

\

•

• )

•

When the final washing has been performed, the batch is lifted out of the cistern and is placed on a simple wagon, which takes it to an open-width squeezing machine, through which the cloth is passed for a final squeeze as it runs on to the drying cylinders, thoroughly bleached, with its surface and texture uninjured, and after having been under treatment in the bleach-house for on1y about 14 hours.

We should mention that the apparatus is not onJy used for bleaching, but is applicable for dyeing many classes of colours where goods in sufficient quantities require to be treated; and at the Glasgow Exhibition a number of pieces are shown dyed with perfect evenness in the same apparatus in which they were bleached. We show in Fig. 7, page 442, a special type of kier on the same principle as that described above, but of a simpler nature and obviating the use of wagons. In this arrangement the cloth is wound on to a centre inside the kier, passing at the same time through the hot liquor ; the cover is then ·secured, and the circulation performed in the same manner as in the wagon type of kier. After boiling and washing, the goods are drawn out of the kier ready for the next process. This type has been employed very considerably for linen bleaching, and has given satisfactory results in the saving of time effected and in the quality of work produced.

-

'

•

- • • - - --- -____ , ..... ~---

•

THE MERIDIONAL RIFT ON THE UGANDA RAILWAY.

THE Uganda R11ilwa.y*has to cross the great meri­dional rift which runs nearly north and south at about the thirty-sixth line of longitude. This rift is bounded on the east by the K\kuyu escarpment, and on the west by the Mau escarpment. It has a width of 25 to 30 miles, and extends north and south beyond British territory, its length being several hundred miles. The floor of the rift is by no means level, but rises from the south at a gradual slope to the saddle at Longonot. After several undulations it slopes downwards again to the north, past L ake Ba.ringo. The Uganda Rail­way, between the 362nd and 375th miles, de­scends the Kikuyu escarpment and reaches the floor of the rift. and then it ascends-the fall being between 2000 ft. and 3000 ft.-the Ms.u escarpment. The descent involves some heavy work, including eight viaducts and several heavy rock cuttings; and in order to avoid the delay which would have occurred to the advancement of the rails while these works were being carried out, it was decided to at once descend by means of haulage inclines to the floor of the rift. whence a surface line could be laid to mile 375. These inclines have now been in use for nearly eighteen months, and have transpor ted the permanent way and material for 200 miles of rail way beyond, as well as all the food and necessary supplies for over 10,000 men em­ployed in the construction of the r~ilway. The permanent line will be completed in the course of the next three months, when these inclines will be taken up.

As the matter is one of great interest., we take the opportunity to publish, on our two-page plate and also on the opposite page, views of the inclines, together with a plan and sections (Figs. 1 and 2). Fig. 4 on the two-page plate shows the top incline on a gradient of 1 in 7 ; this is entirely worked by gravity, all the load being down-hill. The brake gear is fixed at the top of th·e incline; the loaded wagon bringing up the empty one.

The two next inclines have maximum gradients respectively of 1 in 2 and 1 in l f , and, as t here are several changes of gradi'ent, it _ was considered ad­visable to have a windmg engine, so that it would be possible to brin~ UJ? i heavy load, such_ as a locomotive. In pract1ee It has been found advisable to work the inclines with the engines always in gear, as otherwise, without a very considerable preponder­ance on the descending load, the drivers frequently allowed the load to travel at a dangerous speed.

Fig. 3, page 443, shows the winding engine and brake-gear at the head of lA. incline ; a wagon of rails is standing on the level ready to be placed on the incline. _ _

On these inclines lA. and lB the wagons are placed on carriers which run on a 5-ft. 6-in. gauge ; and }""ig. 5 on ~ur two· page plate shows a loaded ~rrier just approaching the pit, whe,nce the wagon will be sh unted off on to the 155 ft. of level that connects lA incline with lB incline. The platform rigged out at the side of the carrier is for the convenience of the staff working the traffic. .

Fig. 6 shows the same incline . with .a de~cendmg load near the middle. Fig. ? IR a stde y1e'! and shows the carriers near the mtddle of the tnchne.

Incline lB is worked in exactly the same way as l.A , and a general view of it is shown in Fig._ 8 . .

'fhe changes of gradient on these two mchnes were introduced to save work, as large embank· ments on such a steep slope would have bee~ practically impossible, and would hav~ necessi­tated heavy masonry walls. The maximUI~ and minimum grades were so arranged that the ~a1l~ on 1 he carriers should never be at a greater tnchna­tion than 1 in 7 and no trouble of any sort has been experienc~d in 'working them. , They are capable of passing a much greater traffic than has to pass over them, and ~re therefore only worked during the hours of daylight.. .

The bottom incline No. 2 1B wor~ed 1n the sam_e way as the top one, No. ~-~y gravity-and ternn­nates at the Kedong Statwn 1n the K~don~ Vall_ey, as this portion of the rift is called. Ftg. 9 1s a. v1~w of the escarpment from near the bottom of thts In­cline, and shows also inclines lB and l _.A.. 'Fhe brake gear and clip drums for working the mclmes were manufactured by Messrs. Fow~er and Co., and the steel wire ropes by l\1essrs. Bulhvant and Co., under

* See ENoiNEEBINO, vol. lxviii., page 161.

•

-• I

•

BLEACHING PLANT AT THE GLASGOW EXHIBITION. CONSTRUCTED BY ~IE

> T

•

•

•

•

•

• •

•

• -

•

• • • •

•

• • •

•

•

•

• •

• • • •

, .

•

-

R . l\IATHER AND PLATT, LTD., ENUINEERf.!, l\IANCHE TER.

(For Description, see Page 44L)

T re . G. -' I • • • • • -•

•

~~ • J •

• I

• •

• • • • •

•

• -

•

•

-

• -•

•

•

-. ,

•

•

,

• •

• '

-•

•

•

•

•

,

•

•

•

E N G I N E E R I N G. 443 :

TEMPORARY INCLINES ON THE UGANDA RAILWAY . •

(For Description, see opposite Page.)

.. .. c::: c::: - -L. ;r ~

F4J.1 . • ... .. 'CID ~ c:::

~

~ ; 5

STAT!Of4

90

.. c

~ c: -~ ..

5

~~16511'1. l~Hdqht 123•20 (1. : Fif!.Z. ~ c

w I I ION

_I_Nf'' I N:; rJP3 1651 FT :

I' , •

,........, .,,,, 1100 FT L~; l 14..111 RC. 145 0 FT '-.. 7 ., ....

•

•

•

FIG 3. WINDIKG ENGINE AND BRAKE AT H EAD OF THE N 0 . l A INCLI:KE.

t.he direction of the consulting engineers to the Uganda Rail way Committee, Messrs. Sir A. R endel and Co.

FIREWOOD MACHINERY. o~ page 435 we illustrate a machine for splitting

firewood which has recently been designed and mt).nufaotured by ~1es!.lrs. 1YI. Glover and Co. '· s~w­mill engineers, of Holbeck-lane, Leeds, and whtoh we lal-,ely had an opportunity of seeing in operation. As will be seen by t he engraving, i t is a double-sided machine having a heavy flywheel, which is placed on th«3 top, that being ~he po~iti~n prefer~ed, as it is found to ml).terially help ID deh vermg a sohd blow through the knives, a necessary condit ion when hard or knotty wood has to be split. The knives are below, and are worked bv connecting· rods.

With this powerful machine hard wood can h?. split wi r.h facility and knots can be out through wtthout waste of wood. It is especially effective with hard and cross-grained Australian or New Zealand wood, which can be divided into t hin or thick sticks. For dealing with dirty or barky wood, sleepers, or wagon wood containing bolt holes, &<'., which out up wiLh a

proportion of short sticks, Messrs. Glover and Co. attach a patented screening arrangement, which is shown in posit'ion in the engraving. It consists of long troughs fitted with live rollers so oanted that they throw up the sticks and allow the dirt and waste pieces to pass betw~en, t he longer sticks being car­ried on and delivered at the end of the t rough, or are conveyed to an ingenious bundling machine.

ENGINES OF THE S.S. "FLESWICK." WE illustrate on page 450 a. set of compound engines,

supplied by Messrs. McKie and Baxter, of the Cope­land Works, Go van, for the s. s. F leswick, a. coasting steamer built recently by the Ailsa Shipbuilding Company, of Troon. The Fleswiok measures 179 ft. in length, by 27ft. 10 in. beam. by 13 ft. 10~ in. deep. The engines have cylinders 21 in. and 47 in. in d ia· meter by 33 in. stroke, and on trial gave t he ship a speed of 10! kootfl, when carrying 770 tons of cargo. It is claimed that for the coasting trade, with t he boats constantly in and out of port, compound en­gines are, on the whole, more satisfactory than triple· expansion ones, as they cost less to maintain. The

•

~ ... ... · ~

L

j :1 w .. .X

I! Cl 5;;

130 5 140

, I

l lDD_!!_ r.. \.......-

I iO

general character of the engines is well shown in our engravings. As will be seen, t hey are of a t ype which has become the makers' standard for t he smaller class of marine compound engine. The cylinders are supported oo t he one side by columns cast on the condenser body, and at the front by separate cast-iron columns. The valve chests for both cylinders are readily accessible, and tbe feed, circulating, and air

Pig.J.

, 0

8

•

,/

•

(6304. C.)

pumps are all driven by t he usual beam from t he low­pressure crossh~ad. The special feature of the engines 1s to be found ID Baxter's patent steam starting and reversing gear, which is shown in dP.tail in Fig. 3. Its place on the engine is between the back columns as shown in F ig. 2, and the piston-rod of the reversing cylinder is directly connected to an arm on th~

• •

•

444 E N G I N E E R I N G. - ·-y;eigh-bar of the reversing gear, as shown at A 1n. Fig. 3. A peculiarity of the steam cylinder of th1s reversing engine is that it has distinct Eets of ports for the inlet and exhaust. The latter opens into the cylinder at some distance from the covers. To check the motion of the piston, the steam cushion is relied on in place of an oil or water cylinder, such as is common in direct-acting s team gears. An "over­taking motion , or floating lever is fitted to the valve which shuts off steam from the cylinder at any position of the links. This is obtained by coupling the rod B from the controlling handle, not direct to the valve spindle C, but to a lever D pivoted atE on the link F, one end of which rotates on a pin in the cylinder casting, whilst the other is connected to the valve-rod. ln the position shown, steam is shut off from both ends of the cylinder. By moving up the rod B, howeYer, the valve is r aised, and steam admitted above the piston through the central port. As the piston goes down it raises the rod G; and this by me~ns of D and the connecting links bring back the valve to its original position, and shuts off t he supply of steam.

from 0.10 to 12 k ilogrammes per &quare centimetre. The rate of flow through the water orifice F had been pre­viously me'lsured with great care by means of the barrel G graduated along the tube k, k.

The author has experimented sucoessfnlly upon a thin­waned _orifice, a~d upon three converging nozzles having respectively a diameter at the narrowest part of 10.49, 15.19, and 24.20 millimetres (0. 41 in., 0. 59 in., and 0. 95 in.).

a b and a' b' have been drawn on Fig. 2. These differ froiD the theoretical line by 1 per cen t. more and les3 respec­tively. The line 0 D corresponds to Grosshof's formula.

I = 15.26 po.o6oo,

THE EFFLUX OF STEAM. Experiments on the E scape of Steam Through Orifices.*

By M. A. RATEAU, of Paris. (Tra;nslated fro?n the French .}

THE calculation of steam turbines depends upon the knowledge of the laws which determine the escape of eteam through converging or converging-diverging ori­fices. In order to verify exactly the formul re for the escape of steam, the author undertook, in 1895-6, at St. Etienne, a eerit!s of experiments on this subject, accord­ing to a method which gives the greatest possible preci­sion. A short indication of these experiments has been ~iven in the report on steam turbinea which the author bad the honour to present last year at the International Congress of Applied Mechanics in Paris. But at this time he had notl yet completed all the calculations of the results of his experiments, whereas now be is able to give an account of the result~. They differ a little from those the author provisionally announced at the Congress of 1900.

Those investigators who experimented before and since the author, namely, Minary and R esal in 1861, Peabody and Kunhard in 1890, Parenty in 1891, Miller and Read in 1895, SJnd R osenheim in 1900, have all used the same method, which consists of condensing in a surface con­denser the steam, which escapes by the orifice, for a suffi­ciently long pe-riod, and then weighing the condensed water. But this method, beyond being very laborious, can nob give great precision, because, in th~ ~~st place, it is very difficult to keep constant the Imttal steam pre~sure (pession d'amont), P 1 during the whole of the experiments, and the steam, being never absolutely dry, the water which it carries with it is weighed with the condensed water, so that the results found must be generally over-estimated.

The author therefore proposed to remove these causes of error so as toobta.inexactresults within two-thousandths, and to use besides, sufficiently large orifices to deliver up to more'than 900 kilogrammes of steam per hour

He has reached the desi red result by condensing the steam in a. stream of water with the use of an ejector­condenser, and by measuring the total Y.ield of water and the initial and final temperatures of this stream. Thus he was able to make all the readings at the same moment, as soon as constant conditions were obtained; an.d each experiment did nob last more than one or two mmutes. Io has been possible thus, without much trouble, .to make more than 140 obser,·ations under the most van ed con-

Without entering into detail of the ilgures involved in these calculations, Fig. 2gives in graphic form the results obtained with converging orifio~, in all oases where the

•

The correspondence between the theory and the prac . tice is satisfactory. It is the same when the subsequent pressure p (aval) exceeds 0.58 P, in which case the con­sumption of steam depends on the two pressures p and P simultn.neously, whilst the consumption depends on P only if pis less than 0.68 P.

J Hr---==~- 11

•

Fig. 1. DIAGRAMMATIC SKETCH

OF APPARATUS.

L

e

B

•

f

0

;?'=.F~~ --:>Air

f •

lv

F

•

E G

-

Fi!J.Z COMPARISON 01' EXPERIMENTS ON CONVERGING ORIFICES AND fHEORE'TICAL CALCULATIONS .

15·5

-I • a '-....._ x Orifil:.£ 24;20 ~m..dtaJ1teler

c ...... ............. J5·J9 -.......... "-......

)( ' A IJ

, ,, I '

............ .~t ...:.. ............

....... ..........

,. I

-........; :-...... 10•4-9 0 11 11 " f-... ........ ......... •

......... -a ............ ........

........ ~ .......... ...............

5 .......

' .

' r-.......... ..........

......... ~ .....

' ............ ......

.......... • ......... .... ..... ... ~

.......... ~ .......... ~ .......... .......... ~

.......... ......... ..........

..... ........ """' ...... ...... ............... )-.....

........ ~ ' ' ...... .............. ~ ~ .................... ' .......... ......

)-0

' ........ ... ...... .......... - -x-........ ...... )'. ............. <1

.......... """ ............

0

......... ~ ~ 0

5 ...... 0

I ...... ......... ~ ~ """ ........ • '::-...... N

•

15·5

·I

ditions. Fig. 1 represents d-iagrammatically t~e app~ratus em- ,

ployed. A is the ejector-condenser wh1ch re~e1ves steam through the pipe B, and cold water by the pipe C. The hot water containing condensed steam eEcapes by t~e pipe D into the sheet-iron chamber E, where the .au separates out ; then it goes out through the convergmg orifice Fat a pres3ure mea.sured by the wa:ter gauge h h.

• .: #' •• .....

r-.........

~ ........

F::: . ' ~ ~-............ t--...... ~ ~

The rise in temperature of the water IS me!lsured by the thermometers e and f graduated to twe~tietbs .of a degree, and previously calibrated in comparison With a Baudin thermometer. . .

The nozzle to be tested is placed ~itbm the ~t~e at I. It receives the vapour through the pipe H, 5~ m1lhmetres in diameter, a.nd throws it il:~t<? .the large p1pe B., of 120 millimetres in diameter. The tmtial pressure P (c~ l amont) wa.s measured by one or other of the gauges a or. b. The resultant pressure p (a l!aval) was measured by either the metall'ic pressure gauge rn, or the me~cury gauge c ~·

The steam arriving from the boiler by the pipe N, rushes with centrifugal force into the separator J, on account of the partial v~cnum therein, and the s!Dall quantity remaining can be measured by the spe01ally arranged apparatus L . . . h'

The author was thus a.ssu~ed from the beg.mnmg of 18

experiments that the qua.ntu.y of water passmg the sepa­rator never exceeded two to three-thousandths; and as the error due to this method could not exceed a quarter .of this amount, or a.n insignifi?ant figure, be has neglected 1t.

The pressure before pa.-ssmg the nozzle could. be regu-1 ted at will by means of the cock K ; a spe01al valve, ~tuated by the crank g. enabled the pressure p (aval} to be fixed at fllny desired a.monnt nbove the lowest pressure caused by the ejector-condenser. The author has thus been able to operate through a long range of pressures,

'* Paper read before the I.nternational Eng~neering Opngress, G la.sgow, 1901. Sect10n !I I. : Mecbamoa.l.

•

•

(7046 B \ 2 3

Pressur~ P. Kg. pu cm, z

subsequent preEsure p (aval} was less than 0.58 of the

initial pressure P. The points indicate the ratio~ rate

of consumption in grammes per second and per square centimetre of orifice, at the absolute pressure P (d'amont) in kilogrammes per square centim tre for different values

of P. h' b . t th There are fifty-nine results w 1c a.pproxtmate o e

"-.... ·, ' <l R 'b' ........... ...... r......

"' •, r...... c

.......... !'-.... ~ ~ • .... r...... """' ~ "" ..... B r...... ' ..

......... ~ 0 t--.. t--.. t-- b r-..

5 6 7 8 9 10 11 /2 14

4

In the latter case the consumption may be very exacbly represented by the formula

I == P (15.20- 0. 06 log. P),

I being the consumption in grammes per second and per square centimetre of orifice, and P the initial pr~sure in kilogrammes per square centimetre.

theoretical straight line A B, calculated from Regnault's tables by the thermodynamica.l for~ula, assuming t~at BALDWrN LocOMOTIVES.-Oontinued activity is noted the mechanical equivalen t of beat 1s equal to 425 ktlo- in the Baldwin Locomotive W ork3, Philadelphia, all the gram metres per calorie. The differences do. not usually departments being on full time. During the first six exceed 2 per cent. The mean of the results g~ves a figure months of this year the company completed 652 looomo· seven thousandths in excess. when compared w1th the theo- tives; this, compared with the first six months of 1900, retical calculation. This difference ma.y be due to the during which less than 600 were completed, shows a. displacement of ~he thermometer zeros(of ~me to two t~nths remarkable increase. A new ma.chine·shop now under of a degree} durmg the course of the tr1als. It w~ll be oonstruc~ion at Sixteen th and ~{>t:ing Garden Sbre~ts ob~erved that this would not exceed .3.5 thousandths, 1f one will, when completed, afford fa.01httes for a further ID· assumed for the theoretical c~lou.latlOn a val.ue 428 for the crease of production. Re~ent deliveri~ include ship· mechanical equivalent E, wbtch 18 now adantted; for the ments to a number of the 1mporbant ratlway systems of formula. of the speed of escape includes J2g N n.s afactor. the United States_; a.nd twenty-three engines of a special

The scale of ordinates in the figure is oontorted on typ~ have been shtpped from New York by the steamer a.ooount of the method of recordi~g small differe~ces. . To K!l1ght of St. George for the New Zealand Government show clearly the value of the differences, stra1ght hnes . ratlways.

I

•

•

•

CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL J\1:AOHINERY. Ayricultuml .ill achincr!t in the CcmcuUun Puvilion at the

Glasgow International Exhibition, 1901. * By :Mr. G. liAu.wooo Fno 'T, B. A. c., ~mith's Falls

Ontn.rio, Canada. ' AGRIOU J,TUHE i::~ the art of cultivating tho ground and

obtai!ling f.rom it t!1e products necessary for the support of ammul hfe. It I tho olde t occupation of which we have a_ny record, being mentioned in the curlier part of t!1e B1blo, where we aro told of certain persons being tdler:s of tho ground and othet " being shepherds. 'fhe h~rdmg of sheep wa confined to tho mounta,inous dis­tncts, whoro the n:t~u~·al growth. of grass afforded plenty of pasturage, and tillmg tho sOil was carried on m the well-watered valley di tricts, whero the periodic over­flowing of the rivers fortili eel the hmd and forced an abundant crop with little manual labour ~ftor the ground had been prepared for eed and the seed sown. H ence tho proccs:ses of agr~culturo originally employed were ex­tremely ~unple, bemg confine~ to me~·oly prepa~·ing the ground without any effort to t1mulate 1t productlvene and the plough wu practically the only implement in u e: To-day, by the use of mechanical appliance the farmer prepares va ·t areas of land in a hort time dws the eed stimulate the growth of the grain, and f~rce the ma~i~ mut?- yi.eld that the land is capable of; he opens up to oultivatwn barren wa te n.nd unbroken tracts covered with coarse prairie grn ; ltnd he harvest· the crop with a rapidity undreamed of even 50 years ago.

The process of agricul ture may be divided into its se,·eral cla es, a follows :

1. Preparing the ground for the seed by means of ploughs and harrows.

2. ~owing the seed- broaden t seeder · and drills. 3. Cultivation and cure of the growing crop-oulti VI\. tors

of variou kinds, horse-hoe , weeders, thi tie-cutter , &c. 4. Harvesting the crop- mowers, tedders, rakes and

loa~ers for hay, self-binding harvesters and reape;-s for gram.

5. Preparing the crop for use- threshers and other machines.

In the Cnuadit\.n Ptwilion n,t the Glasgow International E xhibition, Canadian implement for the first four pur­poses are represented by tho products of six factories namely, the ~In .. ·ey-Harris Company, Toronto; the Frost nnd W ood Compu~ny, mith 'sFaUs; theNoxon Company In~ersoll ; Da.vid JYiaxwell and on

1 t. lVInry's ; all of

wh1oh manufacture a large variety of Implements ; ttnd the V erity Plow Company, and the Cook hutt Plow Com­pany, both of Brantford, which are devoted exclu ivoly to tile production of plough·.

The earliest implements u ed by the ettlers in Canada were imported from Great Britain, but as the almo t illimitable n,rea. of arable land in Canada became opened up to settlement, the demand for implements soon induced their manufacture at home. The rapid development of theW est rowar~ed these ~arly man.ufacturers with success, and the capae1ty of the1r factones was constantly in­crea ed, until to-day Canada i the large t producing British Colony and, next to the United tate , the largest producer of farming machinery in the world.

Ploughs. - Th e first demand was, naturally, for ploughs for breaking the land. 'fhe plough is the oldest and simplest of u:vicultural implements, being represented amongst the lueroglyphic.s on the ancient tombs of Egypt, dating back more than 4000 years ; and as early as the year 1000 B. C., the plough was described by one of the Greek historians a con i ting of a beam~ a share, and handles. 'fo-day it consi ts essentially of t t1e same parts. Until the past century it was made of wood, and its form had not undergone mpny changes ; but now it is safe to say that no other instrument for use in agriculture or for any other purpose can boast of o many varieties of hape and construction as the plough. Its forms ttre numbered by thousands, every country and almost every locality having its own models, and every condition of land bE:'i11g provided for. The varieties Rhown in the Exhibition are a E-lection of those made in Canada to suit the conditions of Great Britain, where the soil •};R been cultivated for generation and i free from many of the ob tructions met with in the barren and unbroken wildernesses of Western Canada. 'fhey are constructed on the straight line prin­ciple, and all local conditions have been met. A difference in the method of holding and turning the plough in this coun try, although very slight, ha been provided for by the use of two adj ustable sup:Porting wheels attached to the beam, and by an increa e m the thickness of the heel of the lund ' ide, to prevent too rapid wear at this .Point. The mould-boards are made of oft centre or "syndicate, steel, which prevents brittlE-ness and permits of cleaning; the landsides and coulters are made of crucible steel, highly tempered; the beams are of wrought iron and the handles of wood, making the plough much lighter than the English teel-handled ploughs, with, a has been proved by experience, equal strength and greater ea e of handling. The point ' are made of cast teel1 chilled, and may be detached and replaced by new pomts as they wear.

Har1·ows.-Aftor the ground ha been broken and turned by the plough, it is pul ve1ised, and a level eed-bed made by the u ·e of a harrow. Of the harrow there are shown several varieties: the spring-tooth, the pike- tooth, and the disc, each having its particular merits and uses. Harrows are usually made in sections, which may be coupled together to allow two, three, or more sections to be u ed at a time. The framework of the spring-tooth han·ow i made of one continuou bar of steel running entirely around each ection, across which are everal

-* Paper read before the International Engineering Con­

gress, Glasgow, 1901. Section I I I.: Meoh~mical.

E N G I N E E R I N G. angle-shn-ped steel bars, and to these aro attached, in different ways by different makers, a series of highly­tempered steel teeth, about i in. thick. The teeth are curved in such a way that they dig into the ground, tear­in~ the clods of earth ltnd levelling the furrows. The spike-tooth harrow is ruade in much the same manner, with the exception tha.t it has solid steel teeth, in the form of pointed spikes, about 1 in. square, instead of spring teeth. In both these harrows there is a heavy coiled spring attached to an adj usting bar, to allow the teeth to yiold when in contact with an unmovable ob· struction, and also to give thom a continuous vibration. By means of a lever operating the adjusting bar the teeth mn.y be set at various angles for woi·k· ing over different kinds of ground. The disc harrow is an implement extensively used in America, but only recently introduced into Great Britnin. It i different from the others, being compc~ed of a series of concave discs of highly-tempered steel, which cut the ground instead of tearing it. It will pulverise and level soil that is too hard for any other kind of harrow to prOJ?erly handle. The discs are arranged in two sections of SIX, even, or eight discs, which revolve on hardened steel ball-bearings. The sections are adjustable to any angle : in some makes by one lever which compels both seo~ons to wor.k at the ~me angle ; in others by two levers which allow either sect1on to be set at ~tn independent angle. The former has an ad vantage in ease of operation on perfectly level ground, and the latter has the advantage on rough and hilly land, while working equally well on level lttnd. The depth of cutting can be regulated by the ttngle ttt which the sections are set ; and in turning cornei-s or workin~ on hillsides the draught on the ho1-ses can be regulated m the same way. The sections are also flexible to all9w either en.d to ri.se and puss over an obstruction: The dlSC;S a.re provided w1th scrape1-s aiTan~ed in sections, !or keepmg them clean, the scraper-s of eacn section being mdependently locked on or off, and shifted with the sectio~ of discs to wbic~ they belong. Each scraper works on an. mdcfrendw~t S,Pnng, and al~v~ys.fits tightly again t the d1so. rhe prm01pal uses of tlns Implement are cutting turf, a?-d pulv~ri~ing and levelling the ground after ploughmg; but 1t lS equally well adapted for breakincr up the land after the corn crop has been taken off which cannot. ~e done with a toothed harrow. F or this purpose the. Br1t1 h farme~ generally uses a rigid-tooth cultivator; while the Canadian farmer uses a di c harrow which answe1-s also for ordinary harrowing purposes. ' . Anot~er.kind of h~rrow, but only adaptable for use in

hght soll, IS the cham harrow, made of tt series of steel links.

Sowers (Fig . 1 . and 2, page 446).-Th.e ground being broken a~d levelJ Is ready f?r the recept10n of the seed. The earliest metnod of sowmg was to carry the seed in a receptacle, scattering it broa~lcast by the hand, and some fell on good ground and y1elded a crop, while some fell on bad ground and was lost. In our day, how­ever, the chances of thus losing seed are reduced to a minimum by mechanical devices. For different pur­poses, seed. is sown in. different ways-brondca t, and in rows, or dnlls. lVIachines for both methods are shown · the broadca t seeder bl the ~fassey-Harris Company' and the drill by the Noxon Company. uob seeds ~ peas, .beans, ~arley, and some others, are, us a rule, sown m dnlls, wh1le grass seed, clover, and sometimes corn are sown broadcast. There are two varieties of drills___: the hoe and the shoe. The seed is contained in a box from which it passes to the ground through a series of tubes, at the bottom of which are the open hoes or shoes. The hoe-dri.ll hoes a channe~ through the ground by m~ns of d1amon~-shaped pomts, the seed passes into ~h1s channel, and .1s covered by the e."lrth falling back on 1t. The shoe-dnll has a row of steel runners with V -shaped bottoms which are curved upward at the points in a form resemblincr a shoe. These sharp-bottomed shoes cut funows through the earth into which the seed passes, and short drag-chains attached to the rear of the shoes throw a loose covering over it. Gmss seed ~ay be sow~, frOJ? th~ drills by ~ep~acin.g the hoes with

scatterers, wh1ch, mstead of dtggmg mto the grQ~d sca.tter the eed broaden t o~er it. In .the regular broal cast see<;]et-s the tubes are dispen~ed w1th. altogether, the seed falling from the box, and sprmg cult1vator teeth are attached which throw the covering over it. The feed­wheel which carries the seed from the box to the tubes con­sis~ of a :solid cut-awaJ7 cylinder of about 3 in. in length (F1g. 1, page 446). This IS turned by a genring driven by the road-wheels, o that when the machine is at rest the ~eed i closed; it is also olo ed when the hoes or sho~ nre hfted from the ground, or there is a motion of backing the maohme. On the rear of the seed. box there is an indicator bowing how much seed of different kinds should be sown to. the acre-gr~in seed being ~i ven in pecks and gr~ss. se~d 111 pounds (F1g. 2). By movmg the pointer on th•. mdicator to the figure showing the quantity it is desued to sow to the acre, the feed -wheel is shifted enlargi~g or diminishing the size of the opening in th~ measunng channel to allow just the amount desired to pn$5 through. Besides this there is a dial which registers the numher of nares sown. The ho~ are held in posi­tion by springs which allow them to pass over ob truc­tions freely, and to quickly return to their working po i­ti?ns. They are locked securely to the frame by clamps, w1tho~t the u e of bolts or pins, so thnt they may be ea ily removed and replaced by cultivator teeth. The de~th at which they deposit the seed and the angle l'lt whtch they. out the ground is regulated in ome by spring pressure, m others by a mechanism similar to the reversing link of a locomotive; and they may be lifted ?ut of the ground . either altogether by a lever, or m~el'endently by cbams. Another lever iR provided for sh1ft1?g the hoes to a double-line, or zigzag position, to perm1t clods to puss between when working on rough,

•

•

445 lumpy ground that has not been sufficiently broken up by the harrow.

Oultivators.- The third process of agriculture the care of the growing crOJ?-iS an important one; but the implements used for It are of the simplest variety. The ground must be kept clear of weeds and thistles, and it must be loosened up, especially while the crops are young, after it has become caked either by rain or by sun. F or these purposes a variety of implements is used, such as horse-hoes, spring-tooth and rigid-tooth cultivators, weeders, hillers, &c., but all may be ola sed under the general head of cultivators. The most extensively used, and the only variety shown in the Canadian ection, is the spriog-tooth cultivator. The framework is of angle steel and strongly braced; tho teeth, or tines, are S-s ha ped, and are made of spring steel, oil tempered ; the points are of various shapes, and are reversible and interchange­able, permitting points for various purposes to be used on the same tines. The teeth are an·anged in section imilar to the sections of the harrows, which are supported

by a shaft at the front, and the depth of cultivation is regulated by spring pressure on each of the sections. On the Massey-Hurris cultivator this pressure is applied from the front, while on the Fro t and W ood, the ~oxon, and the ~Iaxwell implements it is applied directly to the rear, above the teeth. One lever, a ISted by a coiled spring, serves to lift the teeth out of the ground and to force them in, according to the depth desired.

Most of the spring-tooth cultivators are arranged also for -use as broadcast seeders, space being provided above the front of the sections for the seed-box.

Ha1rveste1·s.- Tbe process of harvesting the crop is the one that has brought out the greatest ingenuity of man in the d~velopment of farming machinery. Neither the preparmg of a seed-bed nor the sowing of the seed necessitated the applip~tio.n of machinery in the early days, and natural fertihsat10n saved further labour; but when the crop ripened it had to be gathered before the weather ruined. it, and prepared for use. This was done by means of s~cld~, th~eshing-floors, flail , 'vinnowing bo~rd.s, an?- grmdmg rmlls, all of which are hown by pam tmgs m the tombs of ancient Egypt. Egypt was one of the first countries in which agricultural practice wns·developed, and animal power applied to the various processes. From Egypt the knowledge of agriculture spread to Greece, thence to Rome, and from R ome to the rest of Europe, and the first mechanical device for cut­ti~g grain b.Y animal P.Ow~r was suggested by the Romans . Pliny descnbes a deVIce m use by the Gauls in the form of a car t with a comb-like bar in front, which stripped off the ears of wheat and delivered them into a box. A~ter th~ lapse of eigh~een centuries the principle of this machine has been re-m vented, and is now in use in the headers which harvest the enormou crops of wheat of Canada, the United tates, and other parts where only the grain is gathered, leaving the straw to be burned. 7'he problem of developing the primjtive sickle and scythe m to the most use~ul and available machines for harvesting the gr~ss and gram crop o.f the world has long engaged the attent10? of man, but I~ was not until comparatively recent ttmes that the practtcul results showed any great efficiency. During the nineteenth century however the mower, the reaper, and the binder have co~e into ~xist­en~e, .and have passed .through many sta~es of shape and prm01ples of con~tructwn and ?Peration mto.their .Present t~te of perfection. T hese ttme and labour-savmg ma­

chines are 1~ow deemed. indispen5!1ble by all who raise hay ~nd gram; a!ld theu product10n has alone rendered po Ible the opemng u.P. to ~ett!ement and as-rioultural de­veloP.ment;S of .the _prarne d1stn.ots of Amenca, Australia, Russia, S1ben a, South Amenca and Africa in all of ~vhich parts Ca,nadian-made harvesting maohi~ery is now m every-day use. Bo~h mowers and binders are exhibited by the Massey­

Harns Company, the Fr9st and Wood Company, the Noxon Company, and Dav1d ~laxwell and Sons. While the principles of operation and the results obtained are the same in all, the ?leohanical .methods. of obtaining this result, and the deviCes by which the d1fferent machines ~eet the varying conditions imposed upon them, are ~Jfferetit ; and each firm claim superior ad vantucres for Its own co~truction, which it is not the purpose ~f this pa~er to disc~ss.

] or harv~tmg the hay crop, four machines A.re used. The grass IS out by the mower, turned for drying by the tedder, gathered by the rake, and loaded on the wagon by the loader. R akes are hown by three firms, tedders by two, and the loaders by only one.

Jl:fowers (FiG" . 3 to 6).-9n the mower .a solid and heavy tubular ea t-1ron frame IS used a th1s secures a more p01·feot a!ld permanent alignm~nt of the running gear and shaft~ng than a steel frame, which must be built up of ~everal p~eces bolt~d t~getber. The wheels are of cast Iron,. 31 m: to 34. m. high, 3~ in. to 4 in. wide, and are proVlded w1th h?t:Izontal and ver~icullugs on the rims to m ure good dn_vmg co~tact w1th the ground. The wheels com~urucate the1r forward motion to the shaft and the mam. g~ar-wheel through a ratchet and SJ?ring pawls on the mside of t~e hubs of both wheels (Fig. 3 page. 446). From the mam gear-wheel the motion is com~ murucated to the cross-shaft by various arrangements of spur and bevel wheels and pinions, giving a rapid motion to t~e crank, and thence ~o the knife through the con­neotLI?-g-rod. The conneotmg-rod is long, and is in some machines mnde of wood . the variety used being well­seasoned. second-growth hH~kory, and in others it is of wrought Iron or s~eel. It IS attached to the knife-bead and to the crank e1ther ~Y a ball-and-socket joint (Fie-. 4) or ~y a hook at:d eye (F.tg. 5). The speed given is m a rat~o of from 5? to 62 VIbratwns of the knife to one revo­lutwn of the dnve-wheels. A lower speed tha..n this would not out ~apidly .enough in . heavy grass to prevent some of It blookmg the action of the machine, and

•

•

•

•

a h~gher speed \Vould overheat the bearings. The buttmrb apparatus, consisting of the heavy steel cutter ­. ar, t h fingers or. guards, ~nd the sectional knife, 18 lla~ac hed to a hinged portion of the main frame ea. e t e hanger, by large bearings, and is sup~ ported at each end by a shoe with either wheels or steel runners. It is made of different lengths to cut a swath of from s; ft. to 6ft. wide, and the width of tread between the dr1 ve-.wheels is proportionately wide-from ~ ft. to~ ft. -to g~ve the machine stability. The knife IS held t ightly agamst the guard plates by several clips, to make a close. shear out and to prevent short and soft grass from gettmg between the knife and the bar. After

Fig. 1. H oe Drill .

De,tail of Feed from See-d-box into the T ubes .

•

•

•

•

•

•

E N G I N E E R I N G. levers (Fig. 6)-o~e. for throwing the machine in and out of gear, one for tiltmg the cutte~-~ar to any angle to suit the n~t~re of the ground or condition of crop, a foot-lever for r~1smg the bar fro~ the ground, t~mporarily, while turmng corners or passmg an obstruct10n leaving both hA:n~s free to ~andle the reins, and a hand-lever for r~1smg the ~ar hig~er and. locking it in the raised posi­t t<?n: A coiled sprmg assists the action of both of these ralSmg levers. qn the outer shoe of the cutter-bar is a track clearer, which ~eflects the grass sufficiently to leave a clear track for the mner wheel on the succeedmg round of the mach~ne. It. works against a pressure spring thB~t allows it to gt ve freely before all obstructions.

So-uJe,rs.

..

[SEPT. '17, 1901.

four-pronged for~s, m9u!lted on a zigzag steel shaft at the rear of the. maohuie, gi vmg the forks three positions, and they are p1voted about one-third their length above this shaft.. The shaft is operated directly from the centre by a o~am, the power coming from the drive-wheels through an mternal spur gear near the centre of the main axle. By ~!- lever the forks can be adj usted up and down while in motion, and the machine thrown in and out of gear. The forks ar~ provided 'vi~h springs, which prevent breakage from stnkmg obstruct10ns.

.R<;tke.- 'l,he horse rake is made to dump either auto­matically, by means of a friction band or a spurwheel on the axle, thrown on by a foot lever, or by a hand lever

Fig . Z. A rrangem-ent for R e-gulating the Flow of Seed, a:rul Dia~ f or l nciica t i ug JV,u:mber of A eYe$ Sow?t/. . . ~ • •

) ~ y •. ~

~ ~ 1:' T' m . , ::--.... "\

, .... I~~· I Atl 0~";1,~ 0 I 1 ~)']

3 I • 1 t\ " B)l ;::;) 0 \] l -· ~ " ~~~()

• •

\ ~~11 ~~ t,~'\ ' .J 1 J t'ift • • /. .... ~ :.; ~ ~o,_,_ (;

~ -:1. r-. ~~ ~)~2~ vr o)p ;;:;J .I t' '~ ""' ' ~ ~rr (, d\ rz>:

\~ • " ·~ (e/ I ~·

.o\.._ -) ~~ .. e '7- '\;. <,e ~

~ \. )o;.) ~ --....., 0 ·

' ~ (' ~0

'/ ....., 0 0~ vs ~ ({:' ~ ~ ~~ 1\ I ( ,.,.._. \ ~'

•

•

I / ), (.) '~

.... ~\ ll~ \w t-- I F= 1-- 1- ~ - J ~""<

== F 0

""" F" \ \.'\ !:::: '""' :. == I~ ft, l l u ~ Dl p 0 \ .,

~ \,.; V ,., '-1 'i f ....... •

• I •

•

Fi,g . 3 . • •

• •

Method of Driving Mowers through Pawls in the Wheels .

• •

• • • Fi.g .6.

Sectional End View , showing the Adj ustable

Brace , T ilting L ever, Haud and Foot Spring Lift

and Underdraft . • • •

•

•

T wo leading_ methods of attaching the Connecttng_-rod to the Knife. ·

•

.Fie. 4 . .-. .Forged Steel Jaws A d) us table B race .

•

I

•

• • , . ... .. • .. -•

f7tm. 8}

. .. - V •

• •

0 0

. • •

•

much use, the constant strain on the cutting apparatus has a tendency to makA it sag backward, and to throw the knife and the connecting-rod out of line, although every effort is made by the use of large and strong bearings to prevent its doing- so ; and if this were not remedied the knife would out m to the fingers, and soon the entire appa­ratus would be. ruined. A stron~ brace is. therefore pro­vided, conneotmg the panger wtth ~he solid tubular part of the main frame, wb1ch can be adJusted to take up any wear and keep the cutter-bar and the connecting-rod alw~ys in perfect alignment. The hanger conne~tion must also allow the cutter-bar to accommodat~ 1tself automatically to the most uneven su~face, so .t~at It may float easily up and do~ ov~r all IITeg:ulanties of phe ground without interfenng w1th the act10n of the knife. Convenient to the operator on the seat there are several

•

•

I

•

-

Fi-9 .5 .

Tempered Steel Wear~ug Plates.

• •

•

The horses dt'.liW the machine from below the pole, the 1 assisted by a. coiled spri11g. The teeth are made o£ a £ne draft being ~pplied directly to the hange~, and the weight 1 qu.ality of ~ruoible sprin~ steel, tempered. By the use of of the pole ts counterb~tlanced· by the rlr1ver on the seat; I this maten al the Canadian manuf~toturers can use light­thus !elieving all. weight from the horses' necks, while weig~t teeth of less than ~ in. in diameter ; while on all drawmg the maobm~. . . . English makes the teeth are very he~wy, being made of

Hay Tedder.- Tb1s Implement IS used for tossmg and wrought steel and not tempered, of vanous shaped section, turning the grass for drying. It can tun1 as much and about 1 in. thick. vVhen the teeth are raised, the grass in one day as ten people can by hand, and by its gn.tbered hay is forced out by a line of clearing rods. The use a much better quality of hay is secured than by hand wheels and axles are of steel. The rakes are made of vary­turning, and for the reason that it permits the grass to ing width, from 7ft. to 10ft., and the teeth are from 3 in. be more quickly and uniformly dried, instead of being to 4 in. apart. sun-scorched on the top by being left too long on. the L oader.- The bay loader, Fig. 7, pa~e 447, is a compara­ground and imperfectly turned. It is strongly and tively Fecent machine, but its use is bemg greatly extended lightly constructed, and 1S drawn by one horse. The frame every year. Its advantages are many, the principal being, is of angle steel, well bmced to give rigidity, the wheels perhaps, that, by its use, hay is often secured when ready f\..re channel steel, and about 4 ft. high. There are six for the stack that might otherwise be ruined by th~

•

•

•

•

1901.]

wen.ther . \Vhon the hay hns been turned t\.nd thoroughly dried , it must be collected without loss of time ; and t he farmer often works far in to the night rather than take the chance .. of lo ing his crop before morning. . Further, the loading of the hay on tbe wagon is the most labour­some part of hR-ymaking. vVi th the loader i t is possible for three men to place a ton of hay on the wagon in five minu~es, while it would require the same men fully 16 mmutes to do the work by hand. The machine is attached to the rear of the wngon, and operated by the same team that draws the load, adding but slightly to t he draught. The driving power comes from the wheel through a ratchet and pawl in the hubs, which may be thrown on nnd off at will. These drive a cylindrical oage revolving on the axle, nnd carrying six rows of curved teeth which pick up the hay nnd deposit it on an elevating

•

•

•

• • . .... ... -

E N G I N E E R I N G.

binding harvester of to-day, which ranks high, not only as a great time and labour-Mving machine, but as one of the greatest inventions of the nineteenth cen tury.

B inders (Figs. 8, 9, and 10).-This is essentially a place-cbangmg machine; it cuts the grain, binds it in compact sheaves, and delivers the sheavP~ but it in no way alters the form or condition of the gram itself. T o do this there a re six distinct operations, namely: reel­ing, cutting,. elevating, paokinghtying, and discharg~ng. Tne mechamsm for each of t e first four opera.t10ns forms a complete machine in itself, which can be worked independently, and those in which adjustment is necessary for varying condi tions are separately con t rolled by the operator, while the last two operat10ns are worked to­g-ether. The reel holds the gram against the knife until 1t is cut, then lays it on the moving platform can•ras,

Pig. 7. H ~ L oader.

Chain

B inde1·s. •

•

•

1''1J · 8 . 11 et hod of Dr1.vzng B inder

f rouz 1/rzin Wheel,

also raising

and lowering

devices .

Steel ~luf Sprr.ng

•

•

•

~rrangeme~zt f or Elevating H ea vy nud T angled Grain . Allowtng fo r expanston o f spa<.e between elevators with a constant tight hold on the grain. •

~

~~--- Fig. 9. Pig. 70 . •

•

•

• •

screen whose driving roller is the revolving cylinder. It is then carried to the top of t he loader whence it falls on the wagon, where i t is put in position by hand labour. The angle of elevation is automat ically ndjusted as the height of the load on the wagon increases. An upright frame supports soverallon~ wood lats which rest on the ascending hay, to prevent 1ts being carried away by wind or falling over the ides.

(1-ra.in H a.rrcsting.- For harvesting grain only two operations are necessary-the cutting, and the tyin~ of the bundles. There are two machines for cutting gram- the reaper and the self-binding lu\rvester, or binder, a.s it is more generally caUed. The reaper simply cuts the grain, delivering it m gavels which must afterward be t ied by hand. Of the reaper there nre two varieties-the manual delivery and the automatic self-delivery. The binder both cuts tho grain and ties it in sheaves. In the early days, when machines were first int roduced to take the labour of ty ing off t he hands of the farmer, wire was used, but this had many disadvantages, and gA-ve much trouble to users. Experiment finally produced ~l1e twine-

which carries it to the foot of the elevators. Here it is carried upward between two canvases to the top and on to the slanting binder-deck under which the packers work. I t is tlien packed tightly against the binder cord until the required size of bundle is obtained, when a trip is pressed releasing a esttch, which, in turn, throws the tying mechanism into gear. The needle arm rises through the deck, carrying the twine which completes the circle of the sheaf, a quick knot is tied, the twine cut, the needle quicldy returns to its position below the deck, and the bundle is discharged on the ground or on a carrier at the will of the operator .

The entire mechanism is driven from a high and broad­rimmed steel wheel whose motion is communicated to the main gear shaft through a large sprocket-wheel and a powerful endless chain Fig. 8. On this haft is located t he anangemen t for throwing the machine in and out of gear, con trolled by a lever within cohvenient reach of the driver when on his seat. From the main gear shaft the motion is communicated throughout the machine by means of chain and spur-wheel gearing . Tqe main weight - . .

447 ..

of the machine is supported by the driving-wheel, and the lesser weight by a steel grain wheel at tbe outer ~nd of the platform. At each end. of the platform tpere IS a divider extending about 2 ft. m front of the knife. The outside' divider separates the grain to be. out from the standing grain, supports it above ~he gram w~eel, and lays it evenly on the platform. It 1s set at a slight out· ward angle, to gather in a sufficient quantity beyond t~e end of the platfonn to provide a clear track for the gra1n wheel.

The crankshaft is driven directly from the main g~r shaft by a bevel-wheel and pinion. This drives the kmfe through a wooden connecting-rod as on the mower. At the rear end of the crankshaft is the sprocket -wheel for driving the long main chain which passes over several wheels, driving directly the platform canvas, the lower elevator canvas, and the packers, also a shaft or roll~r which drives the upper elevator CS\..nvas through a cham or wheel gearing at the front. This elevator must be driven from the front, as i t is narrower than the lower, to allow the heads of long grain to pass up clear of the canvases. The lower elevator is driven from its top roller, and this in turn drives, through two or three pinions, a free roller, inserted in the space between the top of the elevators and the binder-deck, to carry the grain across this space without danger of its falling through on the main wheeL Each can vas is driven from one large rolJer, the other rollers being smaller and free running. The rollers are of wood with steel spindles inserted at the ends ; they are pinned through in two or three ,Places in different directions to avoid possibility of splittmg, and they revolve in close-fitting malleable collars, which prevent grain becoming twis ted about the ends and blockinJr the action of the machine. The canvas aprons are provtded with cross slats at inter vals, to hold the grain strai~ht and prev~nt it from slipping.

A difference m the method of driving the upper elevator canvas in two of the machines may be explained here. In the ~Iassey-Harris it is driven from the top, making the side next the grain the tight side, and in the Frost and W ood from the bottom, making this the loose side. At first sight this might appear to nave different effects upon the grain, but the counstruotion of other parts counter­balances this difference and makes the result the same. On the machine, Fig. 9, a third roller is introduced into the elevator to make the upper ply of the canvas run at an angle, leaving a considerable space between the two plies. The slope of the elevator not being very steep, a tight grip on the grain is not necessary in dealin~ with ordinary crops. The grain is carried up on the ttght side of the lower elevator canvas, and is simply held in place by the loo e ply of the upper canvas. But when the crop is extra heavy, the larger amount of grain deflects this loose ply upwards to get more space, thereby making the tis-hter grip that is necessary for the extra weight. On Ftg. 10, on the other band, the slo.Pe is steep, and a tighter grip is necessary, which is obtamed by driving the canvas so that the grain side is the tighter. T o provide for extra heavy grain, the upper elevator is made to float, that is, the supports of the rear end are set in slots in a fixed frame, allowing the en tire elevator to yield with the pressure of the larger quantity of grain. 'fhe purpose of these devices is to give the machines capacity for handling the heaviest crops without becoming choked.

From the fron t of one of the driving rollers the reel is operated by a gearing so constructed that it allows great freedom of reel adjustment. On the Massey-HaiTis, the N oxon, and the Maxwell binders this is accomplished by a bevel wheel and pinion, with bearings on the reel frame, the power being communicated from below through a square shaft which slides through the pinion as the reel is shifted. On the Frost and W ood, the power is obtained from the top through a square shaft fitted with a sliding sleeve, and with universal joints at both ends, and t he driving mechanism of the reel is operated through two chains, one for each of the two sections of the reel, which are independently adjustable. A vibratory motion is also communicated through one of the rollers to a recip­rocatin~ butter, which evens the butts of the grnin, and brings It down on the binder deck to within reach of the packers. There are two or three rapidly and continuously moving packers, which force the grain tightly against the twine and a compress hook, unt il the proper amount for the size of bundle has been packed, when the pressure on a trip throws the binding mechanism in gear, it being driven from the packer shaft, generally by a chain, but in some by n. bevel gearing, and in others by a com­bination of chain and spur gearing. All three of these methods are illustrated on the binders in the Canadian exhibit.

{To be continued. )

VALPARAISO.-The Chilian Congress is disposed to build a dock at Valparaiso.

1'!ER EY RAILWAY.-An agreement has been entered into with the British W estinghouse Electric and ~1anu­faoturing Company, Limited, as con t ractor, under which that compn.ny undertakes: (a) T o execute the works and provide the plant neces.."llry to enable the traffic of t he railway to be worked by electrical traction within eighteen months from July 15, 1901. (b) T o guarantee the interest of the existin~ 4i per cent. redeemable first debenture stock, amountmg to 249,276t., until tbe works shall be available for P,ublic t raffic worked by electrical power; and to provide the sum of 249, 276l. not la.ter than June 30, 1904, for the purpose of redeeming this stock. The con tract price for the works and financial obli­gations is 635,303t., and is payable to the extent of 620,000l. in 4 per cent. ~1:ersey R ailway new first per· petual debenture stock (pttrt of the 703, 750t. authonsed b;r the .Aots Qf 18~8 an~ 1000) and 1513Q3t. in cash,

•

I

\

•

NOTES FROM THE UNI'fED STATES. PHILADELPHIA, September 18.

T HE collapse of the steelwork ers' strike and the r esumption of work on Monday are the events of the hour. The widespread willingness of t he steelworkers to sustain the strike was fruit less under t he mis­management of the leaders. The United States Steel Corpor a tion has non-unionised over a dozen mills, and will later on p ress its advantages in t he selection of workmen. Quite a large percentage of the strikers found temporaPy employment in the independent mills. No disturbance is probable in financial circles. A large amount of money has been r eleased from t he T reasury in connection w i th the r ecent purchase of Government bonds. The banks have the situation w ell in band. The new President states he will con­tinue the polit ical policy of h is predecessor. This announcement has had a good effect. The steel in· dustry is now over the crisis, and production will con­tinue a t maximum limits. A la rge volume of business that has been held back will now presumably be brought forward . The consumers have been asked to wait as Ion g as possible, and having done so, will doubtless take early occasion to secure themselves for the coming winter. The Jessop Steel Company of Eogland has purchased 40 acres of land twenty miles southward of Pittsburgh, upon which buildings will be erected for the production of various specialties. Enlargements of existing plants continue to be announced, and the p lacing of orders for machinery of unusual a mounts s ubstan tiates. the statements of contemplated en­largements. The capital of an iron sheet and tube comp any at Youngstown, Ohio, will be doubled to 2,000,000 dols. Pig-iron production is now 300,000 tons per week and will be incr eased t o 320,000 tons. Quite a number of blast -furnaces of r ecent construction are about t() blow in. Great activity p revails in foundry iron everywhere. Con­sumption of foundry and forge is exceptionally large. An immense demand for merchant pipe prevails, espe­cially in western markets, and all manufacturers of impleme~ts are increasing their purchases for future delivery. Car material is wanted faster than existing facilities supply it. Sheet-iron production is unequal to demand. All the idle t in mills will soon be at work, and every unit of iron and steel capacity will be at work before another Saturday.

NOTES FROM THE NORTH. GLASGOW, Wednesday.

Glasgow Pig-I ron Market.-There has been bwo idle days on 'Change this week. L ast Thursday, on account of the funeral of the American President, and on Monday of this week on a.ccounb of that being bhe autumn holiday - were the two holidays in question. T o-day's market was moderately active in t he forenoon, when from 12,000 bo 13,000 tons were dealt in, the tone, however, being easy. Cleveland, which sbill monopolises attention, left off 2~d. p er bon lower, at 45s. 5id. per ton cash, with buyers over. Scotch warrants were the burn easier ab 53s. 10~d. sellers one month, and Cumberland hematite iron was un­changed ab 59~. 9d. per ton cash, with buyers over. A t the afternoon meeting pig iron waR steady, hub only some 4000 tons were dealt in. The sebtlemenb prices were: Scotch, 54s. per ton; Cleveland, 45~. 6d.; Cu~b.erla.~d hematibe iron, 59a. 9d. per ten. T he stock of pig u on m Messr8. Connal and Co.'s public warrant stores yesterday afternoon stood ab 58,321 tons, as compared with 58,370 tons yesterday week, thus showing for the past week a. reduction amounting to 49 tons. The number of f~rn~ces in blasb is 83 against 81 a week ago, and 82 at th1s time lasb year. It would seem a-s if there was a considerable over-sold account open in the market, and the recent buy­ing points somewhat to manipulations.

Re-buildinq of Queen-Street Station, Gl~~go~u. -}b is rumoured in Edinburgh t hat t~e North Bnbi~h Ratlwa.y directors are about bo authonse a start w1t? the re­building of the entrance to Queen-sbreeb St~t10n, Gl.as­gow and the erection of a hugE:j hotel on the SI be occupted by the North British Station HoteJ, George-square. ~h.e operations have been d~layed on ~c~oun~ of the Exhibi­tion held in Glasgow this year,, but 1b IS s~td. tha.~ the lessee of the hotel has received notice to qmb .m six months. The building scheme will make a notable dtfference on the north side of the sq ua.re, as the new hotel a!ld offices are to be carried over North Queen-street, wh10h has been purchased from the Corpera.tion. T?e co~pletion of this b ig project will render more It;nperative bbe suitable treabmenb of the somewhat squa.hd frontage to the square between North Hanover.street and North F rederick -s tree b.

Another Tramway Rccord. -To use a familiar phrase, the tramway revenue is going up by" leapsa!ld bounds." A week ago it was chronicled tha.b ~he drawmgs for the preceding week amounted to 13,43ot. 15s. 5d., but even tha~ is topped by the drawings of last wee~ to bhe extent of 270l. 12s. 5d., the total for the week en.diDg last Satur. day night being 13, 706l. 7s. ~Od . ; bha.b IS, 3773l. 9a .. Sd. better than in the correspondmg week of last year. S~nce the beginning of the financial year on June 1, the dra.wu:~gs have amounted to 187,434l. 9d . . 5d., ns .compared w1th 143,813l. 9s. 6d. in the correspondmg portion of last year, showing the substantial increase of 43,620l .. ~o.~. 11d. During the 18 complete weeks that the Exhtbttton has been open the drawings on the cars have been 219,273l. 1Ss. 2d., as c~mpared with 169,869l. O.s. 1d.

E N G I N E E R I N G.

in the corresponding period of 1900, an increase of 49, 404l. 18s. 1d.

Greenock Water T 1·ust.-At the monthly meeting of the G reenock W a.ter Trust, held on Tuesday, it was abated that the rainfall for the week ending Saturday, August 27, was 0 00 in., and for the week ending August 31, 1. 23 in. The total from January 1 was 29.77 in., a.ga.insb 37.57 in. last year. There was in store for the fortnight ending the 31st ult. a. bobal of 385,049,902 cubic feet-that was to say, in Loch Thoro, bhe Corporation Reservoir, the Gryfe Reservoirs Nos. 1 and 2, the Whinhill Reser­voir, and in fourteen smaller reservoirs.

Wate1· Supply.-The bur~h of K ilmarnock has just had its water supply very greatly increased, hub other burghs in Sconland have fallen into the same condition as Man­chester is in-a condition of "shor t commons." One place in Scotland has had its supply so reduced that there IS only water one hour out of the twenty-four hours per daf; even E dinburgh does nob have a constant supply. Wisham, however, like K ilmarnock, has had its supply greatly increased this week by the turning on of a. supply from a fresh source in the Upper Ward of Lanarkshira.

NOTES FROM SOUTH YORKSHIRE. SHEFFIELD, W ednesda.y.

Oornmercial Education at the Yorkshire College.-On T uesday, ab the L eedsChamberof Commerce, the chairman {Mr. G . R. P ortway) mentioned that promises amounting to 170l. had been received towards the scheme for esba.b­lishing a. commercial depa.rbment ab the Y orkshire College. The 170l. was for each of the three years, hub he would like to see the amount raised to ab least 200l.

W illiam J essop a!YI.d Sons, L imited.- Ib is announced that Mr. Herbert Hughes (secretary of the Sheffield Cham­ber of Commerce) has joined the directo~a.te of Messrs. Willlam Jessop and Sons, Limited, Brightside Works, Sheffield.

Proposed Llight Railway in North Notts.-On Friday, ab Misterton, a meeting was held for the consideration of the proposed light railway in that district, and a. rewlu­tion was passed that ib would be of material benefit, and was worthy of supporb. It was announced that the general idea. of the line of route was, starting from R etford, to pass through Clarborough, Ha.yton, and the low-lying lands to bhe west.

Local Oompanies.- The directors of the Sheepbridge Coal and Iron Company announce that the net profit for the year amounts to 247,896l. 5s. Sd. They propose to write off capital 42,342l. 16s. 5d. , the amount expend~d on new works during the bwel ve months, and rebam 50,000l., being the balance required for the ~hares taken in the Dinnington Main Coal Company, Limited. They recommend dividends making 20 per cent. for the year on all shares. The development of bhe South Yorkshire coal­field, they state, in which bhe o~mpany has ba~en a. lar~e interest, has been delayed. p~ndmg the question o.f r~tl­way accommodation. This IS now settled, a.~d SIJ?kmg operations will shortly be commenced. The thuth-e1ghth annual meeting of the Sta.veley Coal and Iron Com­pany was held on Tuesday ab Sheffield. The report, which was adopted, showed neb profits for the past ye~r, a.fber depreciation of 320, 918l. 9s. 4d., and amount earned forward 20,579l. 19e. 2d. An interim dividend bad been declared on February U of 5l. per share on the A and C shares, and 16s. 8d. per share on the B and D shares, and on June 14 a. fur ther interim dividend of a. similar amount was paid. lb was now decided to pay a final dividend for the year of 6l. per share on the A and C shares, and 1l. per share on the B and D shares.

T echnical School at Ohesterfield.-By the joint action of the governors of the grammar school, . the technical ed uca­tion committees of the T own Council and of the Coun ty Council a. new technical school has been provided at Chesterfield. A comple~~ insball:1tion ~s in co~templa.­tion for classes in electr101ty and electn ca.l engmeermg, and a oomplebe mechanical and electrical engineering workshop will be opened. Ib will contain fitters' benches, 12 horse-power gas engine and dynamo, and other ma­chinery.

I ron and Steel.-Encouraging reports cont inue to be furnished of the state of bhe leading heavy branches of trade. The very free buying of iron and some. descrip­tions of steels is causing prices to stiffe.n oonaidera..b~y. Some heavy contracts for Bessemer and Steme~s q~a.hbt~s were entered into before the advance, and buymg 1s still going on . Ma.nufa.c~':lrers of ~hese stee~s say there is notl the slightest probab1hty of priCes recedm~r, and th~b they are mu oh more likely to advance ~efore Chrfs.tmas. There is a steady demand for the htgher qu~hties of crucible steel hub the common hrands are bemg very closely run by the more ex:pensive Bessemer and Siemens steels. In most of the lighter industries of t~e city a. fair amount of work is being turned out; hub m few of them is there anything approaching pressure.

South Yorkshire Ooal Trade.-The satisfactory condi­tion reporbed previously continues in b?e coal tr~de of the disbric~. The pits are mostly workm.g fu~l bime,. and there is a strong likelihood that thts wtll contmue. The demand for house coal is now heavier than is us~al ab this period of the year, and the owners are receiv­ing large orders .from mer.cha.n ts, who urge for prompt delivery. There IS a good m land demand. for bar~~'. but the demand for all classes of small fuel Is yery h mtted. Quotations are unchanged. The coke trade IS reported to be slightly improved.

GERMAN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS.- It is proposed to estab­lish an electric railway between Berlin and H amburg.

'

NOTES FROM CLEVELAND AND THE NORTHERN COUNTIES.

MIDDLESBROUGH, Wednesday. T he Cleveland I 1·on Trade.-Yesterday the attendance

on 'Change was nob over numerous, hub the market was very cheerful in tone, inquiries were on a better soale than for some time past', and a large business was recorded. Demand on Continental account was much better than ib has been, shippers who have iron to buy for customers abroad having apparently con­ol~ded that they wer~ nob likely to gain any. bhmg by further dela.ymg purchases, and, besides, ~bey d <? not lose sight of the faot that the shipping season IS gebtmg well advanced, and that consequenbly iron for export purposes must now be secured. Quotations all round ~h~wed an upward movement. No. 3 g. m. b. Cleve­land pig Iron was 45s. 9d. for prompt f.o.b. delivery-a figure ab which most of the business recorded was done, though there were makers who pub the p rice at 46s. No. 1 Cleveland pig was 47a. 9:i.; No. 4 foundry, 44s. 3d.; grey forge, 43s. 3d.; mottled, 43s.; and white, 42s. 9d. East Coasn hema.tite pig was again scarce ; and, in fact, it was almost unobtainable for immediate delivery, so that ib would seem that bhe augmented oubpub is nob sufficient to meet bhe requirements. Nos. 1, 2, and 3 ranged from 59s. 9d. bo 60s.; and No. 1 was quoted 60s. Spanish ore was steady and firm, rubio being 15s. 9d. ex-ship T~es. To-day No. 3 Cleveland pig was a. little easier, and some buyers reported tha.b they had been able bo purchase it at 45s. 7~d., bub many sellers adhered firmly to 45s. 9d. 9uotations for all the other qualities were firm at yesterday s rates.

Mess1·s. Walker, Maynard, and Co.-Mr. W. E. Walker, ab the first annual meeting of Messrs. Walker, Maynard, and Co .• Limited, of the Redcar Iron Works, in moving bhe adopt ion of the report, said the profits for the year compared favourably with the years 1897-8, notwith­standing the great fall in the price of pig iron. Refer­ring to the amount seb aside for income tax, he said that was the amount claimed by bhe Commissioners, hub he hoped to arrange for some modification of that sum to pay only on the amount of profit realised. Mr. Arthur H ead seconded, and the report and balance-sheet were adopted. Mr. H . W. F. Bolckow was re-elected a director, and Messrs. W. B. Peat and Co. were re-appointed auditors to bhe company.

Ma;nufactured I ron and Steel.-The manufactured iron and steel trades eontinue in a. fairly satisfactory state. Makers of most descriptions are kept busily employed, and inquiries concerning ne·iV orders are more numerous than they were. Common i ron bars are quoted 6l. 5s. ; best bars, 6l. 15s. ; iron ship-plates, 6t. 17s. 6d.; steel ship-plates, 6l. 5s. ; iron sheets, Bl. ; steel sheets, 9l. ; and galvanised corrugated sheebs, 12l .-a.llless bhe customary 2i per cent. discount f.o.b. Rail way material shows no change in price, heavy sections of steel rails remaining ab 5l. 10s. ; and oast-iron railway chairs ab 3l. l Os.-both net cash ab works.

Oleuela;nd Miners.-At a. meeting of bhe joint com­mittee representing the Cleveland Mineowners' and the Cleveland Miners' Association, Sir David Dale, Bart., occupying the chair, three claims were received from men employed ab Shelton Park pit-one from the horse drivers, claiming an ad va.nce all through ; one from bhe miners for l i d. per ton extra. to be paid on all bbe "boddy" ground ; and one from the hauling enginemen for an advance of Gd. per shift. The claims were referred to Messrs. C. H eslop and J . Thompson, on behalf of the owners, and Messrs. Stephens and Stubbs, on behalf of the men, with full power to settle.-The machinemen em­ployed ab the L oft us mines of Messrs. Pease and Partners, Limited, claimed an advance on the machine rate paid throughout the mine, and it was referred to Messrs. W. Walker and J. Thompson, on behalf of the owner~, and Messrs. W . S tephens and C. J ackson, on the men's behalf, with power to sebtle.-A claim for an advance on bhe tonnage rate made by the minera employed at Messr~. Morrison and Co.'s Brotton mine was referred to :Messrs. W. Walker and D. W. Dixon. on bhe parb of bhe owners, and Messrs. C. J aclcson and R. Stonehouse, on behalf of the men.

Coal a;nd Ooke.-Fuel is firm. Bunker coal is in good request, hub the supply is large. Unsoreened kinds are Us. to Us. 3d. f.o.b. Coke is very strong and rather scarce. Medium blast-furnace qualities readily realise 16s. delivered here, and some sellers are inclined to ask a. rather higher figure.

MARYPORT.-The Ma.ryport Harbour Commissioners have received a report from Messrs. Baker a.ud Hurtzig, who were requested to advise on the improvement of Maryport dock. The engineers recommend a. new entrance to the Genhouse dock 60 ft. wide, the deep dock to be widened 140 fb., and deepened. They also recommend the construction of a. timber jetty and new quay and the installation of hydraulic power. The cost of the works proposed is estimated ab 148,000l.

PERSON aL.-We are asked to announce that the busi­ness of the Yorkshire Tank, Cistern, and Copper Com­pany is now amalgamated with that of Mr. W. P . Butter­field, Shipley, Yorkshire.-The Irvine Forge Company, of I rvine, Scotland, inform us that Mr. A . M. Buchana.n, of Suffolk House, L9.wrence Pountney-hill, E .C., has been appointed their sole representative in the London district, and will also act in a similar capacity with respect bo their Dutch trade>. - The Finchley Urban District Council, at ibs meeting on bhe 16th instant, appointed Mr. Edwa.rd Oalverb, of Buxton, as resident electrical engineer, ab a salary of 300l. per annum, his duties to commence from December 2.

NOTE FROM THE SOUTH-WEST. Oa1·d~(/'.-Tbere has been a. moderate inquiry for abeam

coal for both prompb and fu ture shipmen t, hub in t rans­actions for disbanb dates an ea.sier tone has been obser ved. The besb steam coal ha.s made 183. to 18s. 3d. p er ton, while secondary qualities have brought 17s. to 17d. 6d . p er t on . H ousehold coal has nob shown much change ; No. 3 Rhondda large has been quoted at 16s. bo 163. 3::J . p er ton. F?und ry coke has made 1!>3. to 203. per ton; and furnace dt tt? 17s. to 183. per ton . As regards iron ore, rubio na.s reahsed·14s. to 143. 3d. per ton, and Tafna 163. t o 163. 3d. p er ton.

Llanclly.-Great activity prevails ab present in the Llanelly oo.al~eld. Several n~w pibs have been recently sunk, and t t ts reported that smkmg operations are going on ab H endre, Lla.ngennech, wi th every prospect of suc­cess. T he Morfa coalfield ha.s been t aken up by a. p ower­ful Belgian syndicate.

Bristol Docks.- Mr:. Girdlestone, general manager of t he Bristol Docks, is aboub to make a tour through the United States and Canada., in order to lay before ex­por ters the ad vantages of Bristol as a distributing cen tre for their goods a.nd produce.

Guest, Keen, and Oo., Limited.-Mr:. Foraber Brown h.a.s ~een consulted with re3pect to a proposed d eeper smkm~ of Messrs. Guesb, Keen, and Co.'s pits ab Vochr tw, where the supplies are giving oub. By sinking a?oub 80 yards deeper it is hoped to reach an unusually rtoh seam. T he scheme under consideration will involve an outlay of something like 50,000l.

The Swansea Valley.-Since the American steel strike commenced, there has b een mor~ acbi vity in the steel and binpla.te trades in this district. Two mi1ls have been re-started ab the F oxhole Works, and a similar change for the better is expected ab Y nismendwy, so that t he tin ­pla.te establishmen ts of the d istrict are now generally acttve.

CATALOCUES.-It has been demonstrated that a square foob of bare pipe filled night and day with steam a~ 160 lb. pressure, as in an electric supply station, radiates annually beat corresponding to aboub half a ton of coal. The necessity of coverin~ such surfaces is therefore evident, and is universally admttbed. But it is not always easy to decide what is the best method of applying clothing, especially to valves, bend, and j unction pieces. T here are many excellent compositions in the market tbab ser ve admirably for plain surfaces, but leave something to be d esired when they have to be applied to comQ_Jicated cast­ings. For such purposes M essrs. J ones and Hors field, of Hyde, n ear M anchester, manufacture sheet-iron o~sings, of which they have sent us a catalog ue. These fit round the pipes, valves, &c. , and can be filled with slag wool, or other non-conductor. One of their advantages is th~b they make an engine room look tidy, and from the p oint of view of appearance are a g reat improvement on t be usual oanva.scovering.-W e have received from Messre. H edges, l\1cKrell, and Taylor, of 31, Barbican, L ondon, E.C. , a copy of their new catalogue of steam, hydraulic, and high-pressure gas gauges, thermometera, and pyrometers. A special thermometer is one designed for use with super­heated steam, which, in addition to a. scale of tempera­tures, is also provided with a second scale, denoting the pressure of saturated steam at different temperatures. T he amount of superheat in a.ny particular case can there­fore be read direcb from the instrument.-Messrs. Saxby and Farmer. Limited, of Canterbury-road, Kilburn, L ondon, N. W ., have issued a. finely-illustrated Clta.lo~ue describing a number of large in terlocking signalhng plants erected by the firm at different important railway centres. In view of recent developments, the seotion de­scribing signalling plants worked hydraulically will be read with special interest. We learn that ab tbe present time some 250 stations, with an aggregate of bet\Veen 3000 and 4000 handles, have already been equipped. ­M essra. Holden and Brooke, Limited, of the SirlUS Works, W est Gorton, Manchester, have recently published a broadsheet containing illustrations of the different specialities of the firm. These include steam traps, in­jectora, high-pressure steam valves, oil separators, and a variety of sbea.m fittingsof other kinds.-Messrs. L ancaster and T ong ue, L imited, of P endleton, Manchester, have issued a pamphlet con taining reprints of testimonials from usera of their metallic pa.ckings.-The Cribtal Manu­facturing Company, Limtted, of the Manor Works, Braintree, Essex, have sent us a. copy of their elaborate catalogue of architectural wo.:>den and metal casement venbilatora, doors, staircases, and obber architectura l sundriea.-Messrs. E~sberbrook, Allcard, and Co., L imited, of t he Albert W orks, Sbf:ffield, have sent us a. copy of their new catalogue of engineers' band-tools. This cata­logue consists of 84 pages, amply illustrated and fully priced, the articles listed includtng all the general run of tools for engineers, boilermakers, smiths, and shipbuilders. Dimensions are given in the metric system as well as in inches, and prices in francs as well as in sterling.-Messrs. J. H . Sankey and Son, of Eisex Wharf, Cc~.nning Town, L ondon, E ., have issued a ne w catalogue of sanitary ea.r bbenwa.re of all kind8. In another section of the catalogue will be found specimens of boiler-seating bloclcs suited to the requiremen ts of all the principal insurance companies, whilst chemical engineers will be interested in tbe samples of stonewa re chemical apparabuE', also illustra ted.-Messrs. Boulton and Paul, Limited, of Nor­wich, send u~ sheets illustrative of their iron buildings. T hey include churches, chapels, schools, hospitals, cotbage.s, shooting boxes, stables, rick covers. and many Clbher structures. They are easily taken apart and transpor ted.

E N G I N E E R I N G.

MlSOELLANEA.. THF: .Journal de Dal!ny (ra.lien-wan) states that the

Trans-Baikal section of the Siberian Railway will be opened for through traffic early in October, when pas­sengers will be able to reach Sbretensk in 11~ days from Moscow.

N abural gas is verv largely used as a fuel for manufac­turing purposes in Kansas, the amount annually ueed in this way being equivalen~ to about 800,000 tons of coal. Ib is also largely used for domestic purposes, both for heating and lighting.

We have received the new calendar for the Durham Colle~e of Science, Newoastle-on-Tvne, the new session of wh10h begins on September 30. 'l1he calendar contains reprints of the papers set at the examinations last year. The courses in Engineering and Naval Architecture at this colle~e are in the hands of Professor R . L . W eigh ton, M. A., 1\I. I. N. A.

The Winter Ses3ion of the Technical College, Finsbury, begins on 1\Ionda.y nexb, bhe 30th insb. Professor Silvanus T hompson will lecture on Mondays on the "Design of Generators and :Motors." On \Vednesdays the lectures by Professor Thompson or by Mr. Verity will deal with "Electro.Magnetism and Electric 1\tleasnrement., A special course of six lec~ures on "Insulation ,, will be de­ll vered on Thursdays, commencing October 10, by 1\llr. Mervyn O'Gorman.

The Mittheilungen aus dem Gebicte des Seewcsens abates thab the result of the official t rials of the M ontupet water­tube boilers has nob been published by the F rench Governme nt. It is known, however, from previous trials that the tubes can be very quickly removed and replaced. In one of these trials , which lasted four hours, the fires were reduced, the steam pressure lessened, the boilers emptied, and a t ube ramoved-all in the space of 16 minutes. The tube was then replaced and the steam pressure immediately restored. The total interrupt ion to bbe proper working of the boiler la~ted 40 minute:!, and of this only 8 to 10 minutes were employed in re­moving and replacing the t ube. Later, when the fires were oub and the boiler bad cooled, 32 tubes were re­moved in 1 hour and 20 minutes. All the tubes were found to be in good condition.

The brain constructed by the Canadian Pacific R!l.ilway Company in 1\fontreal for the use of bhe Duke and Duchess of Cornwall and York during their Canadian tour is 730 fb. in lengbb, and weighs 595 tons. Ib consists of n ine coaches in alL This brain is hauled by locomo­t ives of the A tlan tic and Consolidation types of passenger engines of the Canadian Pacific Railway. The train is vestibule :) throughout, so that communication without exposure to t he weather is made from one end to the other. Ib is lighted by electricity, and t elephones of a new pattern have been installed in every coach. The Cornwall, a day car, is 78 ft. 6 in. in length, with a width of 10ft. 3 in., an extreme hei~bb of 14 f o., and a weight of almost 60 tons. It contams reception - room, boudoir, d ining-room, and kitchen. The reception-room opens directly on to an observation platform. The night coach York is 78 fb. ~in. in length and weighs 67:1: tong, The Sandringham is the dining·oa.r for the staff. Ib is 77ft. 2 in. long and weighs 57 t ons.

One of the most remarkable power bransmtss1on plants m existence is bbab between the noqualme Falls and the ci t ies of Tacoma and Seattle. The former is 46 miles and the latter 32 miles from the generating station. The cur­ren t is generated on the three-phase system by four 2000 horse- p ower Wesbingbouse alternatort~, ab a po­tential of 1100 volts, which for the purpose of trans· mission is transformed to 30,000 volts. This plant was set bo work bwo yea.ra ago, and bbe demand for curren t has been such tbab additional planb capable of generat ing about 12,000 horse-powermore is in process of installation. The new plant is also bo be furnished by the W esting­house Company. The new generators will be eaoh of 3000 kilowatts capacity, and will, as their predecessors, produce curren t ab 1100 volts. The transformers, by which bbe potential is to be raised to the 30,000 volts needed on bbe transmission line, will tbe oil-insulated and water·cooled. There will be nine of them, each rated ab 1000 kilowatts. Aluminium is to be used for the transmission line, some 125 bona being required.

In years gone by little atten t ion was paid by railway engineers in the U nibed States to the preservation of sleepers by creosoting, burnettising, and the like. The small interes t taken in the matter was in part due to the very ample supplies of cheap timber then available, bob there were also other reasons. With the light rails then used the useful life of a. sleeper was nob closed by decay, bub rather by the facb bbab serious abrasion under the rail seats necessitated their replacement, even if comparativaly sound as a whole. With the stiffer rails now in use bub little abrasion takes place, and even when light rails are still u~ed, the adoption of tie-plates has b ecome general and protects the timber immediately under the rail, so that but few sleep ers are now removed for any reason but general deca;r. In com­bination with the higher .Price of timber, .thts has led to g reater attention being duected to the matter of preserv­ing the sleepers, but creosoting seems still to be generally regarded a~ too expensive, particulanly in bbe West, where the chloride of zinc process seems to be most in favour. As western lines run to a large extent through somewhat arid count ry, this process seems to ~ive satis­faction on the whole, in spite of the readiness w1bh which bbe zinc salt can be wa~hed out of t he timber.

The latest British Consular reporb from Siam gives an interesting account of the present condition of railway d evelopment in t ba.o country. In November lasb the line

449 from Bangkok to K;~;t,-;hiOh wa.s- thefi;Bt -of bhe State railways undertaken by Siam, waa completed. The length of t he line is 1G4 miles, and the journey takes ten hours, where formerly it lasted a. fortnight, and part of the caravan route was tbrou~h a. densely wooded district , where the traveller ran the n sk of contrtt.cting a dangerous fever. Korat lies in a large p lain, which is the centre of trade of tbe Eastern L aos provinces. The construction of the line began in March, 1892, and has been an expensive one in human l ife. ''Literally thousands of coolies, Chinese, L aos, Siamese, and some Indians, have died upon t he construction. Of Europeans engaged upon the work, i t is said tha.b ab least thirty (probably there were a few more) died in the country, and of these 19 were British." Korat t rade is mainly in the hands of Chinese. The line, which ibis hoped will eventually connect Bang­kok with Cbieng.mai, in Northern Siam, is completed as far a.s L opturi, about 80 miles from Bangkok, and is being continued beyond that place. A line west of the Bang­kok River to Petchaturi is progressing. Meanwhile the development of B smgkok itself during the last two or three years proceeds apace; new roads are being con­stan t ly made, blocks of unsightly or incommodious structures have been pulled down and replaced by neat shops and residences ; iron br idges have been erected over the various canals and creeks, and electric light and electric tramways have been introduced. R oads in the count ry have nob yeb received all the attention they deserve, and the presen t excellen t canal system requi res maintenance and extension. A Dntch expert has recently been engaged to advise upon irrigat ion.

In a paper read before the Philadelphia Foundrymen's Association by Mr. A . L . Oolby, metallurgioal engineer to the B ethlehem Steel Oompany, the mabber of using machine - cast p ig in bbe foundry was dealt ' vibh. The introduction of machine castmg became almost a. necessity of the situation so soon as furnaces producing 300 to 600 bona of pig per day became common, since the labour needed on the pig beds with these large melts became most t rying, and ib was difficult to get men to under take i t . So soon as machine casting came into use the pig produced WM preferred by steel makers, parti­cularly if working the basic process. In general, ab modern works, the molten metal is now charged direct into the steel f urnace ; but in such cases in which pig is still used, sand-cast ba9ic pig will only be accepted at a lower price than is willingly paid for the machine-oast product. In foundries, however, the machine-cast pig has nob been as favourably received. lbs advantages lie in its needing less lime as flux, bein~ sand free, and in the uniformity of i ts composition. This arises from the fact bbat the furnaces are tapped into 20-ton ladles, and the iron is thus mixed before casting. On tbe other hand, some of the machine-oast pig sent to foundrymen in the earlier days wa.s " mis fi t" iron, quite unsuitable for their work, and the bad reputation then acquired has nob yet been entirely lived down. Again, some macbine·made pigs are inconveniently large, bub some producera have already remedied this drawback. From the foundry­man's poinb of view, p erhaps the greatest drawback is the impossibility of estimating the quality of the pig from the fracture, and as i t is difficult to sample the metal for analysis owing bo its chilled surface, Mr. Colby recommends the founder to accept consignmenbs on the guaranteed analysis of the maker, simply taking bbe precaution of an occasional check, when dishonesty is suspected.

MoRE .RussiAN CoAL.- Imporbanb beds of coal have just been discovered in the Government of Olonetz (Russia.).

D URBAN.-Tbe Mayor of Durban, in reviewing the pro­gress of the borough, states bbab during the pasb year there has been an increase of about 50 per cent. in the electric ligbb supply, the number of lamps installed being equal to 40,606 eight-candle p ower, g,s againsb 25,044. During the year 850 new buildings wera erected in the town. The maximum water consumption per day in­creased from 2, 750,000 gallons to 3,260,000 gallons. The sewerage system has been extended to the G reyville suburb, and bhe Victoria Embankment Works are practi­cally completed. Despite the crowded state of the town and unfavourable conditions, the death-rate for the paab year was under 17 per 1000.

--T HE ScoTCH RAIT.WAY COAL BrLL.-The cost of the

coal and coke used in the locomotive departments of the three principal Scotch rail ways-the Oaledonia.n, the Glasgow and Soutb-\ Vestern, and the North B ritish-in the half-year ending July 31 compared as followa with the corresponding cost in the corresponding period of 1900 :

Company. 1901. 1900. £ £

Caledonian . . . . . . . . . 133,280 167.438 Glasgow and South-Western 64,569 82,448 N orbb British . . . . . . 166,103 133,034

Ib will be observed accordingly that the three companies effected between them a reduction of 18,9S8l. in their coal expenditure. Of course, the expenditure wa.s affected in each case by the existence of contracts more or less favourable or ad verse, according- t o circumstances. Fortune appeara in connection wtth contracts to have inclined in favour of the Caledonian and the Glasgow and South - W estern, and bo have frowned on the North British. All three companies effected reductions in the distances traversed by trains, the Caledonian running 7.668,982 miles, as compared with 7,992,129 miles; the G lasgow and South-Western 3,443,178 mileP, as compared with 3,493,974 miles; and the North British, 8,669,403 miles, as compared with 8, 7(56,849 miles. The three com­panies effected between them accordingly a. reduction of 671,389 miles.

•

• . •

COMP OUND ENGINES OF THE S.S. "FLESWICK."

. CON S TR UC TED BY MES S RE. McKIE AND BAXTEP, COPE L AND WORKS, GOVAN, GLASGOW.

(For Description, see Page 443.)

-

• •

-~

•• - ... •r . ... r r .. .. ... I I I • ~- - "-- " ..-..-~ .. " _j,• • . .... .r ... "" • .

• I ,.. • " ...,. • • - ~ o1 .... ~ . p:u;;. ,_ .. :: 11 I I I I I .. ----"·- .,"":" , ,. ·-, ·~ ...:·1 - "'""

•

• .

•

•

--•

F IG. 1. FIG. 2

•

I

I

• I -1 u • I

---

. - ----· -

--•

11

I I

11

11

_p.. Ul 0

tzj

z Cl -z t'I1 t'I1 :;;a -z C) •

I l

(J) t%j 1-0 ..., •

tv "'-..l --\()

0 -•

•

l,:j

... 0 .

- - - ~

;?

..:j

... l,

:j

0 •

... 0 •

90

P' ""

9D

,...

'::rj ....

l,:j

0 . ... 0 •

~

• ~

•

•

..--. .,., "' "' b ~ ~ ' .:::·

.., - -. e ;:l

-~

~ "' "' ~

<.:> "' • -... !">

.....

..

~

tii

'<'

,.........

1-j

0 /J

~

7-:1 -< z n re ~ z ti

i (J

) 0 z ~

::r::

tii

7':: ~

._.

~

c ~ e tii

(J) n ;:t>

7-:1

""d ~

tii z ~ -.

7-:1

;:t> ~ re ~

::t> -< •

(%J

IZ

Q

H z t::J

t::J ~

H z Q

w

t=l "' ~ t=l ""' - Cl t=l , l-.:1

~ - .....

. ~

0 ...... .

SEPT. 27, 1901.]

AGENTS FOR "ENGINEERING." AuoTRIA, Vienna: Lehmo.nn and Wentzel, Karntnerstrasse. OAr& ToWN : Gordon and Gotch. En tNBURGn : J ohn Men zies and Co., 12, Hanover-street. FR.ANOB, Pa ris : Boyveau and Ohevillet, Librairie Et rang/ne, 22,

Rue de la Banque ; M. Em. Terquem, 81 bla, Boulevard Hau ssman. Also for Advertisements, Agence Ha.vas, 8, Place de la Bourse.

GERMANY, Berlin: Messrs. A. Asber and Co., 5, Untel' den Liuden. Frankfurt.-am-Main : Messrs. G. L. Daube and Co. (for

Advertisements). Leipzig : F . A . .Brockhaus. Mulbouse : H . Btuckelberger.

GLABG<>W : William Love. INDIA, Calcut ta: Thacker, Spink, and Oo.

Bombay: Thacker and Co., Limited .. ITALY: U. Hoepli , Milan, and any post office. LrvBRPOOL; Mrs. Taylor, Landing Sta~e. MANCBESTKR: J ohn Heywood, 148, Deansgate. NORWAY, Ohristiania: Oammermeyers, Boghandel, Oarl Jobans

Qade, 41 and 43. New SoUTn WALKS, Sydney : Turner and Henderson, 16 and 18,

Hun ter-street. Gordon and Gotcb, George-street. QURBNSLAXD (SouTn), Brisbane : Qordon and Gotcb.

(NORTu), Townsville : T. Willmett and Oo. ROTI'ERDA.M: H . A. Krn.mer and Son. SOUTH AUSTRALIA, Adelaide : W. 0. Rigby. UNITED STATKS, New York: W. H. Wiley, 43, East 19th-street.

Chicago : H . V. Holmes, 1257-1258, Monadnock Block.

VIOTORIA Melbourne : Melville, Mullen, and Slade, 261/264 Oollins­street . Gordon and Gotcb, Limited, Queen-street.

We beg to announce t hat American Subscriptions to ENGTN"Et:m.ING m ay now be addressed eit her d irect to the Publisher, Mr. 0 . R. J <•UNSON, at t he offices of this J ournal, Nos. 35 and 8tt, Bedford­street, Strand, London, W.C., or to our accredi ted .Agents for the United States : Mr. W. H. WILE\, 43, East 19th-street, New York, and M.r. H . V. HOLblES, 1257-1258, Monadnock Block, Chicago. The prices of subscription (payable in advance) for one year are: For thin (foreign) paper edit ion, ll. 16s. Od. ; for thick (ordinary) paper edition, 2l. Os. &l.; or, if remitted to Agents, 9 dollars for thm and 10 dollars for thick.

NOTICE TO AMERICAN ADVF..RTISERS. American firms desirous of advertising in ENGINRBJUNG are

r equested to apply to Mr. H. V. HOLM'&S, 1257-1258, Monadnock Block, Chicago, or Mr. WILLARD 0. TYLKR, 150, Na.ssau-street, Room 1910, New York City , from whom all particulars and prices can be obtained.

ADVERTISEMENTS. The charge for adver tisements is t.bree sbillin~s for the first

four lines or under, and eigbtpence for each addit10nalline. The line averages seven words. Payment must accoml?any all orders for single advertisements, otherwise their inser t10n cannot be guaranteed. Terms for displayed adver tisements on the wrapper and on the inside pages may be oLtained on application. Serial advertisements will be inserted with all practioa.ble r egularity, out absolute regularity cannot be ~aranteed.

E N G I N E E R I N G.

TRACTION and TRANSMISSION. (Published on the first Tuesd,a,y vn. each month.)

PART VU. READY OCTOBER 1. PB.IOB 28., Net; POST Fan 28. 4d.

Published ab the OfHces of ENoiNBt:m.mG, 85 and 86, Bedford Street, Strand, London, W.O.

CONTENTS OF No. 7. • l'.t.OE

Cowad W. Cookc ( lllustratlous in Tex t ) . . ... . . ....• .. .. ... . .. .. 105

65 Railways In Cuba ................ 110 j The Grenoble·Chaparclllan Elec·

trio Railway (PlAtes XX VJll. to

P.t.Ollt The Legal Responalbllltles of Elec­

tl loTrnmway Companies. By W. Valentine Ball ... . .. .. . ..... .. . .

Electric Motors on Batt leships. Dy J . W. Kellogg (Plates XVI L to XX. and illust rations in Text) .. 71 X X.Xf. and Illust.mt.lons ln Text) 115

l l<' Jexlble Tmn.!lmi.salon. By Sldney Russoll (Tllust.rotlons In Text) . . 120

81 •r mcliou and Tmnam lsslon N ot.e11 :

Economics of St reet Rallwnys. lly t he Hon. Robert P. Porter (Pll\te XX l. ) ....... . ... . .. .. ..

.Mun icipal Trndlng: (g) By D h :on lL Da.vies . • . . . . 00 (h) Dy the Hon. Robert P.

PortAlr . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . 100 The Kubel 1'urblue Jnstal la tlon.

By P rof. P mzll, Zurich (Plates XXII. to XX V 11. and lllU&tru.· tlona in Text) . . • . . . . •. .. . .. . 101

The Krleger Eiect romoblle. By • I

The Whitehead Euclosed Go· vem or (ll lustrated) . . . . .. .. 126

Automatic Switch for 200·Yolt Cttrrell t (ll lustmted) •..... .. 127

The South por t E lect ric Tram-car (Plate XX XJI.) . . .. . . .. 127

Tbe British Schuckort Coul· pauy's Exhibits ut Glasgow (Pla te X XXIlJ.) .. .... .. .. .. 128

READING CASES.- Reading eases for containing twenty-six numbers of ENGINEERING may be bad of the Publisher or of any newsagent. Price 6s. each.

NOTICE TO CONTINENTAL ADVERTISERS.

Advertisements from Germany should now be sent through Messrs. G. L. Daube and Co., Frankfurt-am· Main, who have been appointed our Sole Agents for that country for Trade displayed Advertisements. Advertisements from France, Belgium, and Hol· land should be sent through the Agence Havas, 8, Place de la Bourse, Paris, our Sole Agents for those countries for similar Advertisements.

NOTICE OF MEETING. TnE Cn'TL A.ND MscnANIOAL ENGlNEBRS' SocrETY.-Tbursda.y,

OctoLer 3, a.t St. Ermin's Hotel, Oaxton-street, Westminster, when the President, P rofessor R. H. Smith, will deliver hie address on "Fac tors of Safety."

ENGINEERING. FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 27, 1901.

POPULATION AND EXPORTS. Advertisements intended for insertion in the cur­

rent week's issue must be delivered not later than 5 p.m.on Thursday. Inconsequence of the necessity for going to press early with a portion of the edition alterations for standing Advertisements should be e~onomic science, are generally among the plea-received not later than 1 p.m. on Wednesday after· sa.ntest at the British Association gatherings ; and noon in each week. . the late Glasgow meeting was no exception to the

THE proceeding a in Section F, that devoted to

SUBSCRIPTIONS, HOME AND FOREIGN.

ENGINEERING can be supplied, direct from th Publisher, post free for twelve months at the following rates, payable in advance:-

For the United Kingdom.............. £1 9 2 , all places abroad :-

Thin paper copies . . . . . . • • • • £ t 16 0 Thick , . . . . . . . . . . £2 0 6

All accounts are payable to "ENGINEERlNG " Limited. Cheques should be crossed "Union Bank, Cbaring Cross Branch."

Post Office Orders payable at Bedford-street, St rn.nd, W.O. When Foreign Subscriptions a!e sent by Post Office Orders,

advice should be sent to the Publisher . F oreign and Colonial Subscribers receiving incomplete copies

through newsagents are requested to communicate the fact to the Publisher, together wit h the agent's name and address.

Oftlces for Publication and Advertisements, Nos. 35 and 36, Bedford Street, Strand. London, W.C.

TKLE&R.APBIO ADDREBB-ENGINEERING, LONDON. TELKPIIONE NUMBt:m.- 8668 Gerrard.

CONTENTS. PAGE t PAGE

Foreign Competition in The Carbon Bisulphide Shipping and Sbipbuild- Manufacture . . . . . . . . . . . . 453 ing (llltLBt r ated) . . . . . . . 433 The Fall in Copper ..•.. . •• 464

Tbe Briti~h Association .... 436 The American Institute of Bleaching Plant at t he Electrical Engineers . ... 4E5

Glasgow Exhibition (ll- Notes .... . ..... .. . . ...... 455 ltL8t1·ated) ..... . . . .. . . .. 441 Heating Large Workshops 456

The Meridional Rift on the Nitro·Explosives .......... 457 Uganda Railway (lllus.) 442 The Glasgow Corporation

Firewood Machinery (ll- Tramways . .• •. ........ . 46'i l tLBtr ated) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443 The Tonnel between Ireland

En~oeA of the S.S. " Flea- and Scotland .... . .• ...•• 457 wick " (lll118trated) . . .... 443 The Performance of Electric

The Efflux of Steam (l lltL8· Generators .. . . . . . . • . .. 458 trated) •........... ... .•. 44! The T. ·S.S. " Kronprinz

Canadian .Agricultural Ma- Wilhelm" (llltu trated) .. 458 chinery(JUmtr ated) .... 445 The Suez Canal . .... . ...... 468

Notes from the United Industrial Notes ... . .... .. 459 States . . ... . ... .. .. ....• 448 Bilbao River and Harbour

Notes from the N or t.h . . . . 448 (Illustrated ) . . . . • . . . . . . . 460 Notes from Sou th York- Compound Locomotives in

shire . .... . ...... . ..... .. 448 South America (lllti$-Notes from Oleveland and t1·atetl).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463

the Northern Counties . . 448 The Commercial Import· Notes from the South-West 449 ance of Aluminium .... .. 464 Miscellanea .... . . ... ..... . . 449 A Regenerat ive Acoumu-Population and Exports .... 45l lat or (llltLBtrated) . ... . . 466 The Loss of the '' Oobra" .. 452 Launches and Trial Trips .. 466 The Passing of the Steam " Engineerin~ " Patent Re-

Engine ... . .. .. . . ........ 463 cord (I llustrated) . . . . . . 467

With tz Tuo-Poge Engtaving of THE TEMPORARY I N ­CLINES ON THE KIKUYU ESOARPM8NT; UGANDA ,P..t! IL JY AY.

•

rule. A good many engineers from Section G look in on F whenever there is a subject brought for­ward that interests them. This is fairly often, as engineers are frequently also economists, for reasons that are not difficult to appreciate. Engi­neering is necessarily a calling that makes a. man consider carefully means to an end ; that is to say, it is essentially scientific, and there is a compre­hensive analogy between the natural laws which govern physical and economic science. Of course, all industries are dependent on economic condi­t ions, but the connection is, perhaps, more directly apparent in the larger branches of engineering than in most fields of manufacturing activity ; being as it is our chief foundational industry, upon the pro­sperity of which other branches of production mainly depend.

In Sir Robert Giffen the Section had an admirable president this year, and his address contained matter that makes luminous to some of us statis­tical facts, perhaps, hitherto not so pregnant with meaning. The first statistical question dealt with was the enormous increase in the population of European countries, and of peoples of European origin, during the last century ; more especially of the English people and those of the United States. The growth all round is from about 170 millions at the beginning of the century to about 510 millions at the end. This includes South America and Mexico. The growth of the United States alone is from a little over five to nearly 80 millions, and of the English population of the British Empire from about 15 to 55 millions. Germany and Russia also show remarkable growth : from 20 to 55 millions in the one case, and from 40 to 135 millions in the other. France has shown a smaller rate of increase- from 25 to 40 millions. It may here be pointed out that it is this augmentation of civilised peoples that has made possible (as it has been dependent upon) the growth of engineering industry ; the characteristic feature distinguishing the past century from all that have preceded it .

G1·eat Britain, the United States, Russia, and Germany have, Sir R obert Giffen says, become the ~reat world Powers. Fr~nce for ~conon1ic reaEons,

•

45 I _

notwithstanding the stationariness of her popula~ tion, may still be so classed, although, with other Powers, she must more and more occupy a second place.

Another matter to which the address draws attention is the increasing dependence of European nations upon supplies from abroad. " The posi­t ion here in Great Britain obviously is that, with the industries of agriculture and the extraction of raw material (except coal) practically incapable of expansion, and with a population which not only increases in numbers, but which becomes year by year increasingly richer per head, t he consuming power of the population increases with enormou~ rapidity, and it must be satisfied, if at all, by foreign imports of food and raw materials." That, as the addreAs states, is a conception, in r egard to the United Kingdom, with which we are familiar ; but it will, we think, come to many as a new factor in economic speculations that it is more or less true of other countries, such as France, Scandinavia. Austria-Hungary, Italy, and Germany. Especially is it true of Germany, and to a remarkable degree; for that country, as Sir Robert Giffen has shown by his fi gures, is becoming increasingly industrial and manufacturing, whilst room for expansion in agriculture is now very limited. Taking a money standard as a basis of comparison, we find by figures quoted from the statis tical abstract, that be­tween 1888 and 1898 Germany's increase in food imports rose almost exactly 100 per cent. ; whilst her imports of raw and semi-manufactured mate­rials, advanced 49 per cent. In other countries there have also been marked advances, although not so striking as in the case of Germany. Thus the ratios of advance, over the period named, in i.Jn­ports of food and raw and semi-manufact ured mate­rials r espectively, were for Russia 35 per cent. and 29 per cent.; for Switzerland, 40 per cent. and 27 per cent.; for Italy, 42 per cent. and 28 per cent.; and for Austria-Hungary, 85 per cent. and 27 per cent. In France the food imports remained stationary, and the imports of raw and semi­manufactured articles advanced only 16 per cent.

It is evident from this that the competition for the natural products of the earth is becoming more and more emphasised. Even a heavily-taxed and comparatively poor country, such as Italy, is in­creasing its demands, and coming into competition with ourselves in asking food for its g rowing population, and for raw material to be worked up into manufactured goods. In the case of Germany, however, the figures are far more striking, for the increase on food stuffs imported has been, during the ten years named, from 45 millions sterling up to 90 millions, whilst raw and semi-manufactured articles have gone from 75 millions to 112 millions sterling.

It would be interesting to follow the matter further, and add fresh figures to those quoted by Sir Robert Giffen. Naturally, a broad view of the situation cannot be taken on imports alone . To judge how far we shall be affected by the compe­tition of other countries, which is the chief point of interest, the natural resources of the country should be taken into consideration. For example, the existence of plentiful and easily-won supplies of coal and iron ore, with adequate limestone, would facilitate the carrying on of a flouri hing E>teel trade, and render commercially possible a general engineering industry, more especially in shipquilding; and this in turn would be likely to foster a shipowning industry, the competition of which would have to be met. As a matter of fact, these conditions have arisen in regard to Ger many, and, in spite of present depression in that country, they are likely to still further increase in the future.

There is another most suggestive fact brought before our notice by the presidential address of the Economic Section. We are accustomed, and rightly so, as Sir Ro bert Giffen says, to consider naval preponderance indispensible to the safety of the Empire, and especially indispensible to the safety of the country from blockade, and from interrup­tion of commerce, which would be our ruin. In this matter, however, we are by no means so excep­tional1y placed as we were a few years ago, when the factory industry of the world was so largely in our own hands as to give us almosh a monopoly of foreign trade in many branches. As Sir Robert Giffen tersely puts it, our Continental neighbours, especially Germany, are less or more in the same boat. It is conceivable that in certain wars some countries mi~bt not b~ able to make up by traffic over their

•

I

452

land frontiers for blockade or interruption of com­~erce. by sea. For instance, if Germany were VlCto!tous by sea over France, she might insis~ on Bel~tum and Holland on one s ide, and Italy and Spatn on the other, n ot supplying by land what had been cut off by sea. On the other hand France and Russia migh t practically seal up Ger~ many, insisting that Scandinavia and Holland should not make up to Germany by land what had been cut off by sea.

Whatever may be the probability of these mea­sures being put in force, we must acknowledge t he truth of Sir Robert Giffen's contention that their possibility makes out for Germany a strong case for a powerful fleet. In fact, as any Power increases its o.versea commerce, so does its need f?r nav.al pro­tectiOn grow ; and there are few countrtes wh1eh can increase their exports and imports without beina largely dependent on sea carriage. o

In this re3pect, of course, England stands at the upper limit in the scale of nations, whilst Switzer­land would represen t zero. The only approach to our own condition that is likely to arise is that of Japan ; and J apanese statesmen are showing a wise appreciation of the position by building up, with what might appear almost feverish haste, a power­ful naval service.

Before leaving the question of naval defence we may point out how thoroughly t he facts brought for ward in Sir Robert Giffen 's address upset the arguments of those who decry naval expenditure in this country because it only leads other P owers to emulate our example. As a matter of fact, the increase of navies is automatic and inevitable for all count ries in which foreign commerce is a growing factor.

Turning to another phase of the subject, we find the address considering the important quest ion of how new markets are to be found for the products of an increasing population. '' What we see is that, not only in this country, but in Germany and other Continental counbries, millions of new people are, in fact, provided for in every ten years, although the resources of the country in food and raw n1aterial are generally used to the full extent, and are not capable of further expansion, so that in­creasing supplies of food and raw material have to be imported from abroad." Sir Robert Giffen accounts for this by the fact that the main provision for the wants of the new people is effected by themselves. "The butcher, the baker, the tailor, the dressmaker, the milliner, the shoemaker, the builder, the t eacher, the. doctor, the lawyer, and so on, are all working for each other the most part of their lives, and the proportion of exchanges with foreign countries n ecessary to procure some things required in the general economy may be very smalL" No doubt the home t rade in all countries exceeds the foreign trade, and the latter may be, as the quotation just made says, " very small;" but with the great increase of imports there must also be an increase of exports, unless the country receiving the imports has some sort of claim on that from which the cotnmodities are sent, or in some way renders services that stand for value. Such a claim England has on most other countries, in the shape of her investments in foreign enterprises, and the services she renders, chiefly by means of over­sea transport owing to her preponderating mer­cantile marine. These are the two main reasons­coupled with the large banking and exchange busi­ness, of which L~ndon is the cent re-which have enabled us to cont tnue solvent for the many years our imports have exceeded our exports, and that to an enormous extent. No one has done more to put these matters before the public in their true light than Sir Robert Giffen has by his previous writings.

But though it is conceivable we may be able to "live on our income," like a country squire on his rents, is it certain we shall always continue in that happypos.iti?n 1 Investment.s a~road ~ave some­times a disquiettng way of shrmking- Just as t he country squire's rents have been doing of late years -and often come to an end altogether. Sometimes a franchise expires or a concession terminates. At other t imes the home investor gradually buys out the British capitalist. Recently, for instance, the water supply of a foreig~ capital, which was ~?n­structed by British eng1neers, wholly by Bnttsh money, fell completely into the h.ands of nat~ve capitalists, and the London office, wit~ the Enghsh staff was disbanded. In many foreign manufac­turhtg establishments insufficient s~nns ~re pro­vided for depreciation, so t hat the bus1ness 1s gradu-

E N G I N E E R I N G.

ally wearing itself out; or, again, methods are being superseded-as in the possible case of a gas works being eclipsed by electric light, a tramway '?Y a railway, or, conceivably, both by n10tor cars; 1n short, there are so many possibilities of shrinkage in foreign investments that few, if any, can be looked upon as perennial, and unless they are con­stantly renew'ed, we should be trusting to a rotten prop if we depend on them for support.

Are our oversea carrying trade and our banking business on surer foundations 7 Can we be certain to remain the ocean carriers and financial factors to a large proportion of humanity 7 In regard to the latter form of business, Mr. Carnegie has recen tly told us that the financial centre of the world has shifted from London. If he refers only to operations such as those with which the name of Mr. Pierpoint Morgan has lately become so intimately associated, we can afford to accept the statement with equanimity; but there may be more serious disturbances of the old order in store. One t hing is certain : the possibility of competit ion in this as in nearly all forms of com­mercial activity is becoming more pronounced. In shipping we are now seeing the beginning of a rivalry that must have a larger fu ture before it, especially in view of the superiority over us in the bulk of steel produced both by the United States and Germany. British shipping supremacy was built up by cheap iron first, and was later maintained by cheaper steel. Now we have lost our lead in the chief raw material for ships and engines, will it remain 1 ~

These are questions easily put, though difficuU to answer, even tentatively ; but the importance of the result makes the problem wor thy of t he first atten­tion and best efforts of our statisticians and publicists. The position is this : The British Isles contain a population in excess of that which the natural pro­ducts of the country will support. We depend largely on what we get from abroad for a great bulk of the actual necessities of life, and many of the comforts which have grown to be the necessit ies of civilisa­t ion. Other n~tions are competing with us to an enormously increased extent in the demand for these commodities, so that, unless the means of pro­duction increase in like ratio, t he p rice must go up. We must therefore sell that we may buy ; we must continue to be the workshop of a large part of the world (we can no longer hope to be the workshop of the world) unless we can depend on our investments abroad, on our ocean freights, and on commissions upon financial negotiations. Of natural resources there is little left to offer but coal.

I t would be well if trustworthy figures were at our disposal from which to draw sound conclusions for guidance in this matter ; but, if one may judge by such general and isolated conditions as are appa­rent on the surface, failure to maintain our posit ion as manufacturers and exporters will lead to the decline of our home trade. Sir Robert Giffen says in his address, · '' Looking at the matter from the outside, and scientifically, it is the home and not the foreign market which is always the most important. " If importance be measured by volume, no doubt this is, and must remain, absolutely true; but as it is difficult t o imagine ourselves with a suc­cessful foreign trade and an absence of prosperity at home, we may, perhaps, look on our commerce with other countries as of the truest importance.

THE LOSS OF THE "COBRA." BY a strange and terrible coincidence the second

of the two steam-turbine propelled vessels of the R oyal Navy has been wrecked. It is only a few weeks since the Viper was stranded, happily without loss of life; and now the Cobra has gone, and with her 67 men, only 12 out of the full number on board being saved. Awaiting fuller details of an authentic character, there is not much to be said about the disaster from an engineering point of view. As our readers are aware, the Cobra was a torpedo-boat destroyer built by Messrs. Armstrong, Whitworth, and Co., at Elswick, and engined by t he Parsons Marine Steam Turbine Company, of Wallsend·on-Tyne. The exceptional speed both she and her sister destroyer, the Viper, obtained has already been recorded by us. She left t he Tyne for the purpose of being delivered at Portsmouth on Tuesday, September 17, in charge of Lieutenant Alan Bosworth Smith, who had under his command a navigating par ty of 54 in all. There were also 25 other persons on board, in­cluding Mr. Magnus Sa.ndison, t he chief engineer

[SEPT. 27, 1901.

to Elswick Shipyard, and Mr. Robert Barnard, the manager of the Parsons Marine Steam Turbine Company. ~oth of the gentlemen were lost ; as ~lso .was Lieutenant Boswor th Smith, who fully matntained the reputation of British seamen by remaining at his post to the last.

From the first reports it would appear t.hat at about 7.30, on the morning of September 18, the vessel. struck. near the Dudgeon Lightship, off t he Ltncolnshne coast. This is according to the report made by the chief engineer of the Cobra, who was among the saved, to the Com­mander-in-Chief at Portsmouth, the statement being th~t the ',',ship ~truck amidships, and was broken 111 t wo. Durmg the same afternoon a drift-net fishing-boat sighted the wreck and brouaht ashore. some of the. bodies. The master gave evide~ce at the rnquest, whtch was opened on Friday last, t hat the ~obra's stem was sticking straight up. In his openmg speech the coroner said that in the place where the vessel is said to have struck there was a depth of six or seven fathoms of water. If this ~ere to be taken, i!l the ordinary seamen's accepta­twn of the expresswn, as the minimum dept h it is difficult to understand how the Cobra could' have struck, for she drew 6 ft. or 7 ft. only. No information has been published as to the exact place where the vessel was wrecked. Until one knows the nature of the bottom, speculation must be vague. One of the survivors, who gave some details to a newspaper correspon­dent, said that when he last saw t he wreck "the forepart was standing up almost verti­cally, like a beacon." This man was on deck when the vessel struck. H e said that ''all of a sudden she struck a shoal, and the waves in a moment broke over her. Alarmed by the force of the shock, every man came on deck ...• The seas began to roll over the forecastle, and a few moments later the vessel broke in two, fore and aft." A stoker also stated to a press corre­spondent that he was on duty in the stokehold ~hen the :vessel ~truck. "The ~at~r began to pour In almost Immediately, and conung Into contact with the boilers, caused great clouds of steam to arise. Rushing up on deck in my trousers and singlet, a tprilling spectacle met my gaze. Waves were breaking over the doomed ship. " A South Shields man said he " felt two distinct shocks, and the vessel appeared to be fast amidships. . . . The Cobra meanwhile (some short t ime after she had struck) had broken her baek, and was submerged amidships."

The reports so far made public are in many re­spects so inconsistent that definite conclusions can­not be drawn from them. It has been said that the Cobra sagged so much in the heavy seas that the hull doubled up. That she did double-up ultimately was doubtless the case. First-class P etty Officer War­riner " felt a shock," and after coming on deck, .. found "the Cobra was settling down amidships, buckling completely up. " There is no question the sea was rough. " There was ~ nasty cross sea," said one man, " t he ship began to roll very heavily ... She continued to roll heavily, and then all of a. sudden she struck the shoal. " Such a sea as will make a vessel roll heavily is not likely to "break her back," however flimsy her construction; hogging and sagging are caused chiefly by following waves, and not by a beam sea which is accompanied by rolling.

H owever, on Wednesday a salvage vessel made a survey on the spot, and divers went down. The stern of the Cobra was found to be projecting 5 f t . or 6 f t . above water. If the vessel wel'e broken right in the middle, and the parts standing were vertical, this would indicate the wreck at pre­sent to be in, say, 16 to 18 fathoms, very consider­ably more than the vessel drew. In a rough sea, of course, the minimmn depth is reduced by the hollow of the waves.

Now, it is evident that extremely fast small vessels, like torpedo craft, cannot be built to stand going ashore on rocks, or even on shoals, in a heavy sea.. Larger craft, with double bottoms, may, by grea.b good fortune, get on the rocks and off again­the third-class cruiser Apollo, which ran on the Skelligs, is the most notable example on record­but torpedo craft cannot have double bottoms, and must take their chance. Although the Cobra is said to have been going slow at the t ime, the injury to the hull amidships was B1pparently of a. most ex­tensive nature, and the weakening of the structure thus caused might be sufficient to account for the ultimate doubling up.

•

•

SEPT. 27, 1901.]

One theory advanced, namely, that the vessel struck, or was struck by, a whale, receives colour from the fact that a dead whale with a big gash in it has been found in the neighbourhood. The explana­tion may seem a little wild at first, and it may be thought that a whale ruust be very large and hard to break up a destroyer. I t is a fact, however, that w bales have been known to do serious damage to craft far more strongly construct ed than destroyers can ever be, and whalers much dread the charge of one of these enormous animals when infuriated. That, however, refers to beasts of this species such as are met with in higher lati­t udes. I t is seldom a large whale is seen in the shallow water near our coasts. I t is useless, how­ever, to speculate on the matter further ; we must await the fuller informatioL that, it is to be hoped, will be made public as a result of official inquiry.

We need not here refer to the upsetting of the large boat that was launched, nor to dramatic inci­dents that accompanied the rescue of the twelve men in the dinghy. The statement cuTrent for some time-that the vessel had been blown in two by her boilers bursting, was manifestly absurd, as she had water-tube boilers of the Yarrow type.

To a large number of our readers t he death of Mr. Sandison will be a most painful event of a personal nature, for he was well known and highly respected in engineering circles. Mr. Barnard, a younger man, had, perhaps, hardly so wide a circ1e of friends in the profession ; but the loss of its works manager to the P arsons Company will be a serious one. He was connected with the steam-turbine marine works from the time the T urbinia was b rought forward ; and many who attended t he trials of that wonderful little vessel will recall with saddened feelings the bright and hopeful young man who contributed no little t owards her success. To Mr. Parsons and his partners all will extend the most sincere sympathy in the 'Calamity that has overtaken them ; a calamity which, however-and this is the one redeeming feature-is quite outside of the novel design of t he machinery.

THE PASSING OF THE STEAM ENGINE.

IN 1881 Sir Frederick Bramwell prophesied that in fifty years steam engines would only be found in museums, and all motive power would be derived from internal combustion engines. His forecast was delivered at the Jubilee of the British Associa­tion, and will furnish a convenient text for the President of Section G in 1931 when he delivers his Address. Whether he will be able to proclaim Sir Frederick as one of the few prophets whose predictions have been fully endorsed by time r emains to be seen, but it is, at any rate, certain that he will be able to credit him with a large portion of the insight of the seer . During the twenty years which have passed since the utterance, t he gas engine has grown greatly in size and efficiency, and the oil engine, which is only a modified gas engine, has done so even more. They have both reached, and even passed, t he dimensions which seemed to limit their economical applicat ion. Engines using town's gas, and paraffin oil, are now made of sizes at which t he saving in cost of attendance, as compared with steam engines, is more than counterbalanced by the heavy cost of fuel. Their readiness in start ing, their compactness, and their general handiness are, for some purposes, of more impor tance than economy. Nevertheless, the largest of such engines must always be toys compared with the largest steam engines. Sir Frederick's forecast needed for its realisation a cheaper fuel than either of these.

In 1881 there was already a cheap gas available for internal combustion engines. It was known here as Dowson gas, and on the Continent as '' Pauvre gas ; " and to some extent it was used. JYiessrs. Crossley Brothers have employed it for years for several hundred horse-power; and at the Paris Exhibition of 1889 there was a 100 horse­power engine driven by it ; and altogether there are many installations working with it. But it cannot be said that any gren.t progress was made. Makers were very shy of building large engines, and users were disinclined to purchase them, unless with much more sat isfactory guarantees than they could obtain. For a long time affairs wer e s tationary. It. no doubt suited Messrs. Crossley very well to use gas engines and Dowson gas, for they had a highly-trained staff to look after them ; but

•

E N G I N E E R I N G. even they did not use any really large engines, the total power required being split up into several units. The ordinary manufacturer had litt le inducement to follow their example. Even a consumption of 1lb. of coal per horse-power-hour was not a great temptation to him, for the 1nost suitable fuel was anthracite, which is always dear, partly because the cost of cal'riage from South Wales is heavy to the greater part of t he country, and partly because it is a fuel of very limited application, and has to be obtained specially. I t is true coke is capable of replacing anthracite ; but t hat also is a dear fuel in most places.

I t needed a fuel cheaper even than Dowson gas to put the internal combustion engine on a really industrial basis for large powers. This was found in America in natural gas, and in this country and the Continent in the waste gas from blast furnaces. Across the Atlant ic Mr. George Westinghouse took up the subject, and built gas engines of several hundred horse-power ; in Belgium blowing engines of equal size have been produced, one being shown at t he last Paris Exhibition. In this country Dr. Ludwig Mond has, after much experiment­ing, perfected a gas producer which will manu­facture gas of exceeding cheapness. It uses the poorest sort of bituminous slack, and w bile converting it into gas, it saves the greater part of the ammonia it contains. At present prices the ammonia obtained from a ton of coal is worth 4s. 6d., w bile the coal itself can often be bought for 6s. The prospect of this gas being delivered over a large district for twopence per thousand feet has caused Sir Frederick Bramwell to write a letter to the Times recalling his prophecy, and emphasising the fact that a great s tride has been made towards its accomplishment. A com­pany has been formed to supply this gas over an area of 135 square miles, and an Act of P arlia­ment has been obtained authorising them to do so. The gas is to be sold at twopence per thou­sand feet, which, taking 60ft. to the horse-power hour, means that the cost of fuel would be one­eighth of a penny per unit per hour. This is just equal to the cost of coal in a fairly economical engine, taking the price as 10s. per ton. No wonder Sir Frederick feels his reputation as a prophet in the ascendant . Not one-half of the period he allowed himself has elapsed, and yet immense pro­gress has been made. '£here are still possibilities ahead in the way of lower prices, for a ton of slack will produce 150,000 cubic feet of Mond gas, worth, at twopence per thousand feet, 25s., while the ammonia is worth 4s. 6d., the total being 29s. 6d. This seems to provide a very fair margin for work­ing expenses and distribution.

The chemist has done Bis part towards super­seding the steam engine, and it remains for the gas-engine builder to do his. As matters now stand it seems as if there would be little to choose in the matter of fuel cost between gas and coal in the area served by the Mond Company. In balancing the advantage, there is the saving of the cost of boilers, wit h their house, foundation, and smoke­stack, and the attendant smoke and nuisance, to set against the greater weight and com­plexity of the gas engine. There is reason to be­lieve that these will decrease. Already large en­gines are giving an explosion at each revolut ion, and the mean pressure is rising. Now that we have the prospect of cheap gas, there is every reason to believe that means will be rapidly found to ut ilise it.

THE CARBON BISULPHIDE MANU­FACTURE.

THERE are certain of the chemical industries which, pursuing the even tenour of their way be­hind t he scenes in manufacturing towns, remain, as far as their products are concerned, quite outside the pale of knowledge, the possession of which is generally supposed to indicate the man of culture and attainments. At times, however- whether owing to a catastrophe or to the products involved becoming the subject of Parliamentary discussion - such chemical works leap into a certain promi­nence, and inquiries pass from mouth to mou th with reference to the details of t he manufacturing operations, or t he speci'fic properties, of the products turned out. To some extent has this been the case with the subject of our article. Not t hat there has been an explosion, or any part icularly distressing accident at the works, carrying on the manufacture of this mephitic liquid, but in connection with the Dangerous Trades Committee of the House of Oom-

•

'

453

mons, carbon bisulphide, as employed in the vul­canising processes in indiarubber works, came in for a good deal of attention. vVith its employment in rubber factories, however, we do not propose to deal on the presen t occasion; that is, as far as it affects the health of the workpeople, the subject being a very wide one, and somewhat of a controversial nature. Having made these disclaimers, we hasten to say that it is the use of the substance in a new capacity, and on a large scale, that has prompted us to refer to the manufacture generally, the part icular chemi­cal with the production of which carbon bisulphide is now associated being cyanide of potassium-a body now so well known in connection with gold­recovery. Previous to the ut ilisation of it in cyanide-making, the demand for carbon bisulphide had fallen off with respect to the two or three industries where it had for a long time been largely employed. The most important of t he uses to which it has been put are the cold-vulcanising- if the term may be permitted- of indiarubber, t he extraction of oil from seeds, and, what may seem rather a strange use, the extermination of rabbits in Australia.

A further use for it has been in connection with combating the phylloxera pest in Continental vine­yards, the liquid for t his purpose being made into an emulsion with water and alkali, and applied to the soil.

'Vith regard to these uses, the extended employ­ment of what is known as the dry-heat method of vulcanising waterproof textures has led in recent years to a largely decreased consumption of carbon bisulphide compared with fifteen or twenty years ago. N evertheless, at the moment there is evi­dence of increased consumption again, though it is impossible to imagine that the figure can ever again rise to that of the period just re­ferred to. The fact that it is such a disagree­able, not to say poisonous, liquid discourages its application to a greater variety of operations where a good solvent is required; and, though it has been used to some extent in removing fat from wool, it cannot be said that its employment in this direct ion tends to increase ; indeed, the evidence points the other way. As regards the shipments to Australia, these have decreased, though this fact alone is not conclusive that its use as a rabbit­exterminator has been abandoned, as t here are other available sources of supply. The manufac­ture of carbon bisulphide is described in many chemical handbooks and dictionaries, and there is no need to occupy space by referring at length to this phase of our subject, our intention being rather to touch on one or two points which have not been dealt with elsewhere, and which seem to pre­sent features of interest to oUlers besides those primarily engaged in the manufacture and use of the substance.

As we have said, the new use for carbon bisul­phide is in connection with the manufacture of potassium cyanide from sulpho-cyanide ; though, as the cyanide manufacture has seen a good many alterations since the body became of such commer­cial importance, it would be hazardous to say that finality has yet been attained, or to predict a long run for the processes now being used on the large scale. Potassium cyanide, according to t he patent of .Ra.schen, Dav~dson, and Brock, is made now by a process, of whiCh the accompanying is a brief epitome :

Carbon bisulphide, ammonia, and hydrate of lime are heated together in a closed vessel, and the solu­tion of calcium sulpho-cyanide thus obtained is decomposed by carbonic acid and potassium carbo­nate or sulphate. The dry potassium sulpho­cyanide is ti1en mixed with quicklime and carbo­na~eou~ .m.at~er an~ heated w.ith agitation, and, afeer hx1Vlat10n, yields potassmm cyanide. This proc~ss is now in ~se on the la~ge scale by one of our Important chemical corporatiOns, and to it can be traced the increased activity in the carbon bisul­phide manufacture which is not iceable to-day. As far as individual makers, however, are concerned the recent increased demand has not acted as ~ general stimulus all round, and this is owing to t he fact that there are difficult ies as to transpor t. The rail~ay and steam~hi~ companies look askance upon the Infl.at;nmable hqu1d, and n~t only charge high r~tes for Its transport, but also Impose strict r egula­bona as to the method of packing. Nor is there a:ny unifo~mity as to these t ransport regula­tiOns. It IS to be noted that, whereas one line of coasting steamers will take it as deck-cargo another refuses to carry it under any conditions ~hatever

'

•

454

an explanation of this diversity probably depending upon the fact th~t in the one case business of any sort cannot be disregarded, w bile in the other it is brisk enough to enable the proprietary to dispense with the carriage of a da.ngerous class of goods. ~ha.tever the cause of the difference may really be, 1t eXIsts; and some carbon bisulphide makers find themselves handicapped by their inability to dis­pose of their product ad vantaaeously at a distance while others find themselv~s more favourabl; situated.

The price for potassium cyanide has fallen con­siderably of late years, and at the present time it is somewhere in the neighbourhood of a shilling a poun~-a figure which is not suggestive of an exorbttant profit, though at this price much of the business which formerly went to Germany is likely to be attracted to our shores. It is hardly neces­sary at this date to say that the cyanide process as used on the gold-fields has come to stay, so that it can hardly be considered as a speculative act to enter on a. large scale on the manufacture of the chief chemical involved. It is n1ore than probable, however, that outside carbon bisulphide manufac­turers will before long cease to have much interest in the cyanide manufacture, because, if what we hear is correct, the cyanide people are tnaking arrangements to supply their own requirements-a movement which was only to be anticipated in the case of a material where carriage forms such an important item in the cost.

Another point is that concerned with the amount made per week . The firms in the trade at present are not, with, perhaps, one exception, in a !arge way of business ; and, as one or two men ·can manage several retorts, the firm 1nanufacturing on t he large scale will, of course, have an ad van­tage in cost of product ion. The question arises : Are the prospects for the future sufficiently good to warrant existing firms in enlarging their plant ? And we cannot help feeling that they are not. Of course it is somewhat presumptuous for us to advise firms who have been long in the trade as t o the conduct of their businesses, but it is diffi­culb to avoid a conviction that, if the cyanide manu­facture continues on the lines mentioned above, the carbon bisulphide required will be all made on the spot. The next thing to expect would be an over­production, and this would be put upon the market in competit ion with the product of old-established makers, to whom the altered condition of affairs must perforce spell something like ruin. Of course this prediction may not be justified by the existing facts, but it seems anything but an extravagant one in the light of what has occurred in other branches of the chemical industry-that industry in which outsiders fondly imagine that the participators in it are, of necessity, coining money. At the present time, in spite of the fact that both coal for fuel and wood for charcoal-making have advanced in price, the carbon bisulphide maker finds it pract ically im­possible t o get a higher price for his product, although, we may add parenthetically, he certainly does not stand in an isolated position among the rank and file of manufacturers.

Numerous as have been the attempts made to replace carbon bisulphide in the indiarubber trade by some solvent of a less noxious character, it would seem that but very slight progress has been made in this direction. Into the merits and de­merits of the various substitutes that have from time to time been proposed and, to some extent, adopted in practice, we do not propose ~ere to inq uire, the subject being one of a partteularly technical character; but there is no d<:mbt that the advent of the solvent, which shall satisfactorily replace the su bject of our article, would be hailed wit h satisfaction by both master and workpeople in rub ber factories. The matter of price need not be taken too much into consideration, as the com­pensating ad vantage of rendering the factory free from Government inspection would prove a lu~i~g bait,, even to employers who have the nall!-e of n gtd economists. Indeed, the Government mspectors have pretty well made it clear ~bat, if t~e desired substitute can be found, they wtll do thetr best to secure its adoption if the extra cost should be such as could n ot be considered prohibitive to the con­tinuance of t he business. A body which has been proposed more than once as such a subst itute is tetra-chlorid~ of carbon ; but, from all we can gather, the t rials whic~ haye ~een made of it have n ot resulted in a verdtet 1n 1ts favour. And t he price is certainly against it. In round figure.s, it costs 10.:3. per g&llon, ~gainst 3s, for carb~n btS\11-

E N G I N E E R I N G.

phide, though, a~ we have just said, this fact alone ~eed not necessarily put it out of the running if 1ts efficacy could be established ; and this, we fancy, is not likely to be the case. It does not seem to have been noted whether carbon tetra-chloride has any toxic effects, but there is certainly nothing dis­agreeable about its smell ; and the fact that it is non-inflammable is a matter of great importance from the insurance point of view, the offices, as a rule, declining to insure on any terms whatever those portions of the rubber works where carbon bisulphide is used. The exceeding inflammability of this body, and the fact that it can be ignited by a hot piece of metal, causes its use to be attended with considerable risk ; and not only is fire to be feared, but there is also the possibility of explosion, a mixture in certain proportions of the vapour with air forming an atmosphere of great explosive power. Trouble has occasionally arisen from this source when waste liquor has been carelessly dis­posed of and the vapours have accumulated in a closed space. Too much care cannot be taken to so get rid of the waste liquor as to reduce any chance of such danger as that just mentioned to a mini­mum.

However, it may be objected that we have wan­dered somewhat from the manufacture of the article, and become unduly discursive on its uses and pro­pertie~, though it will hardly, we fancy, be denied that, in referring to the future prospects of a chemical substance, facts of importance concerning its past and present form matter for legitimate con­sideration.

Before concluding, we may mention that carbon bisulphide works now figure in the schedule to the Alkali Act, and are therefore subject t o periodical inspection- a fact which is of some importance to dwellers in the vicinity of the works as regards the diffusion of noxious vapours. It cannot be said that the precautions which are now rendered obli­gatory to prevent t he diffusion of these vapours into the surrounding atmosphere entail any hard­ship on the manufacturer, or, at any rate, indi­vidual hardship, as all manufacturers alike are required to conform to the same standard; and, as those engaged in other manufactures which come under the Alkali Act know, the inspectors are careful to insist only on such improvements as are known to be possible of attainment.

THE FALL IN COPPER. CoNSUMERS of copper will have noticed that

during the last few days the price of the metal has suffered a sharp fall. The downward move­ment was initiated by the dividend declared by the Amalgamated Copper Company, the Trust formed to control the American supply, and consequently the world's price. Hitherto the company has paid quarterly dividends of 2 per cent., this including ! per cent. distributed as a bonus. On this occa­sion the bonus is omitted, and as it was for s01ne time known that the concern was unable to sell the whole of its output, and that its secret stocks were very large, operators concluded at once that the combine was in a bad way, that the artificial level of prices maintained since the beginning of 1899 was no longer p ossible; and that , in short, the long foreseen smash had come at last.

We cannot, of course, pretend to be in the se0rets of the Amalgamated Copper Company, and while we say now, as we have said all along, that copper cannot be kept indefinitely in the neighbourhood of 70l. per ton by the methods favoured by the Standard Oil- Morgan group, it does nof follow that the end has come yet, much as · we should like to see i t. I t looks to us as though the inside circle of specu­lat ors have adopted this course in order to further some ulterior purpose of their own. Had they desired to keep the market in good humour, t hey could easily have got together enough cash to pay the usual bonus ; and the fact that they have adopted altogether unexpected tactics pos~esses significance. As we have said, we should hke to see copper decline to a level which will allow pro­ducers a fair profit , and will not be oppressive to consumers. But it would be premature, after the disappointments of the past, to assume that the end has actually come yet. Probably the ulterior motive with which we credit the Combine is to compel the large interests, whi~h have hitherto. remai~ed independent, to enter 1nto a ~lose ~lha.n~e wtth i t, and to do their proper share 1n mainta1nmg t he market,

-(SEPT. 27, 1901.

It is clear from the statistics that the Amalga­mated Company has been hard put to it to keep supplies down, and it is also clear that if the others refuse their active co-operation, the Trust cannot hold its end up much longer, in spite of its wealth and capacity for manipulation. ·rhe q uan­tity of metal in sight on the 15th inst. was 24,838 tons, compared with 27,462 tons at the end of June, 28,860 tons on December 31, and 30,175 tons at the end of August last year. Taking t he twelve months to the 3 Lst, we find that supplies from all sources were 241,220 tons, as compared with 277,130 tons for 1899-1900, and that the t rade deliveries were 239,518 tons, as compared with 267,235 tons. In new supplies we have a de­crease of a round 36,000 t ons, and in deliveries a decrease of 27,700 tons. But seeing that the balance has again been on t he right side, the American interests have shipped 6056 tons of standard copper to the States during the past twelve months, this figure comparing with 12,112 tons. How is one to account for the diminution in supplies for the past year 1 Entirely in ship­n1ents from America. These reached 111,527 tons, agains t 157,612 tons. From Spain and Portugal the quantity received was 25,969 tons, against 24,954 tons; from miscellaneous sources 51,074 tons, against 49,067 tons; from Chili 29,150 tons, against 24,700 tons ; and from Australia 23,500 tons, against 20,800 tons. Fro~ all sources except America consignments are increasing, but not at anything like the rate necessary to compen­sate for that one exception.

Turning now to the other side of the account, we find that in the United Kingdom the con­sumption for the eight months to August was 49,434 tons, against 49,711 tons last year; in France it was 28,065 tons, against 30,459 tons; and in Germany (foreign copper only) 33,393 tons against 45,964 tons. In the United States produc­tion in the eight months was 178,006 tons as com­pared with 178,656 tons; while exports were only 64,691 tons as compared with 115,776 tons. Allowing for exports of sulphate and for imports, the domestic consumption is apparently 136,353 tons, against 81,655 tons.

This assumes that there is no change in stocks, which brings us to the crux of the situation. Although trade has been good, it has been less active than in 1899 ; and even in that period consumption was only 111,250 tons. Production shows practically no con traction in spite of the restricted output of the mines of the Combine, the many small men of Arizona and elsewhere rushing their product to market in order to benefit by the high prices. There is no room to doubt , there­fore, that the unrecorded stocks of copper are large.

A discharged employe of the Amalgamated Copper Company stated the other day that that concern has as much as 60,000 tons in stock. This figure i3 thought to be an exaggeration ; but no attempt is made to deny that the company's accumulations are large, and even the Amalgamated Company cannot go on piling up copper regardless of consumption. This is the best augury for the early break up of the Combine, assuming that we are not soon to be t reated to another spell of phenomen~l industrial activity.

•

BRAZILIAN RAILWAYS.-The Government of the State of Sao Paulo proposes to construob a line to oonneot Porta Teliz with the Sorooa.bana R!l.ilway.

RAILS FOR N EW SouTH WALES RAlLWAYS.-The New South Wales Government recently invited tenders for the supply of 100,000 steel rails for the New South Wales Government railways. The rails were to be manufac­tured locally, and were to be delivered at the rate of 25,000 tons annually for four years, at a price not exoeed­ing English or American quotations ab the time of delivery plus freight charges. The tenderers were to abide by the union rate of wages. No tendera were reoei ved.

DaRLINGTON.-On Friday Mr. W. 0. E. Meade-King held an inquiry at Dtl.rlington into an application of the Town Council for power to borrow 12,250l. for eleotrio li~hting purposes, and 14,000l. for gas works. ~Ir. H. G. Heavenson said the oounoil desired to meeb the increasing demand for the eleotrio light. Already they were provid­ing power for 8400 lamps of s .oandle power to 106 con­sumers, and by the end of the year they estimated thab power would be required for 18,000 lamps. The sum of 25 940l. had been raised by loans. and the expenditure h~d exceeded that sum by 16'i0t. The liabilities incurred were 3593l. in excess of the existing powers. The money required on behalf of the gas works was chiefly for auto­matic meters, mains, engine exha.uster, exteneions CJf lamps, ~(',

THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS.

(BY OuR SPECIAL OoRn.ESPONDENT.) THE American Institute of E lectrical Engineers,

founded seventeen years ago, is an energetic body of men who know how to unite a reasonable amount of the dttlce with a max imum of tho utile. This was evident from the way in which their recent annual meeting was p lanned and carried out; on which occasion the opening meeting was held in New York, and the other sessions in the Pan-American Exposition at Buff~lo.

The essential feature of all such gatherings is unquestionably the reading and discussing of papers prepared by eminent men, as well as the inter­change of ideas and professional experience that followa. Visits to leading engineering works and electrical plants have also come to be regarded as a fi tting and necessary complement to the proceed­ing3 of the convention. This is accepted, at least theoretically, in England; but in the United States it is understood in a very practical manner. In this country of m~gnificent distances, the lines of communication, whet.her by water or rail, are rapid and commodious to a degree of luxury. Moreover, every facility is offered the pilgrim of science to visit the busy centres of intellectual and industrial activity that are echeloned along the main routes of transportation w hi eh connect the Atlantic with the Pacific seaboard .

The American engineer of to-day, whether civil or electrical, is essentially a peripatet ician ; and, like the peripatetics of old, has acquired an un­common amount of varied experience and valuable knowledge. Jle has seen all the natural wonders with which the New World abounds, and can de­scribe them with a fullness of detail and fluency of speech that are charming ; he has inspected the great seats of mineral wealth and the important manufacturing districts of the country, expecting as a result of all t his personal displacemen t to enlarge his field of usefulness, and give a r efined polish to his professional equipment. Conventions like th~t of the E lectrical Engineers are quite to his taste, as they afford him an opportunity for renew­ing old acquaint~nces aud making new ones, at; also of refurnishing some technicalities and keeping his knowledge up to date.

At the opening of the annual meeting the Pre­sident, Mr. Charles P. Steinmetz, spoke enthusi­astically of the rapid rate at which membership has increased, t he number of impor tant papers that appeared in the Transactions, and the brilliant work done by son1e of the associates during the twelve­month. It afforded him special pleasure to see this n1eeting attended by delegates from sister societies in England, F rance, Germany, and Belgium, thus showing th~t science is not sectional and that en­gineering is international. England was repre­sented by Mr. Arthur H. Pott, Mr. D. McNaught, and Mr. Norman 0. Sawers. France, by M. Paul Janet, Dire~tor of t he L~boratoire Centrale; M. Henri Boy de h Tour, M. B. Roux, M. Paul De­beauve, M. Oharles David, M. J. Courbier , M. Maurice Aubert, and M. Marcel A.ubert; all of whom are members of t he Societ&Internationale des E lectricians. Germany was represented by Herr F. W. Janisch, chief engineer of the Siemens and Halske Company; and Belgium by Professor Gus­tave G illon, of the U niversity of Louvain. All these gentlemen were the guests of the Institute, in whose proceedings they took an active interest.

When the usual business connected with the open­ing of the session was despatched, the members were conveyeq by special t rain from New York to Ampere, in the neighbouring State of NewJersey. There they were met by Professor Crocker, of Columbia University, and Dr. Wheeler, both of whom accom­panied t he party in their tour of inspection through the extensive works of the Crocker-Wheeler Oom­p lny. Every department was found working at full load in constructing the dynamo-electric ma­chinery for which the company has a widespread reputation. The energy used in every shop was taken as a fair indication of the activity displayed throughout the United States in every part of the electric field.

Returning to New York, a visit was made to the superb central station of the New York Telephone Company; after which the foreign delegates were taken up to the 32nd floor of a sky·scraper, f rom which they enjoyed a fine panoramic view of the Empire Oity.

The energy spent in the first day's peregrinations

•

E N G I N E E R I N G. naturally called for an adequate process of appro­priate storage, and this was generously supplied in the evening at the social board of the Mn.rl­borough Hotel. In one respect this banquet re­called the famous dinner which Franklin had planned for a pleasure party on the banks of the Schuy lkill in 17 49, when the p iece de 'resistwnce, the turkey, was to be ld lled by an electric shock and roasted before a fire k indled by the '' electrified bottle. '' At the proper t ime the health of all the electricians in E ngland, Holland, France, and Germany was to be drunk in electrified bumpers, to the discharge of guns from an electric battery.*

President Steinmetz, however, declined to inter­fere with the culinary methods of the Marlborough, so t hat the line was drawn at electrocut ion and electrified bumpers; but electrical speeches were strictly to be t he order of the evening. The orators were expected to rise to a su fficiently high poten­t ial to acquit t hemselves with efficiency of t heir duty, but excessive voltages were to be absolutely avoided, so as not to cause any positive discomfort to the auditors. To M. Paul J an et was assigned the fi rst toast, "The Land of Ampere: " in honour­ing which he dwelt upon the ability, skill, and modesty of his illustrious countryman, who did so much by his discovery of the laws of electro-dyna­mics to prepare the way for the generators and motors of the present day. M. J a net, after con­gratulatin~ his American colleagues on their enter­prising spirit and their remarkable achievements in every department of electrical engineering, con­cluded by assuring his hearers that French and American electricians are united by a bond of sym­pathy in the interchange of ideas, methods, and work which succeeding years will make all the firmer and closer.

''The Country of Faraday " was taken care of by Mr. Sawers, a graceful and polished speaker, who did not fail to show that the names of Britons are written large on every page of the history of elec­trical science. He felb, however, compelled to admit-greatly to his regret that, while England has been so long k nown as the mother and nurse of elect ricity, she has lagged behind other nations in recognising the vast potentialities of the young gian t that she was bringing up. This lagging is fully accounted for by the astounding inertia of the moneyed public, and the hampering conservatism of the legal aut horities, which hold such a heavy con­trolling hand over all electrical enterpr ise in the British Isles. Public spirit needs to be awakened and enlightened, and the brakes of officialdom re­laxed, if England is to re-enter the race and again hold her own.

Herr J anisch was selected for '' The S uccessors of Ohm," but, as he was unable to attend owing to a too sudden introduction to the ub iquitous ice­water of America, Professor Hallock, of Columbia, a graduate of the University of Berlin, volunteered to improvise a response to the toast. In doing so, he referred to the unpretending way in which Ohm int roduced his work to the world, and the humble opinion he always entertained of his scient ific con­t ributions. These were promptly · taken up and developed by such leaders of thought as Gauss and Weber, Helmholtz and Hertz, R ontgen and Lenard : men who have n1ade cardinal advances in every branch of knowledge which they investigated.

" The Heirs of V olta " was entrusted to Mr. P. Torchio, a fellow-townsman of the inventor of the ever-memorable '' pile, " t he fruitful pro­totype of all the primary batteries of the present day. Mr. Torchio strove to show that the wonder­ful development of electrical engineering in America is mainly due to the scientific spirit fostered in colleges and universities, and after­wards transferred to the draughting-room and workshop. Science deals with the facts of nature, and the laws which govern them; and while the scientific spirit observes the facts and deduces the laws, it is the special business of the engineer to go further, and apply the laws of matter and the sources of power to the wants and convenience of his fellow-men. Among the heirs of Volta who conspicuously inherited this scientific spirit, Mr. Torchio singled out Pacoinotti and F erraris, justifying his selection by a brief appreciation of t heir life-work.

The last in the series of electrical toasts was

* The battery consisted of eleven large panes of glass, coated on each side with sheeb lead. The electrified bumper wa.a a thin bumbler nearly filled wibh wine, and electrified a.a a Leyden jar so as to give a. shook through the lips.

•

455 " The Legatees of Franklin," which was accredited to Mr. Schuyler S. Wheeler, D.Sc. Though all the world was included in the legatees of the American philosopher, said Dr. Wheeler, yet it is true to add that the French are his immediate heirs-at-law, because of their early appreciation of his labours and discoveries. Paris believed in the efficacy of his rods against lightning flashes, so did English Whigs; but Tories did not, and they had their way. No good patriot, according to them, could find any merit in Fra.nklin's points ; and so knobs were fitted to the conductors which pro· tected S t. Paul's and the Purfieet powder maga­zine. When Sir John Pringle, President of the Royal Society, was ordered by George III. to sup­port knobs as against points, he gave the dignified answer: "Sire, I cannot reverse the laws and opera­t ions of Nature;" to which the king, incensed that so incompetent a person should hold so important a position, replied, ''Then, Sir John, perhaps you had better resign ; " and Sir John resigned.

Dr. Wheeler's remarks terminated a charac­teristic series of electrical ~peeches, and a banquet that will long be remembered by all who had the good fortune to be present.

The next two days were devoted t o visits to the numerous waterside electric stations in New York and Brooklyn, including the Edison Company, the Manhattan Railway Company, at the foot of 76th­street, and the mammoth station of the Metro­politan Street R~il way Company at East 96th­street. The third morning found 125 members on board t he special steamer Montauk, steaming up to A.lbany, the capital of t he State. The ten-hour day t rip up the Hudson afforded them a much­needed rest on a palatial boat, and at t he same time gave them an opportunity of discussing the scenery, the success of the Pan-American Exposition, the papers to be read at Buffalo, and other relevant matters.

From Albany a special train conveyed the party to Schenectady, where t hey visited the works of the General E lectric Company, one of the largest in the world for the construction of electric machinery. Motors, rotary converters, polyphase machines, and transformers of all sizes, are made in these shops and shipped to every part of the world. Mr. E. W. Rice, t hird vice-president of the company, welcomed the members of the Institute, and Pro­fessor Elihu Thomson added some very interesting explanatory notices.

Pursuing their itinerary for ten hours, Buffalo was finally reached late in the evening. The sub­sequent work of the Convention will be considered in a future ar ticle.

NOTES. THE ELEC'l'RIFICATION OF THE METROPOLITAN

RAILWAYS. TRE arbitrator who is to decide what system of

electric traction shall be employed on the Metro­politan and the Metropolitan District Rail ways of London, is the Hon. Alfred Lyttelton. He will be assisted by Mr. Horace Parshall, acting for the District Company, and Mr. Parker for the Metro­politan Company. As everyone knows, the Metro­politan Company is anxious to adopt the Ganz system, in which three-phase current, of 3000 volts, is used directly on the locomotive. The District Company, which is under the control of Mr. Y erkes, prefers the direct-current system on the train, as on the Central London line. Now, as many of the t rains have to run on both companies' lines, it is imperative that one system should be common to both, and the arbitrator has to decide what it shall be; and as he is not an engineer , he has a difficult task in hand. Fortunately, he will not be troubled by any resthetic considerations. The railway is largely in tUimel, and where it is open it is between retaining walls, which completely shut it from the public sight. There is therefore no objection to carrying wires, or rods, or even rails, overhead. Thus, either alternate or direct current could be supplied by overhead conductore. This is a great advantage, as contact rails on the ground are both a hindrance and a danger to the plate­layers. We are accustomed to look upon 500 volts as a comparatively safe current; but that depends greatly on circumstances. Gi van good contact, 500 volts will kill as surely as 3000 volts, as was demoustrated in Liverpool ; and it will be a great r elief to all concerned if the " live rail " can be put overhead on brackets attached to the tunnel lining and tho side walls. Whether it be above ot

•

•

.)

' •

: E N G I N E E R I N G. [SEPT. 2 7, I 90 r. bel?w, the ~rection will be very awkward with the trains running every three minutes and will mostly have to be done in the four or fiv~ hours between the. last theatre train and the first workmen's train.

LARGE ELECTRIC POWER TRANSMISSION AT THE URFT.

In connection with the Urft installation an important dam has been constructed across the Urft Valley, at Malsbenden, below the place where the Oleff joins the U rft. Thereby a lake is formed, covering an area of some 200 hectares, and containing 43,500,000 cubic metres of water. . The U ;rft is a river falling into the Roer, and Its quantity of water varies greatly from 1 cubic metre per second at low water to i50 to 180 cubic metres per second at high water· t he difference is still greater as far as the Roe~ is concerned, viz., from 1!- to 2 cubic metres per second to as much as 400 to 500 cubic metres per second. The building of the dam will reaulate the state of affairs, whereby destructive floods will be avoided, and a power station will be erected, which can supply Enskirehen, Diiren, and Aachen with electricity. In order to build the dam the present bed of the prft has been laid dry and the tempo­rary outlet IS to serve as a reserve outlet in case of excessive water in the future, in addition to which an overflow escape will be provided. The inlet to the t~rbine installat~on is about two miles long, and will have a capacity of up to 100 cubic metres per second. There will be eight turbines of 1280 horse-power, direct co~pled with the dynamos, and they are expected to y1eld 8000 horse-power in the winter, and in summer, at the most, 6000 horse­power. The cost of 1 horse-power has been calcu­lated at 0.5 pfeoning, or about one-sixteenth of a P.enny per hour. at. the turbine ; but by transmis­siOn the coat will Increase to 1 to 1. 5 pfenning. The cost of the dam is calculated at 3,860,000 marks, or about 193,000l., and the coat of the whole installation is about 250,000l.

such a consignment is, in these circumstances transferred, with others intended for other station~ on the ~ame line, to a tranship wagon. This is a wagon w1t~ doors ~n each si do, giving easy access to the freight earned. These tranship oars are generally run~ night trains which stop at each of the. small statiOns where a consignment is to be delivered, and the parcel in question is unloaded on to the passenger platform, just as if it were pas­sengers' luggage. Occasionally small consignments are of a nature unsuitable for such procedure. ~uch a load, as, for example, 2 cwt. or 3 cwt. of hme, cannot, of course, be shovelled on to a passenger platform, and thus iR not forwarded ~y tranship car, but has t o have a wagon for Itself. It would seem that in such cases it would be only fair to the railway company that the con­signer should be charged-not for the conveyance of a full wagon load, as has a t times been sug­gested- but a substantial extra rate. If this were B?, he wou~d take the ~rouble to pack small con­signments m cases, whtch could go by the tranship cars, and would thus much facilitate the endeavours of the company to maintain full loads behind their

•

a mac.hin~ requires more than 3! brake horse- power t o dnve 1t, a separate motor should be used but w_e fan~y this is rather a sanguine estimate. I~ the d tscussiOn on Mr. Kerr's paper, an incidental ad vantage of electrical driving was mentioned, viz., the check it keeps on the workmen. When these arrive in the mornin~, being sleepy and hungry, they a:re generally slow in getting to work. A ~ecordmg wattmet~r shows on inspection how long 1t. takes any particular foreman to get his men fairly started. Mr. Aspinall further suggested that a wattmeter attached to any machine would give t he foreman an opportunity of detecting the use of blunt tools by any careless or lazy workman.

HEATING LARGE WORKSHOPS. To THE EDITOR oF ENGINEERING.

. Srn,-In answer to "Enquirer's " communication in your Issue of Se~tember 20, I think t~at it is admitted by those who .have g1ven the matter cons1dera.ble attention that for heatmg workshop~ of large ar~a ~here is no system which equals ohe warm-au blast. In 1s s1mple, not too expensive and thoroughly efficient. '

The plant consists essentially of fan, heater and air ducts. .Fresh air is forced by the fan through the heater and vartous ducts a.t a low velocity into the space to be heated. There is nothing that can equal it where large areas are to be dealtJ with.

TRAIN LOADS ON THE LONDON AND NORTH­WESTERN RAILwAY.

A few months back an article appeared in The Statist containing figures which purported to give the average weight of the goods trains hauled on the London and North-Western Railway, and com­menting somewhat severely on the management of the company in neglecting to secure fair average weights behind their engines. The figure given, viz., 68.6 tons, was so absurd that one i.~ surprised to see it accepted by a number of railway journals ID the United States, and as the error is being very widely spread through their agency, it may be well to give here a more accui·ate statement of the facts of the case. The ordinary goods wagon of the Lon­don and North-Western Railway Company weighs 5 tons, and is designed to carry 7 tons. The wagon used in the coal traffic weighs about 5! tons, and carries about 7! tons. There are three classes of goods engine in use on the line. The largest are compound eight-wheeled coupled engines, the standard load for which consists of 50 loaded wagons, including tl)e brake-van. If the weather is favourable, the train is formed of as many as 55 coal wagons, the total length being then some 1100 ft., and the load behind the engine is about 700 tons, which may be taken as the maximum hauled on the company's main line. The standard load of the smallest goods engine is 45 loaded goods wagons, or 35 loaded coal wagons, or, say, 400 to 450 tons. In the coal traffic, which amounts to just 65 per cent. of the total mer­chandise traffic, these loads are pretty well adhered to, but in the goods traffic this is not possible, so that the average paying loan carried on a goods wagon is about 3 in place of 5 tons. In order to secure a.q full loading as possible for the goods wagons, there are tranship stations at Manchester, Birmingham, and Crewe, but the policy of the company at present is to concentrate the work of transhipment as much as possible at the last-named locality. Thus small consignments from different places for, say, Bangor, would all be sent to Crewe, even if this involved a certain amount of ''over haulage. " When thus brought together at Orewe, these different consignments may amount to nearly a truck load, in which case they are sent forward to their destination in a single wagon. In other cases, a~d in particular w?en a consignment has to be deh vered to a small village, or minor borough, there may be . no other goo~s at the tranship point destined for the same statiOn ;

engmes.

ELECTRIC PowER TRANSMISSION FOR FACTORIES.

I~ the e~tablishment of a ne~ factory the modern en~pnee~ Is now confronted w1th a problem with whiCh his predecessors have seldom, if ever, had to deal- that is, What plan should be adopted for the transmission of power from the main engine to the different shops and machines 1 In shops of mode­rate dimensions, therefore, the usual plan has been to place t he engine near one end, and to drive all the machinery by belting or ropes. With larger shops two engines were usually ado~ted, necessitating two separate boiler plants; and m the case of very large works still other distinct sets of power-generating machinery had to be pro­vided. On the Continent, it is true, different shops were sometimes coupled up with a high-speed rope transmission gear, and it is claimed that when pro­perly designed and maintained, the losses in frictio!l were very small. The more usual ? lan hds, h:.w­ever, been to have a separate engine and boiler plant for each shop, though in some cases all the engines have been supplied from a single plant by long ranges of steam-piping. That such a method is not necessarily very uneconomical is proved by the comparat ively small losses by con­densation ex{>erienced in the case of the mains (5 miles long) of the New York Steam Company. In these mains, Dr. Emery has stated, the con­densation was trivial, the principal loss being due to leakage at the joints. Of course, every care was taken in this case to check the outward flow of heat-a point which has too frequently been utterly neglected in ordinary workshop prac­tice. Whilst steam can, as stated, be conveyed quite long distances in suitably protected pipes without very excessive loss by condensation, there is, nevertheless, a concensus of opinion that for such cases electrical transmission is more suitable; and in a number of factories recently erected the whole of the power used is generated by a single boiler and engine plant, an..d then transmitted electrically to the different workshops. Quite apart from this question as to the distribution of power from one centre to a number of shops, is that of its distribution in each shop to the machines. In many cases experience shows that electricity can conveniently be used also for this. The matter was discussed pretty fully in a paper recently read by Mr. W. A. Kerr, A.M.I.C.E., at a meet­ing of the Liverpool Engineering Society. Mr. Kerr points out that electricity is leas adapted for such use in mills and factories in which the fluctua­tions of load are small than in engineering work­shops where the average demand for power is only some 60 per cent. of the maximum. As an average of 17 engineering workshops, he finds that about 42 per cent. of the brake horse-power of the engine is lost in the friction of the transmission shaft.ing and gearing. As the total losses in electrical transmission could scarcely exceed 19 per cent. as a maximum, it is evident that a smaller steam plant would be capable of supplying the requisite power when belt transmission is re­placed by electrical. Considerations of capital cost prevent the adoption of the ideal system of an electric motor for every machine, and it is therefore necessary to make a compromise, grouping together a number of the smaller machines. Mr. !{err, from a detailed study of the matter, concludes that when

The company with which I am connected heat shops in this manner covering 9 acres, including one machine hall 368 ft. by 102 fb., and a foundry 250 ft. by- 250 ft. Our system was installed by the Sturtevaut Engmeering Com­pany, of 147, Queen Victoria-straet, E.C. I should be glad ~o give '' Enquirer " any information respecting our experience.

ltJ is gratifying to note the interest in this subj£ct, which is so often entirely overlooked iu workshops. ltJ is to be hoped that some correspondence may be called forth by "Enquirer's " letter from manufacturers who have considered this question.

ItJ is doubtful if proprietors of engineering establish­ments ~here shops are not heated (and there are many) can estimate the annual loss when men musb work with shivering bodies and numbed fingers, to say nothing of the. rust and decay in machines and tools through mo1sture.

Yours faithfully, H. F. L. 0ROUTT,

Lud w. Loewe and Co., Ltd. 30 and 32, Fa.rringdon-road, London, E. C.

September 21, 1901.

To THE EDITOR OF ENGINEERING. SIR,-The note in your issue of the 20bh inst. , from

"Euquirer," opens up a very large and, no doubt to many engineering firms, a. very interesting subject; hub to enable a definite reply to be given to his query, it would be necessary to know the class of workshops referred to, with \)articulars of their construction.

Assummg, however, a~ is probable, that they are shops in which machine-work, erecting and fitting, are carried on, and that they are on one floor with shed-roofs con· taining a considerable quantity of glass, it is likely thab the simplest, most economical, and most effective system of heating-which would have the further advan­tage of also ventilating- would be bo blow into the shops large volumes of warm air by means of fans, the ai r being warmed by passing through heaters in which exhaust steam, if available, ca.n be used, the fans being driven either by beltJ or electrically. Other fans would probo.bly be necessary to exha.uab at suitable point!J, so as to promote the circulation of the air and change ib periodically. The distribution migho be effected without the use of ducts, by fixing the heaters and fans ab suitable points. The air could, if necessary, be filtered, and the requisite moisture added after the air was heated.

'l'he whole matter, however, is dependent so much upon local circumstances, that only a very broad idea of the system can be given without the special circumstances of the case being known.

A further advantage, however, is that in summer the air could still be pa8Sed through the shops for ventilating purposes1 and be cooled by being drawn through the heater.3, m which cold water mi~ht be circulated so as to cool ohe air, which could be still fur ther cooled by being passed through the air screens which would be keptJ moist by water sprayed upon them. The screens in question are nob the ordinary screens of woven material, but our special air filters containing coke in trays, kept moist by a fine spray.

We should be pleased to bear from " Enquirer" direct, and to give him fuller information to suib his pa.rbicular case.

Yours truly, WM. TATTERSALL, Managing Director for the

Sun Fan Com-pany, Limited, 4a) Thornton·road, Bradford, September 24, 1901.

To THE EDITOR oF ENGINEERING. StR,- 1 have lately had to go into the question of heat.

ing large buildin~s from a. central station, and I find the great difficultJies m the ordinary run of such installations is to regulate the heating to the great variations in tem. pera.ture experienced in an ordinary English winter. The outside temperature from November to May may be anything between 65 deg. and 0 deg. Fabr., while the inside temperature should be constant ab 60 deg. Fa.br. The ordinary hot-water and steam heating systems cannot be regulated to anything like the exbent required, and the consequence is tha.b the rooms a.re either overheated or too cold.

Two systems have lately been introduced and worked with great success, and I believe they are the only systems that rea.lJy satisfy the conditions obtaining in this co~ntry, as with them the heat can be regulated to a meaty, namely, the vVebster Atmospheric Steam Heating qom­pany, Limited, pump system, and the W. M. B mny system of hot. water heP.ting with forced circulation. In both these systems the beating medium is circulated through the pipes and radiators by mechanical means, and they can be worked with the exhaust steam from the shop engines, and from their own motors. The quantity of steam rEquired for 1, 000,000 ou hie feet of space, that is, a shop 1 acre in extent and about 23 ft. high, allowing for a certain amount of heat lost in transmission, is equivalent to the exhaust from about 50 indicated horse-power for steam and 60 indicated horse power for water heating ; but tbi3 will to a great extent depend upon the construc­tion of the shop and the general arrangement of the in­stallation.

The atmospheric steam-heating system is ragula.ted by throttling the steam, thus reducing the quantity of steam entering the radiator and only heating the same partially, so that the temperature of rooms can be reduced to any extent. This can be done either for each radiator separately, or for a whole system of pipes and radiators from a central point.

In the " Binny " system the regulation ia effected by lowering the temperature of the circulating water. On cold days the temperature of the water may be raised to 200 deg. F ahr. , and on mild day-3 reduced to lOO deg. Fahr., or even lower if required. It has the advantage t hat the heater and circulating pump can be '(>laced in the most convenient! position for attendance, Without regard to the distance above the level of the radiators. The circulating water can be heated in an economiser by means of waste heat from any furnace in the factory, thus allowing the shop engine to work with condensation ; and it has the furbher ad vantage that hot water can be sup­plied to any part of the factory or building.

The Webster system requires smaller radiators and return pipes than the Binny system; but this is to some extent counterbalanced by the cost of the specials required for the former system and not required for the latter.

Each of these systems has its own particular merits, and it must in each c11se be decided by the local circum­stances which is the most suitable.

Yours very truly, AL1!'RED H ANNSEN.

319, Lordship-lane, East Dulwich, S.E, Sept ember 24, 1901.

'f o 'l'HE EDITOR 0.1!' ENGINEERING. SIR,-R e (,Inquirer's" letter in your issue of S9ptem­

ber 20, I find the most eatisfactory way of hea ting work­shops as a rule is by large stoves of the slow-combustion ''Tortoise " type, with cast-iron chimney passing through the roof. They burn anything, though coke is best. I have used them for years, and find them mosb economical.

I t is better to bank the stoves up at night in very cold weather, then the men have a warm shop to come to, and can starb work right away.

-

Yours faithfully, S. A. WARD.

Broad-streeb-lane, Park, Sheffield, September 26, 1901.

NITRO-EXPLOSIVES. To THE E DITOR OF ENGINEERING.

StR,-Ranher more than a dozen years ago it was announced that a new and powerful explosive had been discovered in France. The composition of this new ex­plosive was supposed to be a profound secret. The F rench officers, especially those connected with the Ex­perimental Departmenfl, were so delighted with the re­sults obtained that they boasted a great deal about their new discovery, especially· to.Englisl:imen.

On more than one oocasion the writer of this article found himself in the presenc.e of a F rench experimental officer and a clever Scotchman. The Frenchman, in addressing the Scotch man, said : "France is always ahead in matters which relate to artillery. We have recently discovered a new explosive. It is the first high explosive ever discovered which can be loaded into an armour-piercing projectile and fired through a plate without exploding. This new explosive ia very heavy, consequently a large amount of it can be loaded into a projectile. It is extremely safe. It will nob explode unless it is confined in a very strong receptacle. If thrown into a furnace, it will burn like so much pitch or rosin. It may be stlirred up with red-hot irons. If you place it on an anvil and strike it with a sledge hammer ib will nob detonate, but when loaded into a shell and pro­perly setl off with a powerful detonating charge, its force lS terrific- nearly as stron~ as pure nitro-glycerine."

Then, baking a piece of cigarette paper out of his pocket, he held it up to the Scotch man, and said : "Why don't you plate your ships and make your shields of cigarette paper ? It would be cheaper and just as good as tb.e steel and iron you now employ."

He then went on to say thab the sunken turrets which were used on the frontier would be of no value in face of this new material, "because," he said, "a plunging shot will penetrate about 6 mebres of solid masonry, and the explosion will not bake place until after it has attained this depth. "

Evidently that French officer did nob imagine that be had been giving away any secrets. He thought he bad only spoken of results.

About three days after the eventl, the writer was dining with the same Sootohman ab a Paris restaurant with some riend~, and the conversation burned on the new explosive.

One of the party pointed out to us a. F renchman, whom

•

E N G I N E E R I N G. he said had recently made a large sum of money. He ha_d been to England, and. purchased all the. crude carbohc acid that could be obbamed, and had sold It to the French Government· whereupon the Scotch gentleman nudged

' . d tJhe writer, and wmke • . " When the dinner \vas over, the Scotch man said : Wh~t

the deuce can the French be doing with so n;tuch carbol1c acid? I s it an explosive? Can an explos1ve be made

f . ? out o It . . h The writer informed him that carbolic a01d was t e

basis of picric acid, and that picric acid appeared . to ~e the identical material which the F rench were usmg m their projectiles. . . . .

On returning to England, a qnanttty of ptc~lO a01d was bought, and it stood all the test~, except that It could be detonated by being struck by a sledge-hammer. How­ever, upon adding about 3 p er cent. of paraffin wax to the mixture, it stood the blow perfectly. It was kaown to the writer ab the time that paraffin wax had been used by Sir Hiram Maxim to modify the sensitiveness of ex-plosive~. .

L ater on it was discovered that M. Turpm had filed ab the Fr~nch patent office an additlion to hls original patent in which he described and claimed the use of heavy ~ineral oils for modifying and reducing the sensi-tiveness of picric acid. .

The writer does not claim to be the first to have dlS­covered that the French explosive was pi~ric acid,. because, on laying the matter before some offi01als on bts return to L ondon he le8irnb that the B ritish Government were already experimenting ab Lydd with picric acid. _

English lyddite is nothing more nor less than pure picric acid, and it was shown by experiments on '· the Belle Isle " that this material by itself could not be shot through an armour-plate without exploding ~ wher~as ~he French claimed from the very first that theu proJectiles could not be detonated by armour-plates, no matter how thick ; that the material would stand the shook of an~­thing that the proje~tile could pass through; a~d. as 1t has long been defimtely known that the mehmte of the French is nothing more nor less than picric acid modified by a very small percentage of thick petroleum oil, why is it that our own Government have not taken advantage of the knowledge whlch has so long been in their possession ?

The recent fatal accident in E ngland with a lyddite shell shows some of the peculiar characteristics of picric acid. Here was a shell loaded with the most insensitive of explosives. It had stood the shock of being fired from a gun, and also the shook of striking, and burying itself in the earth, and the fuz'3 had failed altogether to set off the charge. It had been lying in the ground for several days when it was dug up; but while the soldier was lifting it oub of the ground with his hands, the shell went off with terrific violence, blowing the man into atoms. H ow can we account for such a peculiar pheno­menon ? The writer is nob aware that any investigation has taken place, but he would make a few suggestions.

Picric acid attacks nearly all metals, in some cases forming dangerous picrates. It is also rendered very dangerous by coming in contact with alkaline bases.

Suppose, now, that the fuze contained some compound of which chlorate or nitrate of potash was a component part. This compound failed to go off, but the shock brought ib into contact with the picric acid, and after a few days a very dangerous and sensitive picrate of potash was formed ; or the ehock might have peeled off a portion of the varnish coating of the inside of the shell, and the picric acid might have come in direct contact with the iron, which of itself might have been the source of the danger. It has been shown by experiment that when petroleum oil is mixed with picric acid, tlhe tendency to form dangerous and sensitive picrates is very much diminished ; in fact, chlorabe of potash, picric acid, and paraffin wax may be safely used in the same compound.

lb has recently been announced in the Press that a com· ~letely new explosive has made its appearance in the States, and it is alleged that this new explosive has been taken over by the U nited States Government. In this case, as with the French, a minute description of its characteristics and physical properties has been given; which points most conclusively to the fact that the com­pound is picric acid, or a similar material, which, like picric acid, is manufactured from coal-tar products modified with petroleum. Very curiously, certain journals which claim to be scientific have described this supposed new explosive as being quite unique in its character, losing sight altogether of the fact that the physical characteristics are identical with those of m9linite, which has been known for many years.

Butl picric acid is by no means the only high explosive which may be manufactured from coal-tar product~.

Professor Mowbray, who was employed by the Maxim­Nordenfelt Company many years ago, made a very violent and safe explosive by combining nitro-glycerine and tri-nitro-toluene. Then we have bri-nitro-napthalene, di-nitro-benzone, nitro-benzone, and •tri-nitro-cresol, which the French have been experimenting with during the last few years. All of these substances are at present manu­factured from coal-tar ,products. "rhey are all very similar in their action, but it IS said that they are not so liable to be affected by coming in conbaob with metal surfaces as picric acid. I t has also been shown that some very peculiar and phenomenally safe coml?ounds can be made by combining nitro-glycerine with either tri-nitro-cresol or tri -nitro-toluene.

The composition and physical properties of melinite are thoroughly shown in M. Eissler's work on '' Modern Explosives," 1897; and some reference to Professor Mow­bray's experiments with tri-nitro-toluene will be found on page 147 in Sanford's work on "Nibro E xplosives," 1896.

Yours faithfully, Paris, September 20, 190 l. CoNTINENTAL.

• 457 ' :

THE TUNNEL BETWEEN IRELAND AND SCOTLAND.

To THE EDITOR OF E NGINEERING. SrR - I read with pleasure the article in your pa~eh on

the . ~ Tunnel between England and Ireland, " ere have been many of these letters; but n<?ne of them ever give any estimate of the cost of changmg even any bf the Irish railway gauge to that of Engla!ld. No dou b in so large an undertaking the cost of altermg the Belfas t and Northern County's lines would not be great; but a great deal of the value of the tunnel goes unless all the goods wagons at any rate could g~ throug~ from all par ts of the country. I met an E oghsh engmeer once who tried to f ersuade me that the gauges were the SM~e ; a~d not unti I told him that I had worked on an Ir1sh rail­way for some years, and in the permanent ~ay office, would he believe that our gauge wa~ 6 ft. 3 m . I al~o know a man who actually took out a patent for a ship that was to carry the t rains over and then let them go their way on English lines-he was a Belfast man-and did not find out for many months that the. gaug~s were different· and from many of these letters 1t stnkes me the samrf error is there. Not, howevex:, in ¥r. Barto.n's; he, of course, knows ; hub I think he might g1ve s~me Idea of the cost, &c., of change, or what method they m tend to adopt for trans-shipment.

Yours faithfully, E. F. w. GRIMSHAW.

Summer Hill, E nniskerry, Co. Wicklow, September 13, 1901.

THE GLASGOW CORPORATION TRAMWAYS.

To THE E DITOR OF ENGINEER:LNG. SIR - Your correspondent "Citizen," to judge from

his r~marks, is evidently not conversant with the broad fact'3 connected with this subject, which has become somewhat involved through the various conflicting state­ments which have appeared in the newspapers from time to time, and his effusion certainly does not tend to make matters any clearer. "Citizen " is wrong in his deduc­tion that each of the four main engines is intended to run the whole oar service.

If the Glasgow H erald files be consulted, it will be found that the intention was to use three of the main engines to ruu the car service, wh.ile the fourth ~n_g~ne acted as stand-by. Ab present, owmg to the ExhibitiOn traffic, the car service is more freguent, ~nd the power required greater than it is likely to be under normal con­ditions for some years, even when the immediate extlensions are taken into account: yet one of t he main engines is found sufficient to deal with it. Of course, in winter, when snow has to be contended with, the conditions will be more severe, and might warrant> the authorities in starting a second engine; thus two of the main engines should be sufficient, with a third as stand-by, to deal with all the power required for a long time to come. I t might be asked at this point if the Corporation were well advised in spending money, as they have done, on a fourth main engine and its connections ?

While I do not pretend to give exact dates, I am cer­tainly not far wrong in saying that the car service was started at the end of April last, and run by one or other of the Stewarb engines alone, until the end of May, and during this time-! have the daily press as my authority -as many a.s 80 cars were in service. Considering that th~ night load would also have to be dealt with, this period of night and day working forms a very good record for these engines, which were new, and, according to recent reports, had never been adjusted. Now one of these engine!, is only equal to 800 horse-power, yet it ran 80 cars, and as "Citizen " says that the present load is 332 cars, it does nob require much knowledge of mathematics to understand that 332 cus only require 3320 horse-power; and if an additional 160 horse-power is allowed for auxiliary machinery, the total power ab present developed by one • main engine i8 only some 3470 horse-power, while it is described · as a 4000 horse-power engine. This does nob look like overloading, yet, according to the newspapers, there are frequent stoppages of the car service, due presumably to temporary failure of the main engines. The small amount of power required for the auxiliary machinery when only one main engi ne is run­ning, may explain why a separate engine is not at present used for 1lhl8 pur.P.ose, or possibly it may be that all the load available is required to enable the main engine, otherwise underloaded, to run steadily. " Citizen's " second letter does not open up much new ground, but he appears to be labouring ab the self-appointed task of apologist for the Allis engines, and everything American, and denunciator of the Musgrave and Stewarb engines, and everything British. This is about the last r6le one would expect a Glasgow citizen to plav. It would be satisfactory to learn "Citizen 's " authority for stating that the Stewarb engine has nob been on any regular load since the beginning of June. I feel sure he must be mistaken in saying so, as it would be absurd to suppose that the Corporation should without remark in the 'fown Council, be using a 4000 horse~ power main engine for the comparatively small power required for night service, this being avowedly the work for which the Stewarb engine and its stand-by were originally intended.

As to "Citizen's " surprise and disagpointment ·that neither Messrs. Musgrave or Stewart have seen fit to make any st~t~menb in reply to his queries, I have yet to learn that 1b 1s the custom among respons ible firms to take serious notice of anonymous letters in any periodical. ~o! the r_est, I am sure all self-respecting Glasgow ettizens wtll be content to allow the Corporation of Glasgow, and its advisers, to deal with contractors as

•

'

?ircumstances ~ay dictate, in t.b~ interes ts of the city, mste~d of malhng themselves r1d1culous by attempting to bs.tt ~be3e firms single handed in the public pre!ls.

Ib str1kes me as somewhab peculiar that while "Citizen" asks for information in an apparently ingenuous and in­n;ocenb manner, he seems to have some source of informa­tton or '' misinforma.tion" denied to ~h~ general newspaper r~ader, and, from pts apparent parttahty and tender soli­Oltude for tpe All~s. engines, I am tempted to think that, fa:r from ~em~ a. c1t1zen of the "second city of the Em­pn~," ~e 1s, or ou~b~ to be, a citizen of that Republic wh10h. 1s no.w oher~shmg a. drea~u of empire in the geo­graphlOal, mdltstrtal, and mantime world and whose emblem is the "Stars and Sbripes." '

HUOH DUNBAR. 200, George-streeb, Glasgow, September 25, 1901.

THE PERFORMANCE OF ELECTRIC GENERATORS.

To ·lnTrHE~ EorroB oF ENGINEERING. SrR,-I noticed in ENGINEERING for June 14, 1901, on

page 766, a description of two Oerlikon generatorE~, and som~ of the figures. ~iven for ~he three-phase machine of the mduotor type, .lllusbr.ated 1n F igs. 5 to 8, on page 761, appeared .to me htghly 1mpro~able; so much so, indeed, tha.b I qu1te expected a. correctiOn to appear in your next issue. No such correction having appeared, I venture to offer some comments on the figures given.

The machine is stated bo give 7500 volts and 46 to 50 amperes at 50 periods and 250 revolutions; this means that the output is 596 to 649 kilowattls, and therefore 800 to 870 horse-power; presumably this is the normal out_{>ut on a circuit having the power-factor 1. The excitatiOn for this case is given atr 80 amperes ; from previous figures the field resistance appears to be .177 ohms, the watts are therefore equal to 1135, or .19 to .175 per cent. of the output.

It is farther stated that when working on a circuit with a power factor of .7, the ma.ohine requires 130 amperes 23 volts= 2990 watts, when giving 7500 volts and 100 amperes, which corre~ponds to an apparent output of 1300 kilowatts, the excitation being .23 per cent. of the appa­rent output, or .33 per cenb. of the real output, which, of course, is 910 kilowatt3, against 649 as given above.

The fall of tension is given as 20 per cent. for normal work, bu b I presume that it should read when working on a circuit having a. p ower factor of . 7.

The centre of gyration is given as 14 fb. 5.23 in., which must be a misprint, M I do not think a. oast-iron flywheel was ever made to run at about 12,000 ft. per minute.

The weight of this machine is given as 92 tons, and, judging by the i llustration, there is no bedpla.te to speak of. Ibis probable that this 92 tons applies to the larger machine previously described, and that the 62 tons given as the weight of the latter, really refers to the one we are considering ; but even then the weight appears excessive in comparison of some recent achievements on this aide of the water.

Messrs. Rosling, Appleby, and Fynn, Limited, have just completed an alternator, giving as a three-phaser nearly the same output with 2250 volts between terminals and running at 250 revolutions.

The machine was designed by me on the same lines as a good many others now running in E ngiish central stations. H omopolar induction through the iron, hete­ropolar through the spools, revolving steel field, stationary copper.

This machine, including a. heavy bedpla.te, weighed only 22~ tons, oot of which 41 tons fall to the bedplate. The output is 500 kilowatts, the temperabure rise, after continuous running, is 58 deg. Fahr., the excitation ab full load when working on a. circuit with a power factor of 1 is 3600 watts, or. 72 per cent. The self-regulation is just under 5 per cent.

On a circuit with a p ower factor of .8 the self-regulation is 17 per cent.

No matter wha.b good opinion I may have of bhe machine:J I design. I can hardly believe that I can beat the best Continental firms by so much, and must there­fore conclude that the figures given in your paper cannot be accurate.

I leok forward with interest to the promieed descrip-tion of other Oerlikon types.

I remain, Sir, yours faithfully, V AL. A. FYNN.

Managing Director of R osling, Appleby, and Fynn, Limited.

[In translation some inaccuracies found their war into the description of the 700 to 800 horse-power Oerh­kon type three-phase generators, of 7500 volts ab ~0 revolutions. T he exciting current for normal work 1s 80 amperes, corresponding to 0.25 per cent. (not 25 per cenb.) The fall of tension is 20 per cent. with cos </> := 0.8, and 600 K. V. A. The total weig.ht of the generator lB 38 tons (not 92 t ons) ; that of the movmg masses 8 bona (not 30 tons). In the weight of 38 tons are included found~tion plates, weighing together ~ tone. The sta.tor frame 1s of ca.sb iron and the revolv1ng part of cast steel. The diameter' of the centre of gyration is 1.8 metres (not 14 ft. 5.23 in.) The coils are ~ound on a ma.ndre~ and the field coil is formed of spe01a.lly wound copper nbbon. -Eo. E .]

CLEVELAND BLAST- FuRNAOEMEN's SEORETARY.-The ballot for the apJ:>ointmenb to the ~osition. of. Secret~ry to the Cleveland Bla.stJ.Furnacemen s Asso01a.taon, wh10h has just been held ab Middlesbrough, has resulted as follows: Mr. J. L oughran, of Middlesbrough, 1444; Mr. J. Hall, of Redcar, 136~ ; Mr. Loughran thus being elected by the small majonty of 79.

•

•

E N G I N E E R I N G.

THE T.-S.S. "KRONPRINZ WILHELM."

•

/

WE reproduce a bove a photograph of the new North German Lloyd st eamship Kronprinz Wilhelm, taken by Mr. Ed ward C. P rince, of Southampton, as she left that port on her maiden voyage toN ew York. This has just been completed and took six days ten hours, the weather br::ing very rough for four days. The ship was fully described in our issue ot September 13, page 370.

THE SUEZ CANAL. THE number of ships which passed through the Suez

Canal last year was 3441, representing a gross burthen of 13,699,200 tons. The corresponding movement in 1899 comprised 3607 ships, with a. gross burthen of 13,815,900 tons; in 1898, 3505 ships, with a g ross burthen of 12,960,600 tons; in 1897, 2986 ships, with a gross burthen of 11,123,400 tons; and in 1896, 3406 ships, wit h a. gross burthen of 12,039,800 tons. The total of 3441 ships which passt:d through t he canal last year was made up as follows: German, 462; Brit ish, 1935 ; Aust ro-Hunga.rian, 126 , French, 285; Italian, 82 ; Japanese, 63 ; Dutch, 232; and Ru~sian, 100. No other country contributed a total of 50 ships, the United States only furnishing 22, t he Argentine R epublic 1, Belgium 7, Denmark 27, Spain 34, Greece 2, Norway and Sweden 32, Turkey 28, and Portugal 8. The movement of passengers through the cg,na.l last year comprised 282,000 persons, of whom 154,000 were soldiers. Of t hege latter, 47,000 were R ussian, 43,000 F rench, 26,000 German, and 13,000 English. The proportion of British ships passing t hrough the canal has been declining for some years past, while that of German shipping has baen increasing. The proportions sustained by the flags of the ships which passed through the canal during the last three years were as follows :

Flag. 1898. 1899. 1900.

per cent. per cent. per cent. British • • • • •• • • 67.1 65 6 66.7 German • • • • • • • • 10.4 10.8 15.0 French • • • • • • •• 69 6.8 8 5 Dutch . . • • • • •• • • 4.1 4.2 5.2 Spanish • • • • • • • • 1.8 1.2 1.1 Italian • • • • • • • • 16 1.6 1.8 Russian •• • • • • • 1.9 1 9 3.3 Austrian •• • • • • • • 2.8 2 7 8.4 Japanese .. • • •• • • 2.0 2.3 26 :Misoellaneou<J • • • • •• 19 3. l 2.4

Total •• • • • • 100.0 100 0 100.0

As regards the description of the goods and com­modities which passed through the oo.nal last year, the effect of the deficit in the cereal crops of British India was sharply felt in the first half of .1900. In the first six months of last year the t rans1t revenue fell off 165 882l. The second half of the year showed, however ~n increase of 138,075l.; this was explained by the J ~rge movement of European t roops to China. and also by a sligh t revival in business. The move­ment of wheat, rice, jute, and linseed through t he canal from the E ast to Europe during the last three years is given in the Table in the next column.

In the movement t hrough the canal from Europe to the East, British exports of salt and coal showe~ some reduction last year. As regards coal, t he falhng off was no less than 265,000, viz., from 876,000 tons in 1899 to 611,000 tons in 1900.

•

•

•

Although the Suez Canal is not exempt from the fluctuations which appear to be inevitably incident to all human affairs, t he canal has gradually increased in value as a propE>rty during the last thirty years. The great waterway was opened for business in November, 1869; and during t he period over which its construction extended the shareholders received an. interest of 5 per cent. out of capital. In 1870 they had to depend for the first t ime upon the re­venue earned, and t he 5 per cent. which t hey had p re­viously received was maintained. The same may be said of 1871, 1872, 1873, and 1874; but the shares of t he Canal Company gradually increased in value, as the traffic was liberal enough to induce hopes of a la rger distribution of profits being made. This expecta­tion was realised in 1875, when the d ividend upon the 20l. shares advanced to ll. ls. 6d. In 1876 the divi­dend further increased t o ll. 2s. l Od., and iu 1877 t o l l . 6s. 5d. In 1878 and 1879 there was a slight check, the dividend on the first of the two years reced­ing to ll. 5s. 6d. , and in 1879 to 11. 3s. 11 d. per share. The 20l. sh ares stood, however , at t he clos13 of 1879

Wheat Rice .. Jute . . Linseed

• • • • • • • • •

• • • • • • • •

Total • •

1898.

tons • • 484,677 • • 185,871 • • 867,570 • • 202,046

• • 1,240,163

1899. 1900.

tons tons 4l6,164 477 211 ,207 288,3i 8 291,141 285.132 189.348 155,187

-1,107,860 679,169

at 28l. 19s. 2d. each. In 1880 the canal began to earn div:idends .with a vengeance, t he d i~tribution for that year being ll. 17s. 6d. per share, while that amount was carried in 1881 to 2l. 15s. per share, in 1882 to 3l. 4s. lld. per share, in 1883 to 3l. !Os. Id., per share, and in 1884 to 3l. 9s. 9d. p er share. The next two years wi tnessed some falling off in profits, the distribution for 1885 declining to 3l. 8s. 4d. per share, while that for 1886 was only 3l. Os. 3d. per share. In 1887, however, the dividends began to pick up again, the return for that year being 3l. 2s. 8d. p er share, carried in 1888 to 3l. 11s. 6d . per share; in 1889, t o 3l. 12s. lld. per ijhare; in 1890, to 3l. 14s. Id. per share; and in 1891, to 4l. 9s. 8d. per share. A period of slight depression now set in, the dividend for 1 92 being reduced to 3l. 13s. 8d. per share, while that for 1893 was 3l. 17s. 8d. per share, and that for 1894 3l. 17s. 3d. per share. In 1895 t he dividend rallied to. 3l. 19a. 6d. per ~hare, and in 1896 it further advanced to 4l. o~. 5d. per share. In 1897 there was once more a set back to 3l. 18s. Id. per share, but in 1898 there was a recovery to 4l. 6s. 2d. per share, in 1899 to 4l. 13s. 2d . per share, and in 1900 to 4l. 13s. 3d. per share. We are t hus in the presence of the encouraging fact that last year was the mo~t remunerative in t he history of the undertaking. While the company's 20l. shares stood, as we have just shown, at 28l. 19s. 2d. at the close of 1879, they had advanced at t he close of 1889 to 9ll. 16s. lOd. , while at the close of 1899 they had been further carried to 144l. 16s. Their price in August this year had further crept up to 146l. 4s. The Brit ish Government has a. large invest ment in Suez Canal shares, and they constitute a. valual)le national asset.

•

•

•

INDUSTRIAL NOTES. THE thirteenth annual report of the Chief Labour

Correspondent of t he Bo9.rd of Trade, on strikes and lock outs, just issued, is supplemented by statistical tables prepared in the department. In a brief preface hy the Commissioner it is stated that the disputes in 1900 off~r few features of special interest to which it is necessary to call attention. The principal disputes in the year which aroused public attention were those affectiog the Thames lightermen, the Taff V ale Rail­way, the Penrhyn quarrymen, and the Staffordshire pottery workers; that of the Bethesda quarrymen is not yet sett,led.

The total number of disputes recorded in the year was 648, affecting directly and indirectly 188,538 work­rreople. The aggregate time lost was 3,152,694 dayP. This was a great loss in wages to those involved. But s pread over the entire industrial population, the dis­putes only involved 2.Z p er cent., the average Joss b ding less th~n half-a-day per bead in the year. The geueral results were, on the whole, . favourable to the work people, more so than in most recent years. The one gratifying circumstance in the case was that the ms.jority of the disputes were arranged directly be­tween the pa.rties, or their representatives, by nego­tiation. The number arranged by arbitration, con­ciliation, or mediation was 32, as comp3.red with 38 ia the year previous. But conciliation and mediation did much to prevent or avert st.rikes and lock-outs, which after all is most to be desired. Th~ number of disputes does not rapresent the full

c 1 s~. The numbers involved and the time lost must be taken into consideration. The following Table gh·es a general idea of the number and extent of dis­putes during the Jast five years : - --

I •

Number I Numbers Affeotej. I Number Tv tal of D..1.ys Y t~L·s. of I Number. Lost each Disputee.

Dire!tly. Iad irectly. Year. -

1SS6 IJ:W . I

147,950 . 60,240 19~,190 3,476,363 1~ 17 t-6 1 167,453 62,814 . 230,267 110,345,623 l d)3 71 l 200, '769 63,188 253,907 16, 289,4'id J8QJ 719 138,058 I 42,159 180,217 2,516,4l6 1:LO 6~3 133,1 15 I 5!l,393 183,538 3,152,69!

•

F~wer persons were directly involved in 1900 than ia tither of the four previous years, but the total number affected was great,er than in 1899. The aYerage time lost, however, in 1900 was mu~h greater than in 1 ~9. la this respect the time lost in 1897 and 1898 wa.<J enormously in excess of ei ther of the other years; in fact, the aggregate time lost in 1897 was equal to the tot1h of 1896, 1899, and 1900 ; while that in 1898 wa.s 5,000,000 working days more than in 1897.

---------------------------------T.J~al Number of Workpeople Invol ved.

Gr.;upl of Ttades.

1899. 1 1900. 18;)6. I 1897. I 189 3. '----- ----

Bui d ing .. . . 33,312 Mioing, &J. .. . . , 67, L9 f Engineering, ship·

ping, &J. . • . . 48,137 Te>..t iJe • • . . 33,656 Olotbiog . . . . a,969 Tra.nsport, &~. . . 3,312 ~n~cellaoeous . . 8,070 Pabli~ authorities . . 537 •

15,0 17 16,68 l 49,392 177,029

30,524 46,831

19,1i8 74 ,864

9i, 189 37,oo t I 7,0l6

12,623 11,734

365

21,432 21,119 19,810 24,918 61,499 24.143 3,561 2,258 2,15i 3,478 12,611 23,026 6,261 4,212 24,968

484 1,163 895 -----

• . . 193,L90 230,267 263,907 118),211 I 198,538

------------~--

The above Table shows the r ela.ti ve numbers affected ia th1 Ee,•eral groups of trades under which the s~at ·stics are tabulated. These tell their own tale.

Tae J ournal of the Amalgamated Society of Engi­nee?·s for the current month contains a11 artic!e upon the plsition of t:r;a.de unions, and the supineness of trade unionists, w4ich is very outspoken. The writer points out that the decision in the recent Belfast case was the natural reault of the action of the ill­nHt 'l:tged and muddled Butchers' Union. That society was no~ content with striking against the employ­ment of a non-union man, but even refused to accept him as a member when the employer offered to pay hi~ dues, and thus end t he dispute. Nothing, it would appear, could satisfy the union but th.e ruin of the employer . Another case is cited of a strike agains t a non-member of a union, who was refused admission bcca.use he was over forty years of age. It is high time that responsible la bour leaders spoke plainly a':>out these matters. Trade nnions, as a whole, suffer because of the wrongheadedness of a few. The total number of members in the Engineers' Union is now 89,921 ; of these, 2444 were on donation benefit­iocrease, :375 over last month ; on sick benefit, 1931-increase, 79; on superannuation. benefit, 3885- same as Ltst month. Two other membera are reported as ex­cluded for misconduct. One, who had wol'k found for him, got drunk and lost his employment; the other lost his wo rk by misconduct and then left wit,hout paying his debts. If unionism is to live and prosper,

~ N G 1 N E E:. R 1 N C. the policy of the unions and the conduct of the members must be beyond reproach.

Toe raport of the B.>ilerm9.kers and I roo Shipbuilders for the current month sta.tes that the informa.tion from various chief centres indicates a continuance of good tra.ie, especially in shipbuilding and locomotiYe branches. But the repor t, adds that many members are not taking advantage of the present opportunity of making hay while the sun shines. It is stated that complaints reach the office of neglect of ·work and loss of time, which bring discredit upon th~ union. The total number on the funds was 366S, as compared wit h 3376 in the previous report. · Of these, 30 bad cards granted- decrease, 11 ; members signing the vacant-book, 291- increase, 12; ou home donation, 1239-increase, 326; on sick benefit, 1400- decrease, 35 ; on suP.erannuat ion benefit, 70S -same as last month. The membership increased by Ill, after all dt. ductions caused by death and arrears. The votes cast on the appr~nticeship. que~tion were-~or, 14,787 ; ag-l.inst, 18,968 ; the com ments upon the result are defdrred"till t h,e next month's repo~t. In consequence of the issue of new rules, several notices appeg.r as to payments in case of si'ckne.ss, accident, funeral, super­annuation, and other bensfits. · There are two c1 ses of embezzlement of funds reported, but civil action only wa~ taken, the amount in the two cases to be repaid, together with fines. In this wa-y the stigma of imprisonment is avoided. Three members are declared as suspended for not paying their debts. A treasurer in the London district has absconded with 44l. 14s. 2!d. of the Society's (unds. This is the third case reported in this month's report, in spite of the special audits ordered by the council. It shows that strict supervision is constantly needed.

0

I

The repor t of the Ironfounders' • ociety indicates that there is very little change in the st3.te of trade in so far as employment in this . branch is concerned. There is an all-round increase of nine on unemployed benefit only. The number on home donation had in­creased by 30, but 25 of these were simply transferred from dispute benefit to donation benefit. There is aho very little chauge in the financial posit ion, the bl.lance being nearly the same as last month. The report states that the volume of business in the marine branches appear to be well m<J.intained, and there are a. sufficiency of orders to carry the firms engaged well into next year. In the t extile industries the outlook is not good, and the ironfounders in L1.ncashire and Yorkshire are affected by the sh.ckness in tho3e branches of industry. The returns as to employment vary somewhat, the indications being unsatisfactory. Iu 110 places, employing 13,7:36 . members, trade was fl'om very good to dull; in last month's returns t.he figures werd 103 places, with an aggregate of 14,444 members. In 26 plar.es, employing 3517 members, trade was from slack to very bad ; the corresponding figures for Jast month were 19 branches, with 3786 members. On the whole this is not very discourag­ing. There were on benefit 2628 members; last month 2619. Of the total 1063 were on donation benefit­increase, 30; sick, 469- increase, one ; on superannua­tion, 955 - in<'rease, 13 ; on other trade benefits, 140-decrease, 10 ; on dispute benefit, one -decrease, 25. The cost was 836t. 4s. 4d. per week, or about lld. per member. The cash balance was 10!,950l. 3s. 2j. This union was suspended by the recent Congress over a d·spute on demarr.l.tion of work with the Brassfounders' Union.

The Asso~i~ t d Ironm:>Ulders of S.;otla ... d report a la.rger number of members in work than in any month previous in this yrar. There was an increase of 101 in employment as compared with t he end of July, when the holiday season in Scotland commenced . The union ha.s not had so m'l.ny members in full employ­ment since April, 1900, and it appears that thera is every probabili ty of i ts continuance. In the "idle " list appear 138 members, and the report Eays that many of those could obtain work if they sought for it and desired it. The office has had both letters and personal calls for men, and vacant pla'!es are known to the executi ve ; but still men prefer idle "bene­fit .. , Conjointly with the Central :Moulders' Asso· ciation, the two executives have mJ.de a request for an advance in wagea, to date from November 28. Toe demand is for a return to the wages and prices paid up to the Jast reduction, in February of this year. The letter to the Employers' Association asks for a reply by October 17 nex t. This union has al o a dispute with the brassfounders as to the demarcation of work. These disputes tend to loose n the bonds of un ion, and will, in the end , bring disrui.Jtions, not only in the Trades Cllngre~s , but in· the English and 'oottisb Federations of Labour Unions. As a rule,

the employer cares little who does the work, if it be well done and there is no increase of pa.y required. In this case wages · are not in dispute- only as to who shall do the work.

459 - - -""-

The report of the Amalgamated Society of Car­penters and Joiners indicates a falling-off in trade . in this branch. The number of unemployed on donatwn benefit is nearly double what it was a. year ago, and the prospects of better trade a~e not encouraging as the dull winter season draws near. The total number of members at date of report was 67,297 ; of these 1403 were on donation benefit, 1135 on sick benefit, and 1047 on superannuation benefit; total, 3585-a large number to pay weekly out of the funds. Some of the unemployed are either on strike or locked out owing to wages d isputes. These exist in 14 towns, ani in 14 others partial disputes exist, and in two othera the local secretary has to be seen before society men can accept work. The strikes are mostly against proposed reductions in wages, for advances are not just now demanded. It is alleged that the American Brotherhood of Carpenter a and Joiners are seeking to compel the members of the Amalgamated . Society in the States to break up their branches and join the American Brotherhood. The American Federation of Labour is being appealed to in regard to this matter. Modern socialism does not apparently advance the brotherhood of workers, or "the solidarity of labour," as Continental workmen prefer to call it.

The Durham miners' circular reports the decision of the arbitrator on the house-rent question, referred to him by the Conciliation Board. The allowance in lieu of free dwellings is to be on the basis of '' cus­tomary allowance. " Mr. John Wilson, 1\1 P., gives an answer to the grum biers who complained ot the committee's action in agreeing to a reduction in wages. Compensation cases are reported, and some comments are made upon the Lords' decision ia the Taff Vale case. Generally the Durham miners are well employed, and the wages earned are comp~ratively high, in spite of the recent reduction.

The position of t he engineering trades in Lancashire shows no material change. Activity is, for the most part, well main ta.ined. This is especially the case with electrical engineers, locomotive and railway car· riage builders, and boilermakers ; in these branches there is ample work for some time ahead . Some other sections are not so well placed. Toolmakers are still well employed, but the weight of 01·dere ii compara­tively small, so that the prospects are not very encou· raging. Makers of textile machinery are slack, and there are few indications of improvement. The iron trd.d e is slow generally, buyers being content to pur­chase only for present needs. But makers of finished iron are full of orders for the present. District reports vary somewhat. In the Manchester and Salford dis­tri~t, in trade-union branches, with 24,807 members, 905, or 3.6 per cent., were unemployed-the same pro­portion as in the previous month. All the engin~ering and allied industries report employment as good, fair, or moderate. In the Oldham district also trade was good, fair, or moderate, except in the textile machine branches, which are slack. In the Bolton, Bury, Chorley, Heywood, and Wigan districts, fair or mode­rate generally; roller makers and metal workers slack. At Blackburn and Burnley moderate generally, but slack in the textile machine shops. In the Liverpool and Birkenhead districts there is a slackening off in some engineering sections. Generally the position is fair, but the prospects do nob appear to be as encourag­iag as could be desired.

--The condition of the cotton industries may be in-

ferred from the fact that a conference has been helcl of mill and factory owners on the question of working short time. The conference was private, and ended wi~hout any definite agreement, the matter being adJourned. But the fact of such a conference indicates thi.t the position and outlook are far from satisfactory, and the Blackburn strike, together with the legal pro­ceedings, do not tend to mend m~tters.

In the Wolverhampton district the iron tra.des are reported to b~ steady, with an all-r ound moderate current demand and numerous inquiries from shipping firms and merchants for future supplies. Prices also are stiffening all round, with advances in some instances. Steel is also in better demand, and rates firmer. Labour reports indicate further improvement in trade throughout the district. Electrical engineers are yery busy, working ~ay and night shifts. Engineers, uonfounders, and b01lermakers report employment as good, cyclema.kera and malleable ironworkers as fair; at Coalbrookdale and :M:adeley rather quiet. Bridge and girde~ constr.uctors are well employed. In the hardware tndustrte~ employm£nt was good in eleven branches, moderate 10 fifteen, declining in one improv­~ng in ~ve, and quiet .in thir~eon. For the ~ost part ~t was 10 the.sma.lle~ mdustnes that trade was quiet; 1n the larger mdustr1es employment generally is fairly good. Taken as a. whole, the position is encouraging and the prospects are fairly good as regards the nea~ future, at· least.

In the Birming' a.:u tl is~ric t the iron trades gene·

.. •

rally have improved, but the business put through has not been large. Prices are firm ; in some cases an ~dvance ~n rates is reported. The demand for pig tron has m creased; some makes are difficul t to obtain Indications rather point to advanced rates for finished iron, both of the better and commoner sorts. Gene­rally employment in the district is fairly good. In branches of trade unions, with 20,933 members, 604, or 2. 9 per c~nt., were reporte? to be unemployed, as compared wtth 3.1 per cent. m the previous month The engineers, pattern-makers, ironfounders, tool: makers, boilermakers, smiths, and strikers report em­ployment as good to moderc1 te ; in t he motor branch good, in the cycle branch bad ; electrical engineers are fully employed. In the brass and copper trades em­ployment is fairly good. In other metal trades, good Jn. t-lev?n ~ranches, five fair, two quiet. In the out­lytng dtstncts generally employment is fairly good.

The steel s~rik~ m the United States has utterly collapsed. Thts wlll be felt as a blow to American trade unionism, but it may eventuate in better conditions. The men were not content with a fairly good con­cession, but wanted more. It ought to be a lesson to trade unionists throughout the world.

The di~pute at G rimsby has eventuated in disorder and riot. Wrecked premises and broken heads where peaceful negotiations might have settled the dispute. The owners assert that the terms offered mean an advance; surely this is capable of demonstration. The men say it means a reduction. A capable arbitrator could unravel the tang1e if submitted to him.

The law proceedings in the Black burn strike case are still pending. The injunction asked for was not granted at the sitting of the court last week. The case is similar to the Taff Vale case, and will affect the union gene­rally whose members are out .

The tramway men's dispute at Bristol continues. The company allege that they have filled the places of t he 300 men who struck ; the men deny this. The City Council is to consider the matter at a specially convened meeting.

The labourers' strike at Swansea is likely to lead to legal proceedings similar to those in the Taff V ale case, owing to the threatening conduct of the men on strike.

A strike of miners at three collieries of the Rhymney Iron Company took place last week, some 600 men having ceased work. The enginemen also are out. The dispute is causing much inconYenience to the railway company, as the trains cannot be worked full time.

BILBAO RIVER AND HARBOUR. W orks for I 'TI1J]Yl'OVing the B ilbao R ive·r cvnc1, JJtiaki;ng an

Outer Ha1rbowr i also the Appl,icat,ion of L curue Caissons as a B 1·eakwate1· F o'IJI'I'Idation. *

By Senor DoN Ev ARISTO DE CHURRUCA, Chief Engineer of the Bilbao River and Harbour Works.

INTRODUCTION. HAVING had the honour of being invited by the distin­

guished engi.Ileer, 1\'Ir. L. F . V ern on-Harcourt, in the name of the Organising' Committee of the International Engineering Congress, to be held in Glasgow next summer, to present a paper on the putting in place of large caissons filled with concrete, such as are now being used for the construction of the Bilbao breakwater, I have thought it desirable to give, first of all, a general idea of the works executed by the Bilbao Harbour Bo~rd to .improve ~he river and the bar, and then to f?llow this up With a de;Scnp· tion of the harbour of refuge m course of construct10n m the Bay of Bilbao. In. buildino-. the n~ain breakwa~er of this harbour, we met with such ~1fficultles from the vwlent action of the sea dwing north-westerly storms, that we were compelled to use large steel caissons, which shall he described latter on.

THE BILBAO RIVER, AND WORKS MADE TO IMPROVE IT. Gene1·al D esC?·iptio'f!-. - The ~aritime part o! the Nervi~:m

river known as "R1a de B1lbao," and wh10h forms Its port,'has a total len~th of 14 kilometr~ (~ miles), the town being situated m the upper part (Fig. 1). The. Ner­vion river has a torrential character; and the quantity of water which in summer time is as low as 4 cubic metres per s~cond (141 cubic feet), rises sometimes to 1600 cubic metres (56,500 cubic feet). .Such heavy floods last only .a shorb time so that the ordinary volume of the stream IS small and' therefore has little influence on the river navi­e-atio~, which is kept up exclusively by the tidal wat~rs. The range of the tide varies between 1. 24 metres ( 4 ft. 1 m.) and 4. 60 metres (15 f t . 1 in.), this l.atter correspon4ing to eguinoct ial spring tides under ordinarY, 11tmosphe~1.c con· ditions. The annual average of all the tidal rs;~~nges IS about 2. 76 m.etres (9 ft. ) ; th~ volume of w~te~ that ~nters t~e river m such a tide 1s about ? million c~b~c metr~s (10,464,090 cubic yards}; and riSes to 1~ mll~1on cu_bw metres (15,696,000 cubic yards) at equmoct1al spnng tides.

* P aper read before the ID;ternational Engineering Cons:t:ess, Glasgow, 1901. Sectwn II.: Waterways and Mart time Works.

•

E- N·G IN E E-R 1-N G. Defects of the R vve1·. - The oldest documents that men­

tion the Bilbao river show that it was in a very bad c~ndition for navigation, and that as far back as the Sixteenth century, works were carried out to improve it. It wa~ most important to improve the bar, the conditions of which were such that, according to a document dated 1503, many vessels were wrecked on it, on account of the small d~pth over it, and the shiftin~ of its sandbanks, duo to the violent action of the prevailing north-west winds. To ,remedy these def~cts, in that and the following cen­tunes, quays were built to fix the mouth of the river; but th:es~ works did not give very permanent results, for until w1~h~n the l~c:;t twenty years the sandbanl<s have continued shiftmg, whilst the depth of water has been at times as lc;>w as 0·60 metre (2ft.) at low water of equinoctial spring tides.

In the river itself, from its mouth up to Bilbn,o, there were many obstructions to navigation, such as shallo·wn ess, sharp curves, and banks, aU of which existed to within a few years ago, despite all the training walls built in pasb centuries throughout its length.

U1·gent Necessity f 01· I mp1·ovenwnts.-Such a state of things affected the trade of Bilbao very unfavourably ; and the. effects were more keenly felt when, in 1870, tbe ex­portation of iron ore for the Bessemer process of steel manufacture was commenced on a large scale. Many vessels entering the port could only go out at spring tides, when loaded with mineral; and if, as frequently occurred in winter, the sea was rough at the time, or the waves choked the river mouth with sands, these vessels could not get out for weeks. In the winter of 1875-1876 the steamers were detained inside the river during three and a.-half months, although the largest did not draw over 13 ft. This happened very often. and the vessels sometimes were compelled to unload part of their cargo so as to be able to get out. In consequence of this, freights became very high.

Oreation of the Bilbao H arbotw B oa1·d.- The Bilbao Chamber of Commerce realising that such conditions could not continue, obtained leave from the Government in Septen;tber, 1877, to create a .Harbour lD?provements Board, w1th power to levy certam dues on ll11ports and exports for defraying the cost of improving the Bilbao river. In the following month of October, the Govern­ment appointed the author of this paper as Director or Chief Engineer of the H arbour Works, and the Board was finally constituted in November 1877.

D esign cvnc1, E xecution of the W 01·ks.- On account of the different interests then existing in connection with the Bilbao river, due to the five mineral railways that run to it, and to the various iron works established on its banks, it was decided to improve the river itself, and the bar first of all, with as little delay as possible, leaving the construc­tion of the outer harbour till later, especially in view of the fact that this latter work involved a large outlay of money whi<>h was not then available.

When those works were be~un (and we shall not enter into a detailed description of them, as they do not concern the principal object of this paper), they soon produced the desired effects. Most excellent results were obtained, especially at the bar, by building a training jetty, 800 metres (2625 ft.) in length on the Jeft bank of the river mouth, and carrying it out seawards with a gentle curve. Formerly only 2 ft. of water existed at low tides in the channel, which, moreover, was choked by sand during winter gales to such an extent that no vessels drawing over 12ft. could go out; whereashafter building the jetty, a channel along its whole lengt was easily maintained with a minimum depth of 4 metres (13 ft.) at low water of equinoctial spring tides. This ena.bled steamers drawing 22 ft. to 24 ft. to go in and out easily at high water of spring tides, and it was navigable at neap tides for stea,mers drawing 18 ft. to 20 ft. (Fig. 2).

The works executed in the river itself did away with the sharp bends; an9 by _dre9ging along 14 kilometres (8f miles), the depth 1s mamtamed at over 4 metres (13 ft.) at low w~tter spring tides along the whole length, so that steamers of 20 ft. draught can now come up to the Bilbao qua.ys; whereas formerly those drawing over 10 ft. were debarred. With the above improvements, and especially with those carried out in the lower part of the river, where the principal mineral tips are situated, the traffic increased so much that in 1896-97 the total imports and exports reached 5, 792,804 tons, apportioned as follows : 4,954,490 for exports, anrl 838,314 for imports; whereas in 1863 the total weight was only 218,000 tons. The average capacity of the steamers that enter the river is more than three times what it used to be in 1878. All this has brou~ht an enormous reduction in freigh ts, and a ~p·eat extens10n in the working of the mines in this regwn, which are the fundamental cause of the great development that has taken place in railwa,y, industrial, and shipping under­takings in Vizcaya. In SUJ?por t of the statement we have made concerning these satisfactory results, the following paragraph may be quoted from Mr. Edward Wood's address to the Institution of Civil Engineers in London, on November 9, 1886 :-

"Owing to the facilities now given. Bilbao ore, which in 1872 realised 35s. per ton delivered at our ports (one half the cost representing freights) is at the present time landed at South Wales (where the import is one million tons per annum) at the cost of from 10s. to 10s. Gd. per ton, including freight, this not exceeding 4s. per ton."

The total cost of the works for improving the bar and the riverJ including dredging, buoys, electric lighting, cranes, sneds, etc., amounted to about thirteen milJion pesetas (433,333l. *).

OUTER HARDOUR. Necessity of Bt~Jildintg a H cvrboun·.-The great increase

in t raffic that followed the river improvements, and the

* '£he conversion into£ sterling is based on the rate of 30 pesetas= ll.

[SEPT. 27, 19CI.

resulting income at the disposal of the H arbour Im{>rove­ments Board, led them to consider the advisibility of building the outer harbour a.s a necessary complement to the work done in t.he river. As the river moutli is directly exposed to the north-westerly winds, in spite of the iJn· provements realised, the entrance of steamers continued to be dangerous during bad weather. This defect could only be removed by the construction of a breakwater that would shelter the river mouth; and as in doing this it was possible, at the same time, to create a large outer harbour for the use of Trans-Atlantic steamers, at all states of the tide, the following plan was studied, and was approved by the Government on June 29, 1888.

Gene?·al P lain of the W01·ks.- The outer harbour is enclosed fro..n the open sea by two breakwaters : (1) The west breakwater, 1450 metres (4757 ft. ) long, is formed by a straight portion, 950 metres (3117 ft.) long, runnjng out from the coast at right-angles to the north-west, followed by an arm of 500 metres (1640 ft.) at an angle of 165 deg. to the first length. This deviation is made in order to give a better shelter to the steamers inside. (2) The eastern breakwater, called the counter-mole, 1100 metres (3610 ft. ) long, running out from the coast in a westerly direction. Between the ends of the breakwaters there is an entrance 700 metres (1970 ft. ) wide, so situated that the swell of the sea coming through it may be as small as possible, and make the entrance and exit of ships quite easy. In view of this latter consideration. it would seem that it would have been better had the entrance faced north-west; but the ea-stern breakwater would then have had to start · from the Point of San I gnacio, and under these conditions the waves in north-westerly gales would very likely have entered the harbour, and also the heavy ocean wstves, dashing against both breakwaters, would by reflection have met precisely at the entrance, and there have formed dangerous rising and breaking waves. W e tried to get over these drawbacks by the plan that we have adopted, in which the waves have a free space of 1150 metres (3773 ft. ) wide to spread over, and then go and break against the rocks and strand of the east coast, 'vithout producing dangerous recoiling effects at the entra.nce of the harbour; in fact, waves can only come in by lateral transmission (Fig. 1).

With the experience gained with the work, so far as completed up to now, the solution adopted has given excellent results : for the steamers go in and out quite freely during gales, and are quite in shelter behind the breakwater.

The area protected by the two breakwaters is 300 hectares (741 acres) at low water, and of this no less than 205 hectares (506~ acres) have a depth of between 5 and 14 metres (16ft. 5 in. and 46ft.) at equinoctial low water. 'fhe first breakwater is, as will readily have been under· stood, the more important of the two. It rests on a bottom formed of mud mixed with sand, except near the coast, where the rook is uncovered; and it was therefore clearly indicated that the foundation of the superstructure should be formed 'vith a sorted rubble, or a rubble nud concrete-block mound. Moreover, as there were a few days in the year during which it would be possible to work with divers for building a masonry wall founded under low water, we decided to build the superstructure from the level of low water, and to let it rE'St on a large mound of concrete blocks of 30 to 50 cubic metres (39! to 6~ cubic yards each), a.nd 6 metres (19 ft. 8 in.) deep, wliioh in turn would rest on a large mound of sorted rubble. These blocks, made with Portland cement, were deposited at random, this system having the advantage, that it could be carried on rapidly, and that the very disorder of the stones and blocks would help a great deal to break the force of the sea.

Execution of B 1·eakwate1·. - The contract for the work was entrusted to Messrs. L. Coiseau, Couvreux fila, a.nd Felix Allard, on Octob~r 25th, 1888. The work of depositing in place the foundation of rubble and concrete blocks was carried on rapidly; and after two winters, when it was clear that all the blocks had settled properly. we began building the superstructure, after having care­filled up with rubble all the interstices between the big blocks, and covering the whole with a levelling bed of concrete. The superstructure itself was 12·20 metres 'vide ( 40 ft. ) at the base, tapering to 10 ·20 metres (33 ft. 4 in.) at the top, and was 6 metres (19ft. 1 in. ) high. This work was surmounted by a footway formed by a P ortland cement concrete wall 4 metres (13 ft. l~ in.) wide and 3 metres (9 ft. 10 in. ) high, which in turn was sheltered from the open sea by a strong parapet 1.50 metres (5 ft.} thick and one metre (3 ft . 6 in.) high. The base of the whole structure was protected on the sea side from under­mining by a large concrete toe. The main wall was formed by two face-walls of P ortbtnd cement concrete blocks, each 3 metres (9 ft . 10 in.) long by 1·50 metres by 1 metre (5 ft. by 3 ft. 3 in.), J?laced ns h&\der~ an cl stretchers, and :filled in between w1th a quick-setting con­e;rete hearting (Fig. 6, page 462).

D amut{Jes.- Tb e building of the superstructure was begun in 1891, at the portion resting directly on the rocks of the coast and on the bags of P ortland cement con· creta when th.e rooks were under water. All this part of the work proceeded sati~faotorily, but when the super· structure was extended over the base of rubble and concrete-block mound for a length of 127 metres (417ft. ), the wtwes during a strong gale, botween the 19th and 21st November, 1893, undermined the facework along a length of 80 metres (262 ft.) on the sea side, and opened :1 large breach in it.

After having carefully examined the damage caused, wo came to the follmving conclusions :-(1) That the found· dation of rubble and blocks1 which had in the course of two winters acquired stabtlity, lost it the moment it became covered by the sul>erstructure. The waves tho.t came with great force strikmg against the breakwater, and t·ising as much as 20 metres (6~ ft.)in front of it, disturbe~ in falling back, the 50 cubic metre (65! cubic yards) block

•

•

•

•

l • •

that formed the outer berm and sea slope. (2) Once these large blocks removed, the a.ction of the waves followed, drttwing out all tho rubble that we had fplaced in the intel'$tice' between the blocks, and then destroyed the out ide protecting toe of t he breakwn.ter. (3) T he break­water having lost its outward protection, soon lost also, by undermining, its out ide facmg blocks ; and then the sea, being able to get freely upon the heartins- of concreto, soon washed it away and opened large gaps m the whole work. As a. consequence of these observations, wo decided to provide again t the undermining of the superstructure by forming its under part with large iron caissons 12 metres by 6 metres hy 2 metres (39 ft. 4 in. by 1!) ft. 8 in. by 6 ft. 6~ in.) filled up with P or tland cement concreto, and resting upon the previous foundation. This found~t­tion was proposed to be carefully strengthened by filling wi th bags of P ortland cement concrete all the in terstices between tho under blocks, and also by protecting the outer sea ido with several rows of P ortland cement con­crete blocks of 30 cubic metres (39i cubic yards), carefully depo ited, side by sido, with a Titan crane. This plan was ttpproved by tho Government; but before canyinS" it out most of the summer of 1894 was employed in repairmg damages done in the previous wiuter. '\Ve made the repail'$ in the same way as the work bad been built ; but we protected the whole of it with rows of 30 cubic metre (39f cubic yards) concrete blocks carefully deposited side hy ide, and ~trried up to a height of 7 metres (22 ft. 111 in.) above low tide. In fiuishjng the summer work, tLnd as a test, we placed at the end of the breakwater two of the above-described iron caissons filled with P ort­land cement concrete ; and we built the superstructure over i t and the two filled caissons, which formed one mnss of not less than 800 cubic metres (1046 cubic yards). This was also protected from the action of the open sea by a la rRe number of concrete blocks.

The first gale occurred on November 12 and 13, 18!)4; lt only removed six of the protecting blocks, but increa ed the stabjlity of the others, for they became moro closely

.. -•

wedged together. \ Ve at once placed six bloDks to fill the gap that the others bad left; and when, on D ecember 15, tmother storm came on, we observed that only one of the blocks bad been taken away ; so that we inclined to believe that with such a large mass of blocks placed along the outer facing of the breakwater . the whole structure was perfectly protected from further damage. vVe were, however, soon undeceived by the storm of D ecember 30 and 31, one of the fiercest ever )mown.

On that evening the action of the waves became so violent that all ~he mass of!rotecting blocks o~ 30 cubic metr~ (3~± cubic yards), .an of over 60 tons we1ght eacb, allla~d w1tb the crane w1 th the greatest · cal'e one against the other, and aS"ainst the facework, in two rows in width and depth, formmg in all an apron 8 metres (26 ft . 3 in.) wide and 5 metres (16 ft. 5 inches) high, was completely carried away down the sea slope, leaving the toe of the superstructure un.l?rotected, wliich was ultimately under­mmed and demol1shed. But the most remarkable feat of that storm was the removal of the large monolithic mass of 800 cubic metres (1046 cubic yards) aud of 1700 tons weight, placed, as we have already explained at the ~nd of the work, whi?h was carried 32 metres (105 ft.) mto the harbour. lt IS t rue that before can-ying that mass away, the waves must have begun by undermining it ; but, nevertheless, t lus is one of the most notable feftts which has happened iu harbour works, and it ma~ be compared to the one that took place in 1872 to the vVick breakwater, where the waves canied away a block 13.70 m~tres b~ 7 ~etr~s by 6·40 me~res (4? ft. by 23ft. by 21ft . 2 m.), we1~hmg 1350 tons. Still, this mass bad been built with speCial care, resting as it did on lar~e blocks set 18 ft. under low water, and tied in all direct10ns with iron bands.

It is to be noticed that the Bay of Bilbao is very similar to that of Wick, both of them narrowing in a funnel shape;. and . the waves tha~ come in gradually rise in advancmg till they break with extreme violence against the works. \Ve ought to add that the gale that played such havoc with the part of the breakwater superstructure that rested on loose blocks and stones, did absolutely no harm to the part near the coast, which rests on solid rook nor to the block mound upon which the superstructur~ had not yet been built.

~t lto·ation(j in 01'iyinrcl Plcms, cmd AdiJ].Jtion of La1·ue

E N G 1 N E E R l N G. Cai$Sons.-From all that we have explained, we became convinced that it would hav~ been a most daring plan to persevere in building thc superstructure at low-water le~el on the foundation of rubble and loose blocks, already latd, and that the wisest solution that could he adopted was to loave all that part of the work as an outer protection, and to build the superstructure farther back under i ts shelter.

In these conditions we deemed it sufficient to build the new superstructure at a depth of 5 metres (16 ft. 5 in.) undor equinoctial low-water level. Subsequent experience prov~d this dep th to be quite sufficient, no doubt on account of the excellent protection a.fforded by the outP.r mound of rubble and blocks, which is in i tself a kind of broakwateJ'. On the other hand, for a work exposed so much to the action of the sea, where d ivers uould only work for short periods, we bad no confidence jn an upri~ht wall made wi th blocks

1 whether laid horizontu.lly or m­

alined, because of the n sk of the work settling owing to its height, and to the fact that it reposed on a rubble mound built upon such soft ground. vY e therefore proposed to the Governm~nt, in accord with the cont ractors, to build the superstructure upon large steel caissons filled with P ortland cement concrete, resting 5 metres (16 ft. 5 in. ) below low water, a modification of thc system unsuccess­fully tried in 1894, which consi ted of steel caissons placed at the bottom of the superstructure, 1 metre (3 ft. 3 in.) above equinoctial low water. In this en ·e, however, the cnssions were founded 5 metres (16 ft. 5 in. ) below equinoctial low water, and were sheltered by the mound already constructed, so that the conditions of stability were great ly incrE>ased. vVe· ought also to add that in 1892 we had proposed, and it bad met with the approval of the Government in 1893, to build the pier-head of the counter-mole on one large caisson, 18 metres (59 ft.) in diameter, 10 metres (33ft.) in height, placed 8 metres (26ft. 2 in.) below low water; and in July 1894 it was decided to build the breakwater head in the su.me way, but with a caisson 27 metres (88 ft. 7 in.) in diameter. The system we proposed, therefore, of building the whole pier upon

BILBAO BAY AND RIVER NERVION . ...

?ORTUG ALf.T£

caissons, accepted by the Govet·t1men t on June 15, 1895, bad been already well thought out and tried in these works (Fis-s. 3 to 6, page 462).

W e demded to build the new breakwater at a distance of 47.GO metres (156ft. 6 in.) from centre to c~ntre behind the first one, principally in order to leave between the two works an interval 30 metres (98 ft. 5 in.) wide where the waves, after breaking over the first line of bl~oks would fall and lose mo~t of their force in entering deep ' '~ater; and also to provide room for a tug boat, so as to fa.mlitate tho transport and deposit of the caissons. W o also decided to emp!oy caissons 13 metres by 7 metres by 7 metres ( 42 ft. 7 m. by 23 ft . by 23 ft.) so t}mt, when placed a.t a depth of 5 metres (16 ft. 5 in.) Lelow equinoctial low t1des, they would emerge two metres (G ft . ~ in.) as it was necessary that the top of the caissons should be' above the water-level at low tide, to enable the work to be carried on inside. It was proposed to build them on the river bank. Their weight was estimated at about 30 tons and their immersion in the water at 32 centimetres (12i 'in. ) ; but before towing them to the breakwater they were to be ballns ted with a layer of P ortland ceme~t concrete 1 ·50 metres (5 ft.) thick, which would immerse them 3.40 meters (11 ft . 2 in.) The caissons themselves were to be made of Bessemer steel plates, ± in thick, str~ngthened iuten1ally with a lon~tudinal fattice-shaped bulkhend, a:td two others placea crossways, formin_g between them s1x equal partitions, eaoh containing two Portland cement concrete blocks of 30 cubic metres (39;}: cubic yards), namely, 4 ~etres by 3 meters b¥. 2·50 metres (13 ft. 1 in. by~ ft. 10 m .. by 8 ft. 2 in.). l'he rubble-stone bed on wh10h the crussons must rest requirE's levelling up by means of a diving-bell, to t he aforesaid depth of 5 metres (l~ ft. 5 in.) below equinoctial low water; and us soon as tb1s operat10n was carried out, ~he caissons could be con­veyed to their place, put into alignment, and then sunk by. filling tb~m with water. It wus necessary to fi ll these c~1ssons rapidly, ~o that the sea might not break them to pieces ; and as It would ~ave ~~en a long and tedious process to fill them at low tide w1th concrete made in sit11 we decided to deposit the two 30 cubic metre (39;f cubi~ yards) blocks already referred to, by means of the crane m e,ach partition . . T?i£ operatiou could be effected very rapidly ; after wluch 1t would be necess.-'\..ry to run Portland cement concrete into the interstices bet\vceu the blocks

'

• n n

' • .,nssw , · :

so a~ to make one ; ingle monolithic block of 13 metres by 7 metres by 7 metres (42 ft. 7 in. by 23 ft. by ?3 ft.)1 say 637 cubic metres (833 cubic yards), 1300 tons m wetght. \Ye may add that this filling in place could be done after the water had been pumped out from b~tween ~he blocks, and that the whole caisson could b~ fims~ed ~th ~ layer of cement concrete o·50 metre (20 m. ) thick, bmdmg the different blocks together. .

Tt will be seen by this method the q uan.tt ~y of concre~e to be laid 'ht situ would be reduced to a mmllD:un;t, that It could be deposited out of the water, and that If m course of time the iron sbeeting were to rust and break away, an enormous monolithic block o~ concrete '~ould .always be left, strength~ned throu&'h~ut It~ mass by 1ron ties, the resistance of wluch under sumlar cu cumstances would be far superior to anything that had been done in this class of work up to now.

It was proposed to cal'l'y thjs foun~atio~ up to. 2 m~tres (6 ft. ~in.) above water-level of equmoct1al spnng tid~, and to build the breakwater superstructure upon 1t, formed by two walls made with Portland cement concrete blocks of 30 cubic metres (39± cubic yards), .namely, 4 metres by 3 metres by 2. 50 metre~ (13 ft. 1 ~· by 9 ~t . 10 in. by 8ft. 2 in. each ), and filled m between w1th rapid­setting concrete. This would bring the work up to 7 metres (23 ft. ) ~tbove low t ide ; and a quay could be established at this level, running the whole length of the breakwater, which could be protected from the sea by a stron~ parapet, 2. 50 metres (8ft. 2 in.) wide, 1.50 metres (5 ft.) high, aud uound to the main work by strong wrought-irou ties.

W e decided to finish the upper part of this sht>ltering wall by rounding it off; and we abandoned the projecting coping, which we had designed for the original sup~r­structure to throw the waves back into the sea, because we found that in strong gales such a shape does not effectually protect the footpath, and has the disadvantage of increasing the recoil of t he waves against the founda­tions of the breakwater. vVith the shape adopted, very

1

~a~ge.waves pass fr~~ly over the breakwater wall without mJunng the foundat10ns, litnd they fall inside the harbour where they have little or no effect. ' T~~ system of construction explained above has, in

additlOn, the very great ad Vltntage of allowing the super­structure to be built in SeJ?arate lengths of 7 metres (23 ft ) ~o ~~at they call: settle qmt.e independently on the mound: Th1s w~ most Important m the present case, where t he founda.t1011 of. the whole structure is formed of a mound of rubble restmg on a soft bottom.

.This general arrangement would have to be altered shg~tly near the coast, by employing shallower caissons restmg o'D: concrESte bags deposited upon the rocks. '

The est1mated cost of the work is ns follows :-1. Outside Protection \York

including the rubble and block mound, and the part of the superstructure built according to the first plau* Ptas .13,550,472. 58cnts.

( 451, 682l. ). 2. Tnside . vVork, including

fouudahon of rubble, cais-sons, s.uperstructure, and protectmg toe blocks ... Ptas.17,582,227. 60 cnts.

3 A hR (586,074l. ).

. pproac oadfrom Sant. urce to the br~akwater · light-house, and mino;. works .. . .. . . .. Ptas. 2G1, 540. 23 cnts.

T t 1 p (8718l. ).

I

o a, esetas 31,394,240.41 cents. (1,046,474l.).

This total was brought down to 28 882 6fl8 p esetas (962~56l. ), the accepted tender; and as 'the' t~tal length of t e breakwater IS 1450 metres ( 4757 ft.) the cost per me~re rnn corue~ ~ut a little less than 20,000 pesetas which the depreciatiOn of the exchange represE>onts 16 66~ francs per metre run (203l. p er foot run); a sum that is less than the cost of the breakwaters of Dover H olyhead ?ly~ou~b, and Cherbourg, although the one ~t P lymouth lS built m shallow water, the one a t Cherbourg in about

* The conversion is established on a. basis of 30 eseta~ ~!l£. Lut the exchange varies from 28 to 35 pes~ta~ to

•

-- -the same depth, atid the other two in slightly greater depths than the one at Bilbao.*

Execution of the W <n·k.- As soon as the new .Plan was approved of, the contractors began to work it ; smce then (about Ju~y, 1895) they have been able to work every year from April 20 to Septembet: 29; that is, fo1· a period of about five months, the rematnder of the year being em­ployed in .maki~g bloc~. c.aissons; an~ other preparatory work for executwn. dunng the followmg summer. Up to the present, 150 ca1ssons have been placed at the following rate :-

1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900

...

... •••

... • • • •

...

... . ..

... . .. • •• .. . • •• • • •

• • • • • •••

• • • •••

Caissons. .. . • •• 13 .. . .. . 25 . .. • •• 28 .. . • •• 30 ... ... 30 . .. ... 24 length of 1090 metres Thi~ is equivale!lt to a total

(3576 ft. ) . Putti?¥J the Ca~ssons ~n Placc.- The experience g~tined m put~m_g the caiSSons m pl~ce led to the adoftion of the followmg system:-The carssons first of al receive a ballast of concre~e 1.50 metre (5 ft.) thick, say 136~ cubic metres (1?8! oubrc yards) i and they are then towed into place d!lnng the l~t two hours of the ebb tide, so that as m~ch time. as possrbl~ may be ~llmyed ~or placing the ~rsson OJ?. ~ts foundation and filling 1t, this latter opera­twn reqmnng that the upper part of the caisson shall be out of water. The caisson is first brought against a

•

1 ~ · ---------- - ---- 47 QO ' 1 I . ~ ·------------------ ---~

I

E N C l N t E R. l N C. During the third low tide the construction of the super~

str:uotur~, 5 metres (16 ft. 5 in.) high, that rests on the caiSSon, lS proceeded with. This su.Perstruoture is formed by two face-walls consisting of e1gh t Portland cement concrete l;>locks, 4 metres by 3 metres by 2. 50 metres {13 ft. 1 1~. b~ ~ ft. 10 in. by 8 ft. 2 in.), placed in two rows, breakmg JOmts as h~aders and .stre~cliers ; the space between the two walls bemg- .filled m with quick-setting co~crete. I.f the weather rs fine, the superstructure is fimshed durmg t~e. fo.urth tide, .with the ~x~eption of the parapet wal~, which lS only built when rt 1s ascertained that each caiSSon ha~ quite finished settling down. There­fo~e, we.ather peril';llttmg, all the work pertaining to one cMsson IS accompliShed during four tides that is in two days. This work, representing about 1004! cubi~ metres {1314 cubic yards), is made up as follows :-

I nterior of the •

Clll SSOn 13m. x 7m. x 7m. (42 ft. Sin . X 23 ft.

X 23 ft.)

Bottom ballast, 13m. x 7m. x

Oubio metres.

1.50m. 136·50 (42ft. 8 in. x 23 ft .(470.54 cub.

x 4 ft. 11 in.) yards.) Twelve Blocks, 860.00

each 30 c.m. (4;0.88 cub. (39.34 cub. yds.) yards.)

li1lling up concrete 137.78 and top layer • . (180.20 cub.

Capacity of iron bulkheads and wooden props ..

yards.) 2.72

(3.55 cub. yards.)

Oubic metres.

•

637.00 (833.17 cub.

yards)

-or on soft ground, there is every chance that they wil1 se~tle unevenly ; so that, the upper part being built solid wr,th . mo~ta;t:z ~nd not able to follow these movements, remams r1g1~ hke a beam, and allows the sea to was h out th~ foundat ron blocks from those__portions which are not weighted by the upper portion. The sloping:-block system has been t ried to remedy this ; but even if the ull'equal settlement is thereby to a certain exten t coun teracted the defe~ts of the uneq u~l settling are not remedied at a:ll; whilst the system lS u~1satisfactory for heavy seas hke those of the Bay of Btscay. In proof of this we hav~ the works of the neighbouring port of Castro­U rd1ales, where a breakwater far more sheltered than that of Bilbao is being built ; it rests on very large sloping blocks, aJ?.d the short length already built was completely wrecked m J anuary, 1900 .

From the moment a caisson is first placed to the time when the superstrncture resting upon it is finished it settles al;>out 0.20 metre (8 in.); later on, with the wei~ht and mot1on of the crane, and the action of gales durmg the ~nter, t he caisson settles another 0·40 metre (1~ in. ) !Daking about o·6o metre (23! in.) in all. This will gfve a~ rdea of wbn.t would happen with a system which did not offer such facilities for settlement as are possessed by the system herein described.

After t.wo winters, the caisson may be considered to ha~e ent1rely settled down; the joints between them whrc~ are about 0.30 metre (llf in. ) wide, are then filled up w1th cement concrete, and the parapet wall is built. Smce1898, manysteamers have used thebreakwateralready

• •

• • CROSS S ECTION OF BREAKWAH R

--15.00 - ---'H ~· ., rUJ . ~ .

Fifj .4 .

' l" I • 'I ,, I

I I 11 I

I! •

I' Q ~

I lrJJ.OO··~~ Q ()

t I ' ' \;) ,, I . I 0 I :I

11 '\";' '• I>)

I. 'I I; 'i l<·.J7.00 ··~ '• .. ' .i, ' I '

Tig. 7. CROSS SECTION OF COUNTER - M OL£ .

•

HIGH WATER

F'9.8. ·-

GH WA TEr

F~. 5. (As now carried on) •

£ . u. w.

PLAN OF CAISSON. . . ·

CROSS S ECTION OF BREAKWATER.

Fig . 6 . (Or4Jinal Design.)

-

.. ·: r . .. •. . . ·~ • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

• .J

,· •

s

•

. ""'NOCTIAL HIGH WATER .

. • I • . . . • • • • : • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 0

• • 4 • • • • • • • • • •• • •• ~ . " \

3

•

£ UIN OCTI A L L OW WATER 10 S 0 10 lD JO .W SO 100 /SO F£IT

I -=1:... .· . Concrete- B~ro ~~~~~m>:

•

caisson already in p lace; it is maintained there in proper aligmnent by means of ropes and also by the tug, the bow of which faces the open sea. The caisson is then sunk by pouring water into it with tt. centrifugal pump suspended from a Titan crane, and worked by an electric motor. If the motion of the caisson whilst i t is still floating brings it out of alignment, we J?Ump out a lit tle water from it, and then sink it again. There A,re always little irregularities ; but these are easily corrected in the super­structure, with the berm of one metre that has been left on each side. Once the caisson is in place, eight or ten of the twelve 30. cubi.c ~etre (39! cubic yard~) concrete blocks are deposited m 1 t by means of the T1tan crane during the same low tide. During the following low tide, after pumJ?ing the water out of the caisson, the remaining blocks are m serted, and the fillin~ concrPte is run between them with tho 0.50 metre (20 m ches) htyer on the top. All this work is generally completed during the fi rst two low tides.

* ~1. Chevalier, in his Etudes jaites en 1858 sur les travaux m..U1' itinnes d' A 'TI{Jleter?'C, published in the j}f errwrial des trava11X hyc7trauliqtws clc la, 1Jfa1·inc, gives the accom­panying prices for the following~completed breakwaters :-

Per metre Per foot run. run.

Breakwater. Francs. £ D over ... 33,200 404 . .. Portland (outer) ... 14,000 170 Alderney .. . ... 16,000 195

16,900 206 •

Holyhead .. . . .. ~lymouth ... . .. 25, 000 304 Cherbourg ... .. . 18.000 219

•

Superstructure, not including the po.ro.pet.

•

Eight blocks, ench} 240.00 30 c.m . (39.24 (313.92 cub. cubic yards) . . yards. )

Filling in wit h 127,60 qu ick-setting (16(}. 77 cnb. concrete . . yo.t ds.)

Total cubic metres • •

367.50 (480.69 cub.

yards.)

1004.60 (13133.86

cub. yards.)

The t ime employed by t he divers in levelling up the foundation for one cn.is..c;on Vt1ries, as a rule, between one n.nd two days, so it follows that a length of 7 metres (23 ft.) of breakwater can be built every three or four days. On account of the weather, however, and unforeseen break­downs, the work does not nlways proceed at that speed ; in fact, sometimes d uringone ruonth onlythesuperstrncture corresponding to four caissons has been built, and during other months a maximum of nine caissons hns been reached.

As soon ss a length has been built in the way de­scribed above, the rails for the 'ritan crnne are laid ul>on it, and the work of the next caisson is proceeded w1th. At the end of the season, all the 30 cubic metre (39! cubic yards) protecting blocks are placed on the outside, and at the foot of the SUJ>erstructure ; and the Titan crane is brought back withm shelter near the coast.

As this system has been tested during six winters without the slightest mishap, it can be safely recommended for seas as violent as those of the Bay of Biscay. One of its principal advantages is the freedom with which each section of the superstructure r..an follow the movements of the caisson, as the latter settles on its foundation.

If, instet\ld of building in the above . manner, a break­water superstructure is built upon a. foundation of blocks, if the latter, however carefully set, rest on a rubble mound

Wnl I I I · ·~~~==~ - ---·- ·---~-~-- --

•

built as a shelter ; in fact, during the violent storms of J anuary, 1890, twenty-three steamers and four sailin~ v~sels took refuge there in. complete safety. We anti­mpate that the breakwater w1ll be completely finished in 1902, with the exception of some accessory works.

W e may add that the depth of 5 metres (15 ft. 5 in.) belo~ low water of e9uinoctial spring tides was deemed suffi01ent for the caiSSons, because our breakwater i i sheltered by the previous work executed in front of it and by the inter~al betwe.en ; b~t without sucla protectio~. we should certamly cons1der this depth inn.deq uu.te ; and we are of opinion that, in that case, a depth of 7 to 8 metres (23 ft. to 26 ft. 3 in.) would be necessary.

Counter-Mole.-The construction of the counter-mole or eastern breakwater (Figs. 7 and 8), calls for no special remarks, because the waves run nearly parallel to it. It has been built on a foundation of rubble stone that reac~es 3 ~etr~s (9 ft. 1~ in.) und~r l~w water of equi­noctial sprmg t tdes. Th1s foundation rs covered with a banlr, formed with bags of P ortland cement concrete raised 1 metre (3 ft . 3 in.) n.bove low tide ; and the outside is protected with 50 and 30 ,cubic metre (65~ and 39! cubic yards) concrete blocks. 'I he superstructure, which rests on the bags of concrete, is built with block face-work and a concrete hearting deposited iln situ.

This work, with the exception of the lighthouse and minor details, wil l be finished in 1901. It is 1100 metres (3699 ft.) long, and its cost is 8, 116,764 pesetas (207, 559l.) that is, 7379 pesetas per metre run (about 75l. per foot run). This is only 36 per cent. of the cost per foot run of the western breakwater, which will give an idet11 of the relative importance of each work.

eont?·acto?·s.- Tbe contractors for the whole of the work

•

-

•

&l'e Messrs. Louis Coiseau, Abel Couvreux, and Felix Alla.~ •. who have sh<?wn great knowledge and capaoiby in organunng and oarrymg out the work, and especially as rega.r~ the plant f!lr making the concrete blocks and for conveymg a.nd settmg them. W e have already described these operations in the annual reports to the Bilbao Harbour Board. Ibis in these works that electricity has been employe~ for the fir ab time for . handling blocks up to 100 tons wetgh t, . and a.l ~o for workmg the Titan cranes up to 60 tons capactty, whtch the contractors designed and used in the cons truction of the two breakwatera.

COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES IN SOUTH AMERICA.

Some P articulars of the R esults of the Compou-nd Loco­rnotive on the Buenos A ires Great Southern Rail,way. *

By Mr . . R. GouLD, Looom~tive. Carriage, a.nd Wagon Supenntendent , Buenos Aues Greab Southern Railway Argentine R epublic. ' THE question of coal con~umption of locomotives be·

comes, in countries like the Argentine R epublic, which depends entirely on the imported article, a. ma.bter of

F0. 7. Cl a ss 6.

EN .. G I N.E ER IN G. -The- firsb compound engines ordered were erected in pressure cylinder, so that perhaps three or fonr revolu-

1889, and the results obtained were so excellent that, wibh tions of the wheels take place {more or less, according to the excepbion of shunting a.nd local traffic engines, no the wei~ht of the tr~in ), so that the longest train is well eimple engines {either goods or passenger) have since in mot10n before the back pressure accumulates suffi-been ordered. ciently to close the valve, a.nd compounding takes place.

The en~nes proved easy to handle, exhibited a high The effect of the alteration in the interceptiD!f valve economy lD coal and water, and, owing to the reduced wa~J to obviate the tendency to jib previously exper1enced, dema.nd on the boiler, showed less tendency to and to insure a. certain a.nd easy starb, with the maximum priming and scale than the original simples; they can power, whilst retaining the aulioma.ticity of the valve's run much fuller into gear without liftin~ the water, and action, a. most valuable and important feature, putting it thus haul heavier loads. As a.n offdet agatnst these ad van- out of the power of the driver to work non-compound tagst~, the first compounds sometimes showed an inclina- longer than absolutely necessary, which by some non­tion to jib after starting, due to the r&J>idity with which automatic systems is possible. and tends to reduce the the automatic "Worsdell and V on Borr1es " starting valve economy. 'rh is hollow spindle arrangement was found caused compounding to take place, reducing the power by so successful that the intercepting valve of the whole of cutting off the live steam from the low-pressure cylinder the compounds-some 109 engines- were so fitted. A before {in the case of long and heavy trains) the whole detail of this valve is shown in Fig. 8, page 46t. weight was fully taken on the drawbars, or the whole The accompanying diagrams show the princiP.al classes train set in motion. In this valve {Fig. 9, page 464) the of compound engines on the Great Southern Rallway, and exhaust steam from the high-pressure cylinder is held in also the corresponding simple engines for two classes. check by a mushroom valve, which closes automatically Figs. 1 a.nd 2 a.nd 4 and 5 compare absolutely. Fig. 7, by the acbion of live steam from the boiler, admitted to a. designed by the author for workmg either goods or heavy pair of small pistons operating on the back of the large passenger train.a, repreqents the most mo1ern en~ines of mushroom. With this valve closed, no high-pressure , the company, whilst Fig. 3 shows a.n engine of speciaJ

•

H talmg Sur/act of Tulus ... 929 sq /t . 86 ..

Fig . ~· Class 7. llt aling Surface o/ Tubes ... 1,000 sq /1.

86 ..

• Cy L: . 1 6 11) . x 24 in.

• Wh uls. 5 /t. 8.i n . 183 Tubes, ti t n . (ozd.s).

.. .. Firt bo::c ... Cy/.., 17 in. x 24 in. ·: WhlJ.s. S / I. 2 i n . 1 5 TtLbe.r, 1 i in. (outs).

'· ~ •

·-T OTA L ... .. . 1 ,0 1;\ ••

FirdJox ... " T OTAL ... ... I,~ ••

Gra te art 11 ... 10 5 "

A •

' Gra.U art4 ... 20 13 "

/"'"" """. • L

) {) I

~ '\.

• ,..-~

~ ......

~ ./ ~

..... ~J ~'\

,.. ......... ... .... .. ~ .. -q]J ~ 1~.~ ',~. ~ l ""\ r--~ I_~ I j_.. !: ' · r- "\ Ill 31> Lt ;.:.]' /' r- ~\

~ ~ .l. 'L ~ '£'Id\ - [ ,~~ " L ~/ " :; ' ... ' JJ:::/ ' ./ -'- / ' /

I

•

T. C. W eigh/ Worhi ng r6 o

T. C. T.

f( 6 " c. 4 I

T. C. T, C. T. C. 8 10 8 9 8 6 T. c.

3 4

T C. •

T C. T. C. T. C . . T. C. T. C. .. L ight - 14 8 Total Worlune 63 rs·s

Cyls f u .P. r6 in ) x L.P. 23i 111. ~

lVhuls. 5 /1. 8 i n. 183 Tubu, 1 ~ i n. ( ou l s).

...

•

24 in.

I 0 I I t O

Total Lzghl 48 7 ' 4 2 5 I<) 3 5

Watt r cap., 2,000 gal~-. Coal, 6o CW(s,

Fig . 2 . Class 6A. lft ating Sur/act of Tub't!> ... 929 sq. / 1.

.. Firebox ... 86

TOTAL .. . ... r .ors ..

Gratt arta .. r6·s ..

•

... , ..

•

WtigM Worki11g 9 .. l.ighl 10

Total Worlt( rtg 71

-~ - • •

1 :-s 10 15 7 17

Total 'Lighl

I I I 0 8 9

53 r ·s

Fig .5 .

lt 3 9 13 9 12 9 9 12 2 4 .•7

Waltr cap., 2,500 gals, S 2 4 10

Co~l, 75 cwts. .. Class 7A. - I '

Cyls f H.P 17 in. } x • l L. P. 2d iu .

H eati1zg Sur/ aet of Tubes ... t ,ooo rq. /1. 24 in. .. .. F irtbo:r ... 86 ..

Whuls, s / t . 2 in. 185 T'llhts, 11 m . (outs).

--T OTAL ... ... 1,0 86 ..

•

Grate area ... 20 ' 13 ,,

}( F:~~ F= =~4~~;;1 '

•

•

:/' " ~ T. C.

Wtight Working 17 o .. · Light 14 rq

Tot"t Working 65 r6·s

•

c I f H.P. 17 l f! · ·~ X y s. t L.P. 246 m . S

Whtds. s/t. 8 i n. 1<}6 Tuhts, rl i n <,uts).

T. C. 'Wdght W orkin g l7 ro

•. L1glrt r6 17 Tokd W•rkmg 66 r 5'5

ttl& I I $

I I I I I I

24 i Jt.

-r!

TO

_.:.;. ~\ ~ ...

~~::u:~~t:lt:~ :--::~ ./ ~~ \...' L ~ /_ ' / • T. C. Jl 16 10 1S

T. C.

tf '" 10 6

T. C. T. C 8 10 8 9 3 19 4 4

T. C. 8 6 4 IS

le?

Total L ight 48 IS Wattr cap., ~ooo gals. Coal, 6o CUJ/s.

Fi9 .3. Class 6B.

T. C. 12 5 JO 18

Hmti ng Sur/ aN fl/ Tubu ... •

. .• Firtbo:r . ..

TOTAt. ..

Gr(f/t ana ...

989 sq. / 1. 9l ..

t ,o82 ..

17'5 ,,

T. C. ll 15 JO 6

T. C. T. C. T. C. 8 10 8 9

Total Ligllt SI 3'75 4 ... 4 4

"'a ~v cap .• 2,000 gals.

8 6 ' 4 2

C()tU, 6o ( W /S.

(~

16 20 35Feet I I t 1 t e , f d s'e h • 4 e 1 e • :/,6 '~ I se I I

________ _ 4 _ __ _

T. C. Wtiglzl W orking 9 6

.. · Light 8 17 Total Working 72 o ·25

T. C. r r 1

9 11 Total LLf.ltt

T. C I l 5 JO 12

53 19 '5

rYg. 6

T C T. C. 11 14 9 13 10 14 5 I

Watt~r cap •. 2 ,500 gals.

Class 8.

T. C. T. C . 9 12 9 9 4 11 4 11

' ' .. Coal, 75 f wts.

H1a&ing Sur/a&t~/ Tubts .. . 951 sq. /1 • 86 .. Cyls 16 in. x 24 in.

Whuls, 4/l . 7~ i'n. 187 Tubes, il in. (outt).

T.. C. W(igllt Wflr k /ng 9 o

T. C. T. C. 11 2 11 6

.. Firebox .. .

T OTAL .•• . .. 1 ,037 "

Gratt area ... 16 5 ..

T. C. T. C. 0 9 3

/ • ~

r

...

•

Total

•

T. C. 51 12

•. Light ro 9 7 I Q 9 JO

Wntt~r cap., 8oo gals.

J I 8

Coal, 11$ 8 12 15 cwl s.

45 5'25 ... ,,

..

.• :1 .. ··4-- . . 'e , ' 1 •• 'C.. . :)=l 5o . I f I ¥ t I 1 1 3f 1 f f M ~fFttt •

paramount mportance, and an endeavour to secure an economy in thl8 respect led to the trial of the compound

exhaust steam can pass, and the low-pressure cylinder is interest as regards the compound question, in that it was temporarily fed by a by-pass of live steam from the conswucted from old engines similar to Fig. 1, at the com­boiler. The high- pressure exhaust being completely pany's works. Increasing weights of trains made it bottled up, compounding takes place very rapidly, as the necessary to do something to adapt engines, Fig. 1-of back pressure rising forces open the large mushroom valve which the company possessed a large number-to the and shuts the by-pass. The defect was got over by a.n im- heavier demand on their power. The boilers of some of provement, made in the company's works a.t Buenos Airell, bhe older engines were replaced by new and larger ones m introducing a hollow spmdle in the mushroom valve carrying higher pressure, the cylinders being at the same with an escape passage to the chimney {Fig. 8), the office time changed for those of increased size, and the engines of the passage being to relieve the high-pressure back compounded, the new type being represented in Fi~. 3. pressure to some extent, and so delay compounding. The As tank engines were required at the time, the boilers compound engines fitted with this valve are more power- and cylinders of engines (Fig. 1) of later date than the ful in starting, either than those fitted with the original before-mentioned, which were in good condition, were valve or the simple engine. The by-pass admits and transferred to new frame3 and wheeb, &c., making the ma.inbains the live steam for a. longer period in the low- tank engines (Fig. 6). Additional parts necessary to

• engme. The type of engine adopted on the Great Southern

Railway was the two- cylinder "Worsdell and V on Borries," as being the simplest arrangement and interfer­ing least with the duplication of parts of the standard simple engines previously in service. All these engines, both simple and compound, were built by Messrs. Beyer, Peacock, and Co., under the instructions of Messrs. Livesey, Son, and Henderaon, the company's consulting

• engmeer~.

*Paper read before the International Engineering Con­gress, Glasgow, 1901. Section III. : Mechanical.

• •

•

~ake up complete engines were orderad, and in conj anc­t10n with the parts of the engines (Fig. 1) dea.lb with, enabled two sets of up-to-date en.gines, of increased power, to be pub on tlbe rails, in place of one of somewhat obsolete type, of insufficient power. withdrawn.

The engines (Fig. 3) have proved a great success. being from 2 5 bo 30 per cent. more powerful bba.n the old Class 6. which they supersede, and showing an economy of fuel even better than that of the compounds (Fig. 2).

The tabular statemen t subjoined shows the coal and lubricant consumption, and also the comparative cosb of repairs for the mileages given. In using this latter ib may b s useful to note bhab the average age of engines (Fig. 1).is 16 years; Fig. 2, 10 years ; Fig. 4, 14 years ; and Fig. 5, 11 yeara. The engines (Fi~s. 1 and 2, 4 and 5) arA dupli­ca.te in all respects exceptmg the compounding; and in making np the cost of repaira, the accounts of which ara always'kept separate for each engine, a. careful selection has been made, so as to eliminate those of the older one3

FUJ. 7.

E N G I N E E R I N G.

comparison unfair for them. The repair statement in­cludes a.ll repairs, general and intermediate, for the mileages given; and although the comparison may nob be perfectly exact, ib is the nearest that could be obtained, and is sufficiently a.ccura.te to show that at least the com­pound engine3 are no more expensive to maintain than the non·compound, whilst the economy of fuel and water i3 beyond question.

It will be seen from the Table that the engines (Fig. 2) burn 23 per cent . less coal per axle than their compeers (Fi~. 1), the loads being practioally equal, whilst the engmes (Fig. 3) actually show a.n economy of 37 per cent.; hub as the latter have hauled heavier trains (which naturally show a greater economy in consnmption per axle hauled), some of this economy must be discounted.

In the case of the engines, Figs. 5 and 7, an economy of 14 per cent. over the Fig. 4 is shown, bob here again allowance musb be ruade for the fact thab the flimple engines (Fig. 4) hauled more axles. The classes Figs. 5

Class 10.

C Is. { H ,P, 18 (11 .. } X Htating Sur/nu of Tubes .. . 1, 144 sq. /1

96 .. •

•

• • FiPebox .. . y L.P 26 m 26 tn -

" -Whetls, Sft. 8 M . T O'TAL .. . .. I 240 ,,

2 13 Tubts. 11w. (ouls ). -Gratt nrea ... 20'13 .,

' ~ r • / "'

nn 1 J

~ I'

\. r /

~ ~,-~ / ~- : '. f1 -- ,..

u D - ...... - ~~ ~ le: ? }'.. I LA }'.,.J ·~

~. '-._': .. :fr .r~ n ~ 'b = l\ ;:;1 r'l r-.... ~ ~ L: ' / \..../ - / , ~~ - /

' /

Wt.iihl T C. W orking 10 r

c 2

T C. T 12 8 13

T. C T. C. 1 2 8 10 4

T. C, T. C. 10 10 9 9 ( ,

1 1 14 1 1 11 10 5 12 .. L~ght 9 11 Toln.l Worlting, 78T se TotRI Li~ht 6o

19 1'25 Water crrp ., 2,50 0 ga/1.

4 19 4 15 Coal. 75 ewts.

(1034.C) lf"~.e J H E1 1(?, H Jj A o ?& A Jf A e S~ A ,gs FEE.T 7

•

Compound Engine Intercepting Valve. · Ft:J.8. Improved Type. . __ ... . :;

1 Fig. El. Original Type.

•

Low

•

-Jiigll/

Pre;ssu-rb

Ex/w~(;

I I I

. ,r. 'I •fl; I . ..

•

•

Oons'Uiffl,ption of Ooal ana I/u1n-icQITI;tB for the Y ear l DOO. Engitnes, (}lasses 6, 6A and 6B, 7, 7 A at11d 10.

and 7, especially bh~ latte~, were _employed for. the heavier passenger trams, whtlRb the engmes on F ig. 4 were almost enti rely employed on goods braffic, nob being egual to the task of the heavy passenger work ab the higher speeds. If ib were nob for these circumstances, the classes Fig. 5 and 7 would exhibit an economy equal in amount to that of the Figs. 2 and 3.

•

Passenger Engine.

Si m· Compound. pie.

Class Class Class • 6, 6A, 68,

F ig. 1 Fig. 2 Fig. 8

Goods Engine.

Si m- Compound. pie.

Olaas Class Cle.as 7, 7A, 10,

Fig. 4 Fig. 6 Fig.

In the matter of lubricants the simples and compounds show practically no difference.

The absence of heavy grades on the Buenos Aires Great Southern Railway renders it a favourable field for

Coal consumed per t rain· mile • • .. lb . 36.00 28.05 29.25 55.68 45.00 40.60

7 the compound engine, the grades of. impor:tance beir;tg in one districb only, the bulk of the hoe bemg pract1ca.py straight and level. The character of the t raffic, Wibh long runs and full trains as a rule,, causing a~ approxi­mation to the fixed load of a. stat iOnary engtne, IS ala~ favourable for the compound system.

verage weight of tratm tonf 162 16o 211 624 685 526

Average number of axle~ 25 25.6 82.6 96 eo 81 per ~rain . . · ·

Coal consumed per ax lt-1.44 1.10 0.9 0.68 0 60 0.50 per mile . . .. lb.

Lubricant consumed per 7.70 6.45 6.28 7.18 7.27 5.96 100 train-miles . . lb.

Lubricant consumed pH 6 38 5 96 6.96 5.67 6.96 6.82 100 engine-mHes lb.

atlo of coal ooneumed 100 76.4 62.5 100 86.2 E6.2 per axle per mile • •

B

of the non·compound engines, in which such heavy items 118 renewals of tubes and fireboxes, &c., would make the

In the comparison of the cost of repairs, ib mast nob be forgotten tha.b this is a.s between th~.simple and C?mpc:>ond engine only. The cost of wages 10 Beunos Atres IS ab present a.boab 50 per cent. more than in E ngland, a.od the material although imported duty free, has to bear several extra charges, such as freight, packing, insurance, &c; , that enhances its cost when deh1ered to the company s workshops in Buenos Aires.

The consumption statement is made up from the ordinary mileage and consumption sheets for each month of 1900, eJCbracted from the resuraen in which

(SEPT. 27, 1901.

the different engines and their performance is totalled for each class; and all coal and oil used for shunting and light mileage, &c .• is included in the train-mileage figure, which, on the Great Southern Ra.ilway, ben a a larger proportion to that on many rail ways where a com­plete servtce of booked t rains is run, the b ulk of the goods traffic being bJ specials in dealing with the wheat, wool, and cattle trams, which have to run as soon as made up,

Oo8t of R epair s ( General and IJ/aintenamre). * Engines, Classes 6, 6A, 7 and 7A.

--

Number of engines re· paired .. .. ..

Avera~e cost of repalra per engtne per mileage shown

Average number of eng ine· miles run for o.bove en· gine repairs . . . .

Average number of engine· miles run per o.nnum ..

Passenger Eng ine.\ Ooods Engine.

-

3imple. Corn· Simple. Corn· pound. pouud .

Class 6 Class 6.A Class 7 Class i" Fig. 1. F tg. 2. F ig. 4 Fig. 6.

-32 21 22 I 43

£510 £470 £ 498 £ 470

51,034 65,865 5 J,769 65,227

2l,916 28920 I 20,556 25.692

The maintenance does not inolude wajtes of running-shed ftttera, bu t is for material and spare parte supplied during

• serv1ce

the engines being supplied on " the first in fi rst oub " principle. The rai lway is also composed of a large number of branch lines with many junctions, al~o tendin6 to make the working difficult; the water is of a quality that induces much priming, and the bulk of the road is anballasted except by bhe earbh of the district run bhrou~h, which in web weather becomes soft and yielding, tendmg bo increase the tractive effort, and conaeq uen tly the consumption. All this mast be taken into consideration when criticising the figures, which a.re ordinary averages, no attempt having been made to record the beat perform­ances on special runs, the main point being to show the comparison of the performance of the com{>ound and simple engines doing similar work under stmila.r con. ditione.

THE COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE OF ALUMINIUM.*

By Professor E nNEST WrtSON, M.LE.E. So fa.r as I have ascertained, no paper dealing with the

progress in manufacture and general properties of aluminium has been read before the British Association during the last ten years. During this period enormous progress has been made in the production of aluminium, as can be gathered from the facti that in 1900 no less than 5000 tons were produc~d by plant having ombined oat. put of about 25,000 horse-power, representing a capital of over 2,000,000t. s terling.

P rogress m M a:n.uf actwre.-As far as is known, alumi­nium exists nowhere uncombined in the metallic stabe, and its production is essentially a. chemical operation. The introduction of the electrolytic process for the production of aluminium marks an epoch in the history of this sub­ject, as ab the present time (1901) all aluminium may be said to be produced by this method. The proceaa was patented in 1886·87 by Hall in America., and Heroalb in England and France. In 1888 Hall was ab work with ib on a commercial scale ab Pibtsbarg; in 1891 the plant was removed to New Kensington, and was graduallf en­larged to 1500 horse-power, and in 1894 works o 5000 horse-power were erected ab Niagara Falls. In 1890 the Hall process operated by steam power wa.a installed ab Patricrofb: Lancashire, bat the French and Swiss works operated oy water power in 1894 ruined the enterprise. Aboab 1897 the machinery ab St. Micbel passed into the hande of M essra. Pechiney, and was soon increased to 3000 horae-power. and here aluminium is s till being manu­factured by the Hall process. Ab N euha.usen about 4000 horse-power is obtained from the Rhine, ab Rheinfelden about 2000 horse-power, while aboub 3000 horse-power are used by the Societe Electro-Meba.llur~que Fran9a.ise, of L a. Praz, near Modane. In 1895 bhe Bn tish Aluminium ComJ?any was founded to mine ba.uxibe and manufacture alumma in Ireland, to reduce the aluminium ab Foyers, a.nd to refine and work up the metal ab Milton, in Staffordshire. By the end of 1899 plant of 7000 horse­power bad been ins balled ab Foyers ; eome of it, however, being employed for the production of calcium carbide. I n order to meet the demands of the Pibtsburg Reduction OomJ?any, and as an indication of what is expected of almmniam, ib may be mentioned that the Niagara Falls Company are installing two new turbines. Space does nob permit of farther description; but the above remarks are sufficient to show how rapidly the electrolytic process has been developed.

The E lectrolytic Oelt.-A ahorb description of the H eroulb cell which is used nb Foyers may be here given. Ib consists of a square iron or steel box lined with carbon, at the bottom of which is a. ca.st·iron plate con· nected with the negative pole of the dynamo. The positive pole of the dynamo is connected bo a bundle of carbon rods suspended from overhead and capable of vertical adjustment. The cell is nlled with oryolite, wbiob becomes molten by the passage of the electric current, and then the powdered alumina is fed in continuously as

* Paper read before the British Association, Section G, September 16, 1901,

-

•

:

lbong as the operati?n proceeds. The potential difference etween the termmals of each cell is from 3 to 5 volts

and ~h~ ourre~t overcomes the chemical affinity of th~ alumu:~lUm . ox1de b~sides he~ tin~ the electrolyte. The opera:ti?n IS e~sent1ally a dissociation of alumina into alu~mmum, wh10h collects at the cathode or negative plate wh•.l~t the oxygen, . which is evolved at the anode o~ P?SI~Ive pole, oombmes to form carbon monoxide and diOXIde. The ourrenb density is about 700 amperes per squ!lre foot of cathode, and the working temperature yaries from 750 deg .. t? 850 deg. C. The actual yield JS 1 to 1! lb. of alummlUm per 1 electrical horse-power­day.

A lloys. -Aluminium can combine to produce an enormous number of alloys, some of. which, containing 1 to~ ~er cen~. of other metals, oombme the lightness of alummmm ~~th greater hardness and strength. Other allo¥s. oontaiDlnS.' from 90 to 99 per cent. of other metals exhi~It properties of those metals much improved for certam purl?oses. Much as has been already done, much more. ~emams, and the alloy- producing property of alumimum opens up a vast field for research. It must be remem~red that electrolytic aluminium has only been known durmg the la.st few years, and now that its purity can be <:<>ntrolled on a large scale, consistent results may b~ obta.med: The purest . aluminium obtained commer­Cially oontams trace~ ?f tr?n and silicon, giving about 99.6 \)e~ cent. of alu~1mum 10 the finished product. All alummmm may b.e sa1d therefore t? J:>e use.d m the alloyed state. The subJect naturally divides Itself into two branches: (1) light aluminium alloys; (2) heavy aluminium alloy~.

.Light A lloys.-The colour of commercially pure alumi­mum depends upon t.he te!Dperatmre at which the metal has been ~reated. Cast m chill moulds and cooled quickly, or ca~t m gr~en sand at.a. lo~ ~emperature, the metal has a bnght white colour nearly hke that of silver. When oast t?o h?t in dry sand, the co~our .is grey like lead or bluish ~1ke zmo. The fracture ~ram differs considerably accord­mg to the method of oastmg, cooling, or working. When dra'!D, rolled! or forged, the metal shows a. silky grain. The speCific gra-vity of commercially pure aluminium varies at atmospheric temperature from 2.66 when oast in sand to 2.71 when hammered or-drawn. Compared with other metals, its specific gravity is as follows:

Aluminium . .. .. . . .. . .. . .. 1 Zino . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 7 Tin ... ... .. . ... ... ... 2:76 C~st iron . . . . . . .. . ... . .. 2. 91 N10kel .. . .. . . .. .. . . . . . .. 3.37 Copper. .. . .. .. . .. . . .. .. . 3. 37 Silver .. . . .. . .. . .. .. . . . . 3.98 Lead ... ... .. . . .. ... . .. 4.30 Gold .. . .. . ... . ... ... . .. 7.31 Platinium ... . . ... ... ... 8.15

The extraordinary lightness of aluminium is one of its most striking characteristics. Since the weisht of a ~iven volume of a metal may govern its finanCial value, copper being 3.37 times as heavy as aluminium, it follows that whenever aluminium costs less than 3.37 times copper, it is cheaper volume for volume. The prices of metals fluctuate very much, but taking copper at 70t. and aluminium at 130t. per ton, we see that aluminium is con­siderably cheaper than copper. It remains to be seen in what manner the volumes of different met~s have to be related for specific purposes.

Conductor of Etectricity.- The use of aluminium as a conductor of electricity is engagin~ the attention of engi­neers very much at the present tame, and already large qoantities of it have been installed. A number of dif­ferent alloys of aluminium have been tested at King's College, London, for the British Aluminium Company, and it is the intention of the author to publish these m full later, but a general reference may be made. Alumi­nium (containing .31 per cent. Fe and .14 per cent. Si) has & specific resistance of

{2.59 x 10~ legal ohms at Odeg. C. l. 2. 762 X 10-6 , , 15 , ) t

a temperature coefficient .00393 and linear coefficient of expansion .000023 between 16 deg. and 100 deg. C. W eight for weight the conductivity of this aluminium is double that of copper, or, for equal conduc­tivity, half the ·weight of aluminium would be re­quired; or for a given length of conductor carrying the !!&me electric current with the same loss, that is, the same fall of potential, the relative weights would be as 1 of copper to ; of aluminium. This necessarily involves a great saving in transport, and there is the additional ad­vantage that fewer and lighter poles are required for erecting overhead conductors.

Taking the specific resistance of aluminium at 2. 76 and copper at 1.696 x 10-6 ohms (Mabthiessen's standard) at 15 deg. 0., the diameter of the aluminium wire wiJl be 1. 27 that of the copper. For equal conductivity it follows that the insulation on covered alominium wires will be greater, but bhe covered wire will be still less in weig?t than the oop~r. It is as a bare conductor for long-dis­tance transmission thab aluminium has been largely used, and it is therefore necessary to consider the t ensile pro­perties and change in length due to change in tempera­ture. The commercially pure aluminium alluded to above has, when in the form of wire .126 in. (3.2 millimetres) in diameter, a breaking load of 28,200 lb. (12.6 tons) per square inch, a limit of elasticity 19,376.lbs. (8.65 ~on.s) per square inch, and percentage extensiOn .19 withm the limits of elasticity with an applied force of 16,250 lb. (7.2 tons) per square inch. Alloyin~ this alumi.nium with copper zinc, nickel, or iron in varymg proportiOns to the extent 'of about 2 per cent. increases the tensile strength at the expense of conductivity. It is therefore important to know what the tensile properties. have to be in pa~­tioular ca,l3es. The Standard ElecbriO Oompany of Cah-

E N G I N E E R I N G. • • ..

f~rnia in their 43 miles transmission line emi?loy alumi- aboutoompleteditsseoond power transmission line between m~m wire .294 in. in diameter, having a. resistance per the Falls and Buffalo. The three-phase current is trans­mile of 1.008 ohms at 25 deg. C., and this is stated mibted by three aluminium cables, each composed of to have a conductivity of 59.9 per cent. of oop{>er. The thirty-seven strands. The span between the poles, which ~reaking load is 22,800 lb. (10.1 tons) per square mob. No in the old copper lines is 75ft., averages 112~ fb. in the hmit of elasticity is given, but ib is stated that at 14 500 aluminium line. An electrical transmission plant has ~o 17,000 lb. per square inch there is a marked inor~ase been completed in the valley of Pompeii, near Naples, in I~ t.he permanent ~et, which was taken to indicate the which aluminium is employed for the line wires. Three limits of safe working load. It may be here mentioned lines emanate from the power house-2 miles, 9 miles, tha~ the tensile properties of aluminium are increased by and 2 miles long respectively. In Provo Canyon, three rolhng, hammering, or drawing. In testing wires, there- aluminium cables, each of seven strands, transmit over fore, di fferent results may be obtained from the same 40 miles to Tintio, which is connected with Mercur, mater~al by varying the amount of drawing down. Copper 30 miles dista.nt

1 and electric onrrent is transmitted to

and mckel·oopper alloys can give about 20 tons breaking Mercur vid Tintno, as readily as by the direct line between lo~, 16 tons bmit of elasticity, percentage extension .19 Merour and Provo. In this manner, if one line is out of wtbh 7.2 tons per square inch applied, and conductivity order, power can be transmitted by the other. &.bout 52 per cent. of copper. ~ow, hard-drawn copper Joints.-It has been urged against aluminium that it h.a~ a breaking load of aboub 28 tons, and limit of elas- gives trouble in jointing. The ordinary mebals are strongly t~otby 12 to 1~ tons per squar~ inch, a percenhge exten- electro-negative to aluminium, so that if other metals than s~on of 0.10 'Yith 7.2 tons apphed per square inch, and a. aluminium be used in jointing, galvanic action will occur l~nea.r ooeffi01ent of about .000017 per 1 deg. Cent. These in the presence of moisture. In the above power trans­bght ~luminium alloys can ha ye a limit of elasticity missions, mechanical joints have been made with success; exceedmg that of CO{>per, theu percenta~e extension but, with proper precaution, aluminium wire can be welded under a given load withtn the limit of ela.atimty is greater either by the use of the blow-lamp or electrically. The (aboub twofold) than copper, and the linear coefficient f 11 · tests ·n h h ldi b of expansion is greater. The properties of the el"Stl'o o owm~ Wl s ow t at we mg can e successfully

uo accomphahed. The original t rolley wire (8 section) catenary, together;with the superposed effect of change of has an area of .135 square inch, and a breaking load of temperature, have been examined, and they show that the 1 6 t th t t · th 11 3 j. •

greater lightness and greater percentage extension counter- . ons on a sec Ion, WI • per cenu. extensiOn. The welded joint gave 1.2 tons breakmg load, with 8 per

act the effects of greater linear coefficient of expansion. cent. extension, the joint not bein~ broken. An aluminium In faob, the factor of safety with regard to the elastic wire, . 516 in. in diameter, havmg a breaking load of limit. is greater than in copper under the same conditions. 3449 lb., with 14 per cent. extension, gave 2912lb. break-

W!nd P-ressu-re.-The Board of Trade regulations ing load, when welded with 20 per cent. extension. Hard reqmre a factor of safety of 6 for aerial lines taking the and soft solders are supplied by the British Aluminium maximum wind pressure at 50 lb. pAr sqoare foot. In a Company. It is necessary to break up the oxide which copper wire 0.4 in. in diameter, the resultant force per .foot forms on the surface of the aluminium, and with care length due to gravity and such a wind pressure may be aluminium soldering is rendered easy. double that due to gravity alone. With aluminium of Meltilng a;nd Oasting.-Aluminium can be melted in the same conductivity the wind ~ressure will be about 1 b 1.27 greater than with copper. Smoe the cross-sectional P um ago or sand crucibles without becoming brittle or area of a wire varies as the radius squared, and the area taking up silicon, provided that t:he temperature ~oes not

d t · d & · h · much exceed 626 de~. Cent. or 1160 deg. Fahr., 1ts melb-~xpose 0 wm press.ure, snow,. 0·• vanes as t 8 radius, ing point. The shrmkage of pure aluminium is .20 in. tb fo11ows that for a. given material the larger the diameter to the foot, as compared with .187 in. for copper. the better. In other words, two separately strung wires A luminium, for I ron and Steel Fo'UI11.ders.-The addi­of equal diameters are not so good as one wire of ,..r2 tion of aluminium to iron or steel has the great ad vantage the diameter of either the other two, althou~h the total of keeping the metal more fluid in the ladle, thus saving conductivities are the same in the two oases. But cam- by the avoidance of blowholes. At high temperatures paring aluminium with copper, the total tensile strength the metal decomposes nearly all metallic oxides, and pre­of an aluminium wire of the same conductivity as the vents blowholes by combining chemically with the gas copper may be greater according to the alloy chosen, and which forms the holes. Its action is stated to be about th1s may compensate for the increase in the surface twenty times as powerful as silicon, and the resultant exposed to wind, &o. steel is superior in toughness and ductility. The guan-

Surface E.tt'ect.- If the matbemati'Ja.l theory of Lord tity to be added varies according to the iron used. Gene­Kelvin be examined, it will be seen that, provided the rally the amount runs from 2lb. to 5lb. per ton of iron. electrical resistance to steady currents is the same in each Rolling and Forgiflg.-The great ductility of alumi­wire of a series of non-magnetic wires of the same uium makes it easy to work with rolls. Rolled sheet length, but of different specific resistances, and conse- aluminium .001 in. thick is used for decorative porposes. quently different diameters, the increa-se in electrical re- 1n fact, leaf aluminium may be said to have replaced leaf sistance due to frequency is the same in each of the silver. It can be forged easily either cold or warm. wires. It cannot therefore be urged against the larger Aluminium containing much silicon and iron can only be diameter (1.27} of aluminium aa compared with copper forged with great difficulty. that this effect is increased. Indeed, the self-induction H ardenitng and Anneatitng.-The hardness of alumi­is reduced by the larger diameter of the aluminium for nium varies according to its purity, the pureat metal being equal conductivity. softest. Ordinary 98 per cent. alominium is about as hard

Electric Glow.-In the case of aerial wire:~ between as copper. Aluminium becomes harder the more it is which exists some thousands of volts potential difference, worked by rolling, drawing, stamping, or hammering. it is well known that the wires ~low on account of the The metal must be annealed in a closed muffle, and must intense electrification of the air m the neighbourhood of not come in contact with the open fire. the wire. This effect is a function of the radius of the Drawing and Stampiflg.- Professor Thurston places wire. The mechanical pull varies as aluminium as sixth in the order of dootility, being pre-

,J(tield strength x radius of curvature) ceded by gold, silver) platinum, copper, and iron, but it is doubtful if it does nob rank as high as iron. Aluminium

for points (see Chattook, Philosophical Magazine, Septem- can be pressed or stamped under the drop hammer, hot or her, 1891). The increased radius of the aluminium for the cold. Very fine effects can be produced by first burnish­same conductivity as copper would help to reduce electric ing the metal and then stamping in polished dies. glow. The film which forms on aluminium in the {>re- H ea11Jy A lloys-Atwmitnium Bronzes.-In 1889 and 1890 sence of moisture is known to consist of basic alumimum papers were read before this Section on aluminium bronzes. sulphate, and the author has found that it possesses a It was then pointed out by Mr. J. H. J. Dagger, F.C.S., high electrical resistance when dry. This may have im- F.I.C.; that for artillery, small arms, propeller blades, portance in the case of overhead conductors in diminish· stern rudder frames and hydraulic work, the non-corro­mg glow discharge. dible properties and great strength of these alloys ran-

Some Long-Distance Transmissi<Yns.-A full desoripbion dared them mosb valuable. Aluminium bronze propellers of all the long-distance transmission schemes would be have been successfully employed for high-speed torpedo out of the question here. The following are brief notes catohtrs. The two classes of bronze most frequently used to give Br general idea of what has been accomplished. At contain from 12 to 8 per cent aluminium and 88 to 92 per Northallerton, England, 4 miles of overhead aluminium cent. copper, and have a golden appearance and the wires are employed. Screwed socket joints have proved strength of steel. The breaking load in tons per square successful. At the Snoqualmie Falls 20 miles of over- inch varies from 44 to 39 with an average elongation of head conductors convey current to Renton, where the 9 per cent., and 38 to 34 tons per square inch with an line divides, one-half going to Seattle and the other to average elongation of 21 per cent. They have high elastic Tacoma. About 139,000 lb. of aluminium are employed. limit and transverse strengths. The horse-power is 12,000 and the voltage is 30,000. Where forgings or stampings are required, four classes Mcintire joints are employed, and consist of a tube 9 in. of bronze are recommended, containing respectively 10, long, of aluminium, flattened, and large enough to enclose 7!, 5, and. 2i per ~e~t. aluminium, the rest being copper. both wires; by special clamping tools three complete tw.ists Tlie spe01fic gravitles vary from 7.6 to 8.3, the tensile are given and the joint is complete. The Blue Lakes strength varies in castings from 30 to 20 tonR per square transmission scheme has 43 miles of overhead wires. The inch, and the elongation varies from 22 to 40 per cent. poles are 132ft. apart. The aluminium used in this un- Uses of Pwre Aluminium..-The uses of aluminium are dertaking has been referred to above. As indicating the very numerous. Probably the widest field is still in the satisfaction given by aluminium, it may be mentioned purifioa~ion of steel and i~on. It ~ppeals t~ the pu~lio as that in the new line about 1,000,000 lb. of aluminium will a matenal for construotmg cookmg otens1ls. It 18 not be required in the form of stranded conductors, ! in. in brittle like cast iron, nor does it rust like tinplate. It is diameter. The Pittsburg R eduction Company have re- used for internal fittings for ships instead of wood, for ceived orders for 150,000 lb. of aluminium for the feeders motor car parts, and boiling pans for confectionery. The on the North-Western Railway, Ohioago. The Hartford Admiralty employ it, and on the Continent soldiers are Electric Light Company have 33 miles transmission, 2000 equipped with it when possible. It is used in a modified horse-power at 10,000 volts, three-phase. The cable, form of lithography as a substitute for solenhofen. We f in. in diameter, consists of seven strands. The Kansas have seen that with the increasing price of copper, alumi­Oity and Leavenworth Electric Railway line are using nium is being used largely for conductors of electricity. 76 miles of aluminium cable. Ab Wa.terport, U.S.A., a It can be used for roofing houses. There is no reason 6! miles transmission is employed. The tlonduotor con- why it should not be used to replace the present heavy Bists of a seven-strand cable supported on 30-ft. poles bronze coinage. Ib wears beautifully bright and clean, 100 ft. apart. The Nia~ara Falls :Power Company has . and is suffioientlr hard for this purpose, ·

•

•

•

A REGENERATIVE ACCUMULATOR. Note on a Regemrative A ccu-mulator and Its Application

jo·r using Exhaust Steam.* By M. A. RATEAU, of Paris.

( Translated from the French. ) T HE ne~ a.ppa.ra.~us referred to in this pap er is intended

to allow, m a. t urbme or any other motor, the use of the exhaust st~an;t from ~a.chines having intermittent aotion, ~uch a~ wmdmg ~ngme~ or _the reversible en~ines of roll­mg mlll~. Engm~ 'Ylth mtermittenb action are well known to be defectt ve m respect of the satisfactory use of the. s~ea.m ca.u.sed by condensation within the cylinders. ThiS I~lConvemence has ~o doubt been, to a. small extent, remedted by compoundmg, and also by condensing· but the a.~vantage gained is much less than can be obt~ined by ~smg tb~ stea.~ ab a.bou b atmospheric pressure in a. turbme provided with a. condenser. T~e Hon .. C. A . Parsons ho.s already urged the use of

turbmes w1th low steam·-preesure, attaobed to con-

•

-

F4J.1 mt

•

------·-···---·------ ~:::-:-:-:t~ :,.. __ _ -7 ··· "JP- - - - - · ·

I -I •

•

B • --I

--

--

--=-

-

I

.

f~ •

' I

. ...? ~'"'"""'"~''''''~' I'.. • _____ .,. _____ .,.__ ~' .

""" "" "' """ """" '" """ "'~ ---~-......... !!!§ .. .

• ' • • • '

Fi[j. 2. • •

• •

. o I

- -•

7045)

, '

•

I

•

•

f

Se.ctum.;

•

•

- at A .

•

•

B.

• •

j

•

•

• ...

•

•

•

•

tinuously-running steam engines. F or instance, if we take a winding engine using 45 kilogrammes (99lb.) of steam per brake horse-power (utile), w~icli is al?out phe. minimum for non.compound engines Without condensatiOn, these 45 kilogrammes of steam are sufficient to give, in a. steam turbine coupled to a dynamo, an eleotric power of ab least two horses ; by the application in this case of the regenerative a-ccumulator sys tem, 2 horse-power is added for each horse-power of the winding engine.

The difficulty which this apparatus solves ia the fo1low-• 1ng :-

The turbine requires to be supplied with a continuous flow of steam, whereas the engine working intermittently deli vera it at more or less re~ular inter vaTs of one or two minutes. A reservoir is therefore required between the two engines. An ordinary reservoir would have excessive dimensions, whilst with apparatus about to be described this excessive size is a voided, and the cosb of erection is rela.ti vely small.

This apparatus, which may be called a "regenerative steam-accumulator, , serves the purpose of a reservoir. The solid and liquid materials which it contains form a ~ torage in which the steam gathers and condenses when arriving in excess, and subsequently re·evaporises during

* Paper read before the Interna t ional Engineering Congress, Glasgow, 1901. Seotion III.: Mechanical.

E N G I N E E R I N G. the _pe_riod .when the main engine slackens or stops. The vartattons m temperature necessitn.ted by the condensation and re-evaporation of steam correspond to the s mall fi.uctuati~ns of pressure in the accumulator. The pressure rts~s wh1le ~be apparatus is filling, and falls while it is bemg emptied. The amplitude of these temperature and pressnre osoil.lations is nob great-3 to 5 deg. Cent., and 0.10 to 0.15 ktlogramme per square centimetre (1 4 lb. to 2.1lb. ~er square inob). This variation can be hmited to any de~tred range by designing the appn.ratus sufficiently large,, m aocordan_ce wit}l the periods of running and standmg of the mam engine.

CalJing the variation of temperature t (which is, in prao~ICe, 3 to 5 deg. Cent.), the weight of materials formmg the storage of heR.t P, and the mean temperature of these materials G, the quantity of heat absorbed by the accumulator and restored by it ab each period is P G t calori~; and the quantity ?f condensed vapour, then vap:>rtsed, O)rresponds to thiS n umber of calories equal

PG t ' to about L , L being ~he la.t~nt heat of the s tream.

T~e app~ratus oonsists,_ as may be seen from the illus­tratton {Fig. 1), ~f ~asb·Iron . ann_ular basins placed one above the other, mstde a cyhndnca.l vessel of sheet iron. The steam, which enters the vessel by the pipe near the t?p, reac_hes ~he basins by the central channel. The por­tiOn wh10h 1s nob condensed, as well as thn.b which is re-evaporated, descends along the lateral partitions of the vessel, an~ reaches the pipe C leading to the low-pres-sure ma.chme. ·

The water oarried away by the steam separates out in the upper chamber, and falls, first through holes in the top plate, thence from basin to ba-sin by the passages in t~e OVeifiOW bo the bottO}Jl of the vessel, whence it is dlScba.rged by the small ptpe, and an automatic steam­trap. The basins are always thus covered with water.

The apparatus is completed with a safety-valve and an antomatio steam-valve, for assisting the turbine by steam direct from the boilers. . By means of this accumulator it is possible to obtain, m an ordinary.sized winding-engine plan t, an additional motive power of about 500 horse-p)wer, with no ex pense but the cost of installing the turbine and accumulator, which is nob great . . An a.pplioa.tion of ~50 horse-power is in course of erec.

t10n at the B ruay Mmes m the north of France, and, will be working in a few mont hs.

LAUNCHES AND TRIAL TRIPS. ON Tuesday, the 10hh insb., the steel screw steamer

Dc~.larne. built by Messrs. William Gray and Co'., Limited, for the Da.larne Steamship Co., Limited, of Helsingborg, h~d ~er trial trip. The ''essel is 29~ fb. in len~th, 42ft. 6 m. m breadth, and 19 fb. deep. She IS fitted with triple­expansion en~ines from the Cen~ral Marine Engine Works of Messrs. William' Gray and Co., the cylinders being 2lin., 33 in., and 56 in. in diameter, with a piston stroke of 36 in. There , are two steel boilers, whiob work at a pressure of 160 lb. per square inch. The ship was fully loaded, and aye:aged a spee~ ?f ~~ knots, the running of the erigines g1 vmg every sattsiactiOn. . '

9~ ~~u.rsday, tb~ 12th insb.J;he~~ wa.s lau~c.hed fr.om the shtpbUil<hng yard of M~srs. JJa.VId and Wllham Render­son and Co., Limited, Partick; a large steel ecrew cargo steamer, which .they have constructed to the' order of Messre. Maclay and Mclntyte, of Glasgow. This latest adgition to~_the_ fl~etl .of vessels owned by thjs firm is' in len~th 393 fb., bread~h 50 fb. with a depth, of 28 {t . . in., havmg a _gross tonnage of aboub 4,5{)0 tons. A set of triple-expansion engines will be supplied and fitted by the builders, having cylinders 25 in., 41 in., and 67 in. in dia~e~er by 4 ft . . stroke, snpi_>lied with s~~·m by two large smgle-ended boilers, wo~kmg ab a pressure of 175 lb. - ~ . · . ,---~ ' . ~ ,

On Thursday, the 12bh insb., Messrs. Work.man, Qlark, and Qo., Limited, Belf~b. launched fr9m their N 0 1 th Yard, a large ~teel twin-screw ste~mer named the lAni~n, QQilb .for the All~p. LiJ!e Steamship_ Company, Lumbed, Glasgow, and mtended fo'!' tJha.tJ well-known firm's· trade·between Glasgow, Liverpool,_and _the prin­cipal Canadian ports. The Io~ia.n has been_ designed to meeb the J.:eqgi.remepts of a modern first-class passAnger and cargo vessel, en&'aged in the Atlantic trade, and is of the jollowingdimens10ns·: Leng~h betweell perpendiculars, 470 fb. ~ breadth, · 57 fb. ; depth mqulded, 4Q .ft. The bottom 1s framed oil the cellular system for ca.rrymg water ballast, which system adds very considerably to the safety of the _vessel; there is also provision made for carrying ~ater ballast for ~rimming purpo~es in the forwar.d and after pea~ and in a dfi~ep tank abaft the machinery space. The vessel has three complete decks extending from stem to stern, with an additional tier of beams in the fore bold, and is divided longitudinally into eight compartments by bulkheads extending to the upper deck. One of these compartments is further sub­divided, forming the deep-water ballast . tank, the vessel being thusdivided up into ninewa.'tertighbcompartments. Above the shelter deck amidships a long bridge· house has been erected for theacoommodat10n of first-olasspassengertl, with a commodious' saloon ab the fore end; and on the upper deck below this house there is further accommodation for firsb-class paASengers on starboard side, wit h stairway to shelter-deck accommodation. A large music-saloon is arranged for ab· the fore end, and a smoking-room ab the after end of tho engine and boiler casings on the bnd~e deck. Second-class passengers will be accommodated m the space between shelter and upper decks l;lobafb the engine space, ~i th a ~arge ~loon and m usio-room. Access to this space will be by stauways from an entrance house, with second-class smoking-room attached on shelter r.leok sf11, and also from the afb end of bridge·house. Arrange-

[SEPT. 27, I 90 r.

ments ~re made for a _large number of steerage pa~sengE rs, who wtll be. bea thed m spaces abaft second-olass and for­ward of first - cla~s &~commodation on upper deck. After the launch the I oman was taken to the finishing wharf where she will receive her machinery. also constructed by Messrs. W orkman, Cla.rk, and Co., Limited, and will shortly be ready to take her place on the Trans-At lantic servioe of the A llan Line.

On ~rid.ay! the 13th inst., there was launched from the shtpbu~d~ng yard of Smith's J?ock C~mpa.ny, L imited, ab North ~bteld~, a. somewhat m teresting vessel. This oraft h~s ~een hullt to the order of the Tyne Improvement Con;tmtssloners, an~ has been specially designed and equt~ped to deal w1tb the very extensive system of river m<?ormgs on.the Tyne. The work intended to be done by thts vessel 1s of a very varied kind, including among ?ther purposes the following: Driving screw moorings m to the bed of the river; lifting and paying out ground ~nd ca.~le. chains; examining and repairmg existing moor­~ngs; hfbmg and transporting heavy weight~, and assisb­mg ab salvage operations of all kinds. The dimensions of t~e. vess~l are 80 ft. by ~5 ft. by 8 fb. 6 in., and ehe is sub­divlded mto four waterttghb compartments, with pumping arral?gemenb f<?r sinking and raising the craft as may be requu ed. She IS very sbrongly built of steel, with a super­structure suited for the handling of heavy gear and ·buoys and she ha-s a ma-ssive bow davit capable of lifting 40 tons: The ·m~chinery arrangement consists of two powerful steam wmcbes placed forward and aft, supplied by Messrs • Clarke, Ch~p~a.n, and Compa~y_, and one crane by Messrs. Tang_res Ltmtted, cai?able of hftmg: five ton~, and swinging through an 18 ft. radius. A peculiar feature of thjs boat is-~be cet;ttre well, m~asuring 10ft. square, and through this openmg the apphances are passed for connecting the screw mooring ab the bottom of the river to the capstan This craft is intended to a. great degree to replace the no~ almost obsolete wooden screw keel in the Commissioners' service. In the new craft all the work is intended, as far as possible, to be done by steam power in place of manual l~bour. · The vessel has been constructed to the specifica­t iOn of ~!r. Ja.mes W alker, the engineer to the R iver Tyne Commissioners.

_On Thuraday, the 191ih inst., the s.s. Euterpa, bollb by Sir R9.jlton .Dixon o.nd Co., Limited, Cleveland D ock­yards, Middlesbrough, to the . order of Messra. Soara­m~n~a Brothers, for the Calliope Steamship Company, L1m1ted, of London, proceeded to ~ea for her official t rials. Her principal dimensions are: L ength, 352 ft. by 47 ft: beam by 27 ft. 6 in. moulded depth, and she has a ~eadweighb carrying capacity of about 6000 tons on a. Itg:ht d raught of water. The machinery has been sup­phed by the Cent ral Marine E ogineering Works, L imited. 'V estJ H artlepool, the cylinders being ~5 in., 4l in., and 67 in. in diameter by 45 in. stroke, E.upplied with steam at 180 lb. pressure by three la.rga single-ended boilers.

The s.s. A ustriana, recently launched by Messra. Irvine's Shipbuilding and Dry D .:>cks Company, Limited, West Hartlepool, and built to the order of Sir Christopher Furne&~, M.P., for the British Maritime Trust, Limited, p roceeded on the 17th inst. on her trial trip. 8he is of the following dimensions : L ength, 360ft. ; breadth, 47ft. 9 in. ; and dei_>th, 30 fb. 2~ in , and of a large measure­ment cargo capaCity. E ngines of the triple.expansion type have been fit ted by Messrs. Richa.rdson~, W estga.rth; and Co., Limited, Hartlepool. They have cylinders 25 in., 40 in., and 67 io. in diameter with a stroke of 45 in., and are supplied by two single-ended boilers constructed to work ab a pressure of 165 lb.

Mes:lrs. Irvine's Shipbuilding and D ry Docks Company, Limited, have just launched from their shipyard ab West Hartlepool a steel screw steamer named the Persians., and built to the order of Sir Chriatopher Furness, M.P., for the British Maritime Trust, Limited, L ondon. She is of the following dimensions: L ength, 360 H.; breadth, 47 ft. 9 in.; · :.\.nd depth, 30 H. 2! in. E ngines of the triple-expansion type are being sni_>plied by Messrs. Ricbardson~, West­garth, and Co, Limtted, Hartlepool, with cylinders 25 in., 41 in., and 67 in. in diameter, with a stroke of 45 in., steam being supplied . by two single-ended boilers con­structed to work at a pressure of 165 lb .

' BELGIAN BRJQUETTRS.-Tbe exports of briquettes from

Belgium in the first eight months of this year were 457,825 ton~, as compared with 383,752 tons in the corresponding period of 1900. The exports to France figured in t bi~ total for 296,007 tons and 226,393 tons respectively. •

G.\ AT N&w Y OBK.- What at the time of i ts erection was the largest ga-s-holder in the U nited States was com­pleted in 1895, ab L ong I sland, for the Ea-st River Gas Compsmy. Since then two other ' holders, equal in size, have been builb. A lthough the East River Ga-s Oompa.ny was organised mainly for the purpose of supplying New York with gas, the location across the 'East River was determined upon as it offered facilities, in docking and water supply, wbioh could nob be obtained withoub a prohibitive outlay on the west side of the river. The plant is intended ultimately to supply 2t,OOO,OOO cubic feet of water-gas, the requistte materials neces~ary being water for the boilers and other maohin~, coal for gene­rntor and steam purpos~, and naphtha or orude petro­leum. The la-st hwo materials demand extended dock and storage fa.cilities. Ab the present time the generator coal pocket has o. frontage of 92 £t., with a length and height sufficient to store 6000 tons of broken anbhraoite coal. T o conduob the gas to New York, the Ea.sb River was bored by a. tunnel which will ultimately contain two 36-in. pipes and one 48-in. pipe.

•

•

•

SEPT. 2 7, I 90 I.]

4 ' ENGINEERING" ILLUSTRATED PATENT RECORD.

COMPILED BY w. LLOYD WISE. 8EL11JC'l'ED ABSTRACTS OF REGENT PUBLISHED BPECIFIOATIONB

UNDER THE ACTS OF 1888-1888. The numb&r oj views given in the Specification Drawings i8 stated

in each case ; where n<me are mentioned, the Specification i8 not illustrated.

Where inventions at·e communicated from ab·,.oad the Names ~o., of the Communicators are given in 1'talt".c8. ' '

Copi~ of Specifications may be obtained at the Patent Office Sale Branch;, 96, So!tthampton Buildings, Chancery-lane, lV.C. at the um{orm pn.ce of 8d. '

The date of the adverti$ern,ent of the acceptance of a Complete SrJec-ification is, in each case, give'n, a,Jter the abstract, unless the Patent has been sealed, when the date of seali·n,g is given.

A ny person may, at any time within two months from the date of th;e adv~tisement of the acceptance of a Complete Specificat:wn, g1:ve nottce at the Patent 0./fice of opposition to the g1'ant of a Patent on any of the grounds me?ltioned in the .Acts.

ELECTRICAL APPARATUS.

13.839. B. M. Drake and The Nernst Electric Light Company, Limited, London. Nernst Lamp ~onductors. Au~ust 2, 1900.-In order to render the light­emitting conductor of an incandescence lamp of the Nernst type ~ore du.rable it is, according to ~his invention, proposed to heat tt. to a htgber temperature than 1s reached in use, and in order to effect this heating such conductors should, it is stated, be passed .a~ross and through ~n arc ~;>reduced ~etween c.arbons separated a dt~tance of about f 10. This process 1s not clatmed. It is stated that a Nernst conductor if made cylindrical soon becomes tubular ~ben. put into use, owing to the greater heat developed in the

"interiOr of t he conductor, and that such conductors are sometimes made in tubular form. In order that they may be made of some .shape other than tubular, and that they may not have a ten­d ency to become tubular in use, various forms of cross-section are adopted in which the surface is extended, and the t hickness of material reduced, conductors of this kind being broadly claimed in the following terms : "In an electrolytic electric lamp a glow body or conductor arranged to have a large radiating surface for a given oross·section substantially as described." (Accepted J tily 24, 1901.)

16 865. D. P. Kegan, Glasgow. Cable Carriers. /I.4 Figs.] September 22, 1900.-A cable suppor t according to this invention comprises a ver tical standard which in one form bas T -shaped perforations, together with removable brackets

~< :n. I.

rEJ, I ' I I

- ~ J

t • • •• ;,-.: ;.t

•

~J!:., ; ' ,' \ . ' I I

" '

,--... ," .. , I ' ' I t I • • ' ,

• ~ . ~u I ' ' I I

I ' I L ....... --·-·-1

I (/I',II'S:)

fitting into the lower par ts of &be slots in the standard when their e nlarged back ends have been passed through the slots in the wider part or style, the device affording ready means for making eable alterations or additions. (Accepted J uly 31, 1901.)

20,277. 0. Imray, London. (The Oesterreichische Com­'Oany, Vienna.) Osmium FUaments. November 10, 1900.­In order to support osmium filaments, which are heavy in pro­portion to theu strength, even when cold, and when heated are also soft ; a.~;>propriately shaped bodies of refractory oxide chemi· oally inert m reference to osmium are used. To prepare t hese supports thoria and magnesia in the proportion of ten parts of the former to one of the latter are made into a past e with an organic binding material, moulded to shape, burned in air till t he organic substance is consumed, and afterwards "sintered or fritted to­gether. " (AcceptedJuly 24, 1901.)

17,234. J. G. MWer, Edgewood Park, Pa., U.S.A • .Motor Generators. (Convention date March 1, 1900.) .3 Figs. ] September 28, 1900.-Tbis apparatus is for conver ting

Fig. 1.

•

t I' , ~ Q:

1/ ...... oOtlft nn "OQD04

(; r ) Fig . .J. ·6~ ' •• • •

':1

E N G I N E E R I N G. motor and generator, in which the field magnet windings of both are connected in series " through a. resistance and with a bridge across the circuit of said windiogtl, comprisinl( a switch arm for progressively t ransferring resistance from one field magnet circuit to tbe other." (A ccepted July 31, 1901.)

17,262. A. Wright and The Reason Manufacturing Company, Limited, Brighton. Electrolytic Meters. [2 Figs.] September 2~, 1900.- Tbis invent ion has reference to mercury electrolytic meters (some forms of which nre described in Pa.tent Specifications Nos. 2222, 5946, 65s:l3, and 9746 of 1900), and more particularly to those in which the mercury anode is on a higher level than the cathode, the surface of the anode being on as high a level as t he sill retaining the mercury constituting it in

•

(~m)~~ place, in order tbat the denser mercurial solution, which might otherwise tend to accumulate there under the influence of electro­lytic action, can readily flow off, thus preventing the surface of the mercury anode from 11 sickening." In such meters, according to t his invention, the cathode is made of platinum, which may be of the shape and fixed in the manner ehown in the drawing. The anode contact may be a roll of platinum foil. partly projecting above the surface of the mercury. (Accepted J ·uly 31, 1901. )

GUNS AND EXPLOSIVES •

8101. M.. Fiedler. Moscow, Russia. Safety Explo­sives. .A~ril 19, 1901.-An explosive according to this inven­t ion compnses a. fluid and a solid, the fluid being a mixture of nitro-benzol and t urpentine, and the solid a mixture of ch lorate and permanganate (with or without a little bichromate) of potas· sium. The explosive will only detonate when the fluid and solid are mixed. Even when mixed, it is stated, if ignited in the ordinnry manner, the substances will burn away quietly . .Among others, t he following prescription is given : For the solid, potas­sium cblorate 70 per cent. , permanganate SO per cent. ; for the liquid, nitro-benzol 80 per cent., t urpent ine 20 per cent . Twenty parts by weight of the liquid are used to eighty of the solid. The liquid is packed in soldered tins, and the solid in sealed packets waterproofed with chromic glue. (Accepted July S, 1901.) '

1501. J. A. WUdtng, Old Charlton, Kent. Shell Fuses. [5 Figs.] January 22, 1901.- This invention relates to the clamping nut for clamping the time rings of fuses. Hitherto such clamping has been effected by a simple nut screwed on to the end of a projecting stem ; the arrangement inYolv­ing the use of a spanner for operat ing the nut which. of course, bad to be t ightly clamped. According to this invention, upon the usual slotted and screwed end of the stem is placed a washer havin~ projecting nibs t o engage with the slots, a.nd it is hollowed or dished and ecrew-tbreaded to receive a cap or cover provided with wings or equivalent means by which t he cap can

Eg.Z.

be turned by t he fingers of the operator. The thread upon the fuse stem is of a. different pitch from that upon the washer, and conYeniently the stem thread is of a. coarser pitch than that upon the washer ; for example, in the proportion of three to one. Jn usin~ this device the washer is placed upon the stem and the cap screwed by hand into the washer on its outside thread, its inside thread (of a different pitch) engaging with the thread upon the stem and the two threads rotating simultaneously a jammin~ effect is thus produced, the dome being pressed against the time ring and lockmg it, and the cap jamming itself between t he dif· ferential threads of t he nut and stem. (Accepted Jtily 31, 1901.)

RAILWAYS AND TRAMWAYS. 16,767. J. Ternley, Manchester, and S. Sidebottom,

Bochdale. Buft'ers. [4 Figs.] September 20, 1900.-Buffers

-<()Urrent of approximately constant potential into current the potential of which is controlled and may be readily varied, and for railway vehicles are according to this invention situated comprises a mechanically coupled but magnetically separate under the vehicle, buffer rods from each end of the car being

extended into the buffer box and taking a bearing on to the buffer springs. (Accepted, July 31, 1901.)

14,165. A. Spencer, London. Brake Apparatus. [4 F igs.] August 7, 1900.-Truck band-brake apparatus according to this iD\rention provides considerable leverage for applying the brake, and is so arran~ed that t he brake may be put on or taken off from either side of the vehicle. The apparatus comprises a

Fig. f.

- ...... oft--..t:l.

- -suspended brake-block connected by a link to the shorter arm ot a bellcrank le,·er, whose longer arm is connected by another link to o_ne of two spring band-levers mounted at opposite sides of the veb1cle on a shaft common to both, and each of which can b~ caused to engage with or be disengaged from a rack serving to keep the brake on when applied. (.Accepted July 24, 1901.)

14,222. W. E. Ktng, Barry, Wales. Signal or Point Rod Cleaner. [4 F igs.] August 8, 1900.-In order to enable painters to more perfectly clean and paint bidden and under par ts of railway signal and point rods and gear, according to this invention a tool is provided the handle of which may be

1.

• •

Pi.g. ~.

{;:· ' "'::t !_ ~ .. J ~

•• ~..,.~

.

,,, rJ

telescopic and adjustable as to length furnished with a set of interchangeable tools, and also having a mirror that can be attached near the end of the tool, in order that parts to be cleaned may be readily examined and progress of t he work tbereon seen by reflection. (Accepted July 31, 1901.)

SHIPS AND NAUTICAL APPLIANCES.

15.755. J. Inches, Grimsby. Trawl Winches. [3 F igs.] September 5, 1900.-Tbis invention relates to winohts for hauljng the gear of steam t rawlers and consists of a revised construction and arrangement of parts, and according thereto instead of running the centre or inner warp drums loosely on one shaft, each winding or centre warp drum is keyed on a separate shaft, with the driving wheel keyed to the same shaft or secured t o the drum, thus t ransferring the wear and tear usually occurring

•

between the shaft and drum to the shaft and its bearings, which are easily repaired, while the drums, being keyed to separate shafts, are adapted to run independently of each other or both to2'ether, as has been usual heretofore. The large cent re drums being fast to their respective sbafts, the smaller outer warp drums must be loose if mounted on the end of each main shaft, or can be secured to another shaft of t heir own. In either arrangement sliding pinions are provided on the drivin~ shaft so that the warp drums can be run separately or together. (Accepted July 31, 1901.)

STEAM ENGINES, BOILERS, EVAPORATORS, &c.

15,198. G. G. M. Bardtngham., London. (F'. H. T'}·evithick, Cai1·o, Egypt.) Locomotive Feed· Water Beater. [6 Figs.] August 26, 1900.-A feed-water heater for

locomotives according to this invention comprises a. feed-water containing vessel t raversed by tubes for conveying combustion products, and by a. central tube for the conveyance of exhaust

•

•

•

•

• ·----

steam, and it may be also surrounded by a space for hot ga.s or steam. The apparatus, it is etiated, n~ed not be heavy. Two forma of such heater are described and illustrated, and in both of • •

Fig.2.

I 11

" I 1

I •

•

,0 ..._ .. ---

J ~:..J __ ...._ - - · - ~ ...... ...__

•

F1g.3. •

• • 0 <l . •••••••••• ••••••• • .... ,. ••••• • • • •••••• • • • • • o ••••••••• •••••••••• •••••••••• •• •• 0

••••••••• •• • • •

I i ........... I •••••••• • • • • I • • •••••• • ••• • I ....... .

( i •• • •••• . ........... ·····:···· • • • • ••• •• ••••••••• I =-···· . • • ---·--

these the heater e.A.-tends over the boiler and forma a return part for the combustion products, which, with the exhaust steam, are ejeoted at the rear above the car. (.Accepted Jtd y 24, 1901.)

16 681. R. Rlcbardson, Glasgow. Locomotive Boners. [2 Fiqs. ] September 9, 1900.-Locomotive boilers according to this mvention comprise a fire-tube port ion near the firebox and a water· tube portion further forward. One form of boiler according to the invention i.S desoribed and illustrated, and is sufficiently indicated for the purposes of this abstract by

•

. 1. •

•

•

I ,

the drawings. There ii one claim, as follows: "A locomotive boiler divided into two sections, of which one is a fire-tube section of short length in proximity to the firebox, and the other a water-tube section arranged forward thereof or nearer the amokebox, the sections being connected substantially as described." (.Accepted July 24, 1901.)

7066. The Hon. c. A. Parsons, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Turbines. (6 F'igs.] April 3, 1901.- The object of this inven· tion is to provide efficient steam turbines of economicnl construc­tion. In such turbines, according to this inv~ntion, th~ steam casing or cylinder is preferably of the same mternal. diameter throughout, and rotatable groups of vanes alternate Wlth groups

------ -- - -- ----- ----• •

of stationary o-uide vanes the groups increa.9ing in the number of vanes oont:'ined in the~1 as the steam outlet is approached, the spaces between groups of vanes on the same annulus being OC?U· pied by solid ring segments. Means are provided for preventmg useless passage of s team between. vane set~. ~wo separat~ tu~­binea on one shaft are used when the direct1on of rotat10n IS required to be reversible. (.Accepted Jtl ly 2.J, 1901.) .

10,212. T. M. Colwell. Chicago, Ill. U.S.A. Con· densing Steam. [2 P igs. ] . .M~y 16, ~901. (Con~ention d~te, April 8, 1901. )-According to thts mvent1on, the coohng medium

•

or use in a heat-t ransfer apparatus is air sa~u!atded a.s ;~ny a: oaaible with aqueous vapour. The saturat~d au IB rawn roug.

fhe oondeneer by a suction fan which slightly expands the au

•

-- ENGI-NEERING. during its pa.ssage through the tubes. A spray producer is used to atomise and to project into the air passing to the condenser some It oz. of water to each 1000 cubic feet of air. It is stated that'' only a very small percentage of this amount (of water) passes into the tubes, the balance falling to the ground." It is also stated that the vapour·sa.tura.ted air should be " whisked through the tubes with great velocity, to guard agninat the re-transfer of its heat to the tubes," and that " while under ordi­nary conditions less than one quarter of 1 per cent. of the atmo­sphere is const ituted by this aqueous vapour, atmospheric air in which it does exist possesses about seventy times the heat· absorbing power of air which does not contain it , thus making it apparent that while ita component elements are derived from water and air it possesses vastly greater heat-absorbing powers than either of these separately or of the two combined in the form of fog or mist or spray or steam." (Accepted July 31, 1901.)

21,472. R. Schulz, Berlin, Germany. Steam Tur­bines. [2 F igs.] November 27, 1900.-According to this inven· tion, high and and low {>ressure steam turbines which ma.y be upon one shaft are arranged m such a manner that the end thrust of the

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2 .

steam in one turbine is counterbalanced by the steam thrust in the other turbine. A throttle valve ~ay b.e placed ~n the steam. c~m­munication between the two turbmes w1th the obJect of permtttmg the balancing of the thrQat. (.Accep ted Julv 31, 1901.)

VEHICLES. 15,936. w. C. Page, Eltham, N.Z. Road Vehicle

Axle-Boxes. (3 F igs.] September 7, 1900.-In order to pro­vide reliable means for securing the axl~-boxes on to the axle o~ a road vehicle, a screw is out on the outs1de of the a.xle-box at 1ta

inner end, and a cap is screwed thereon. On. the inner end of t~e box are slots, and in the cap a set-screw whtch, ';Yhen the cap IS screwed up against its washer, oan be screwed mto one of the slots in order to look the cap in place. Spanner stud-holes are provided in t.he rim of the cap. (Accepted J ttl.y 24, 1901)

16113. T. J. Cross, Cork. Side Cas:s. [2 F ips.) Sep­tember 11, 1900.-Irisb jaunting cars accordmg to t·hls .tuven­tion have the driver's seat at the back, a. lugga.ge·well LD the oentre, and the seats h~ve corner back-rests of curved shape.

Fig.!.

l(jl/3

It is stated that by these means the weight of the oar ,is de· creased, the horse brought nearer the load, .the pa~sengera s~ats rendered more comfortable, and converaat10n w1th tbe dnver facilitated. (A ccep ted Jt1,l71 24, 1901.)

MISCELLANEOUS.

15,193. R. J. Reynolds, London. Adjustab~~ Elec­trodes. [1 F ig.] August 26, 1900.-In order t o fa01htate the adjust ment (in respect of the dlatanr e apa.rt) of two bod~ea within a sealed container the bodies are made to screw qwte freely in or on those projections by which they are supported and are weighted _at one side, and the direction of the screw thread

•

[SEPT. 27, 1901.

is so arranged that rotation of the container as a whole \n one or the other direction causes the screwed supports to turn within or upon t he bodies so as to effect their relat ive approach or separation. A elower relative motion of the bodies 1s pro·

vlded when one only is adapted to be operated according to the invention. The invent ion is limited in the claim to vacuum tubes, a.nd is described in reference to X-ra.y appnatua (A ccepted J uly 31, 1901.)

17,796. J. Strain and the Lanarkshire Steel Com-. pany, Limited, Glasgow. Operating Furnace Doors. [5 Figs.] October 8, 1900.-Apparatus for raisin~ and lowering furnace doors or lids appertaining to soaking or reheating pits or for steelma.king, according to this invent ion comprises an actuating shaft along one aide of the row of pits, and upon the shaft keyed-on levers or arms the ends of which catoh on to the backs of the furnace lids, the arrangement being such that when.

•• ' . ~~ l l I ...,... __ ....,.. __ _

......... --

' ' ) ' , .... , / . / '.;

---- ' . " .._. -- ---· -·~--~~~

(-:; 73.i )

•

a motion of rotation is given to th e shaft it causes the lids to b& swung off and away from the mouths of the pits. When the pits have been recharged, the levers carrying the lids are lowered• again. Mea.ns for attaching the back of the lids to the ends of the. levers in the case of a series of pits may comprise a lever between. each pit , with a. rod connecting the ends of the levers together. and receiving a pair of hooks which are upon the backs of the lids. (.Accepted Julv 24, 1901.)

19,322. A. Brand, London. Caustic Alkali Manu­facture. October 29, 1900.-In order to convert salt cake into caustic soda cheaply and expeditiously, a strong caustic liquor being produced by the lixivia~ion of a furnace product, according to this invent ion the black ash produced in the first stage of the process ha.s added to it a further quantity of "carbonate of lime," and if necessary some carbon, and is then t reated at a higher temperature. The "carbonate of lime," it is stated, is convert ed into "oxide of lime," and immediately converts the "carbonate of soda" in the black ash into " oxide of soda," and nlso com·erts any "sulphide of soda " into " oxide of soda.," so that on lixiviating the furnace product in hot wat er a strong solu tion of caustic soda is procured. The last of the caustic sodai 1 removed from the furnace product in a further bath of hot water,. the resulting solution forming the liquid for lixiviating the suc­ceeding batch of furnace produots. (.Accepted July 24, 1901.)

22,440. T. Hyde, Manchester. Dry Hopping Machine. [4 Figs. ] December 10, 1900 - This invention relates to an improvement in the const ruction of the machine used fol' introducing hops through the bung-hole of a cask or barrel con­taining beer that is being prepared for delivery to consumers, the object of the invention being to economise the t ime required to enable the hops to be passed through the aperture. For this purpose a funnel-sba.ped receptacle is provided for cont aining the hops, and its smallest end is formed to fit into the bung-hole, and is provided with two t ransverse shafts. one being fitted across.

- .1.

~~Fig. Z.

.Y.•••~'"'I -~or • • ,. ... J J :) .. ~- ,_"

•·

Fig. S.

·- .

near the base of the funnel, and the other about half-~a.y between the top and the bottom, the ends of the shafts pa.ssmg throu~h brackets secured to the sides of the funnel. Dlades or short rods are fi tted on the shafts, and on one end of each shaft there is a toothed wbeel the upper (which is also the larger wheel) being provided with' a handle, and gearing into the lower or smaller wheel. On rotat ing the upper shaft by me~na of the handle, steering blades or rods fixed upon the abaft hft up the h~ps so that they lie loosely in the funnel, and the lower abaft beJDg re­volved at the same t ime, a pressing blade or rod fix ed thereoo passes the hops into the barrel. (.Accepted J uly 24, 1901) .

UNITED STATES PATENTS AND PATBNT PRAOTIOE • Descriptions with illustrations of inventions patente~ in the

United States of America from 1847 to the present tune, and reports of t rials of patent law cases in the United States, mny be consulted, gratis, at the offices of E NOINRKRINO, 85 and 36, Bedford· street, St rand

•

•

•

•