15
This article was downloaded by: [University of South Florida] On: 04 May 2013, At: 05:23 Publisher: Taylor & Francis Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK Textile Progress Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ttpr20 ENERGY CONSUMPTION AND CONSERVATION IN THE FIBRE-PRODUCING AND TEXTILE INDUSTRIES Sang Yong Kim M.Sc., Ph.D. , P. L. Grady M.S., Ph.D. & S. P. Hersh B.S., M.S., M.A., Ph.D. Published online: 13 Jan 2009. To cite this article: Sang Yong Kim M.Sc., Ph.D. , P. L. Grady M.S., Ph.D. & S. P. Hersh B.S., M.S., M.A., Ph.D. (1983): ENERGY CONSUMPTION AND CONSERVATION IN THE FIBRE-PRODUCING AND TEXTILE INDUSTRIES, Textile Progress, 13:3, 1-14 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00405168308688996 PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae, and drug doses should be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand, or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material.

ENERGY CONSUMPTION AND CONSERVATION IN THE FIBRE-PRODUCING AND TEXTILE INDUSTRIES

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Page 1: ENERGY CONSUMPTION AND CONSERVATION IN THE FIBRE-PRODUCING AND TEXTILE INDUSTRIES

This article was downloaded by: [University of South Florida]On: 04 May 2013, At: 05:23Publisher: Taylor & FrancisInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House,37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Textile ProgressPublication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ttpr20

ENERGY CONSUMPTION AND CONSERVATION IN THEFIBRE-PRODUCING AND TEXTILE INDUSTRIESSang Yong Kim M.Sc., Ph.D. , P. L. Grady M.S., Ph.D. & S. P. Hersh B.S., M.S., M.A., Ph.D.Published online: 13 Jan 2009.

To cite this article: Sang Yong Kim M.Sc., Ph.D. , P. L. Grady M.S., Ph.D. & S. P. Hersh B.S., M.S., M.A., Ph.D. (1983): ENERGYCONSUMPTION AND CONSERVATION IN THE FIBRE-PRODUCING AND TEXTILE INDUSTRIES, Textile Progress, 13:3, 1-14

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00405168308688996

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematicreproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form toanyone is expressly forbidden.

The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contentswill be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae, and drug doses shouldbe independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims,proceedings, demand, or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly inconnection with or arising out of the use of this material.

Page 2: ENERGY CONSUMPTION AND CONSERVATION IN THE FIBRE-PRODUCING AND TEXTILE INDUSTRIES

Vol. 13 No. 3 1

TEXTILE PROGRESSENERGY CONSUMPTION AND CONSERVATION IN THE

FIBRE-PRODUCING AND TEXTILE INDUSTRIES

BySANG YONGKIM, M . S C . P H . D . , P. L. GRADY, M.S., PH.D. , andS. P. HERSH, B.S., M.S.,M.A., PH .D .

1. ENERGY USES IN THE FIBRE-PRODUCING AND TEXTILE INDUSTRIES

Energy conservation has been the most important element of world energy policy since theenergy crisis of 1973-74. The substitution of other energy sources for oil cannot remove theenergy imbalance, which significantly affects the world economy. For this and various otherpolitical, economic, environmental, and social reasons, energy conservation has been a mostimportant and necessary element of world energy policies'.

In the United States, the textile industry is one of ten major energy-consumingmanufacturing industries and consumes about 3.7% of the energy used by all industry^. Since theUnited States consumes about one-third of the energy used in the whole world̂ "̂ , the energyconsumed in the textile industry is enormous. The energy consumed by the U.S. textile andfibre-producing industries in 1972 is listed in Table 1.1"*- ̂ . From this table, it can be seen that thecellulosic-man-made-fibre segment of the industry used the least energy. Since the demand forviscose and acetate fibres is decreasing, the consumption of energy in the production of thesefibres should remain low.

Table 1.1Energy Consumption in U.S. Textile Industry in 1972

Secior Energy Consumption (10^ kWh)

Cellulosic-man-made-fibre production 21Synthetic organic-man-made-fibre production 41Textile mill products 139All industr)' 5420

According to data developed by Data Resources Inc., synthetic-fibre production grew at arate of 1.1% per year from 1974 to 1980, and it is assumed that the growth rate will be 6% duringthe 1980s^. Output from textile industrial processes, such as spinning, weaving, and finishing,was expected to increase by 14% between 1972 and 1980^. Energy usage should increase withthese expected production increases. One example is shown in Table 1.2, which is the projectionof energy consumption in the synthetic-man-made-fibre sector (except cellulose)^. From thistable, one can see that, on the basis of 1973 data, production will triple and energy consumptionwill double by 1990.

Table 1.2Projected Energy Consumption in Production of Synthetic Man-made Fibres

YearProduction(10-' Mton)

Electricity (10^ kWhJOld facilitiesNew facilities

FueUlO^'kWh)Old facilitiesNew facilities

Total flO'^kWh)Old facilitiesNew facilities

1967

1934

3.13

55.67

58.80

1973

3221

5,37

63.29

68.66

1977

4642

4.032.16

47.4725.45

51.5027.61

1980

5626

3.283.13

38.5836.92

41.9640.05

1985

7583

3.015.63

35.4566.22

38.4671.85

1990

10215

2.738.92

32.23104.89

34.96113.81

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^ Textile Progress

Because of these high energy usages and the expected growth in energy requirements, thetextile industry became one of the first industries to initiate a formal energy-conservationprogramme in 1973. Several companies, on an individual basis, had started developingprogrammes as they foresaw the increasing costs of energy.

But energy consumption per kg of synthetic fibres produced had already dropped between1958 and 1967 by a total of 42%'^. A calculation from Table 1.2 shows that, on the average,energy consumption, which was 31 kWh/kg in 1967, is expected to decrease to 14.5 kWh/kg in1990. This decrease can be attributed not only to improvements in manufacturing technology butalso to the transfer of the ceilulosic-man-made-fibre sector, which has a high energyconsumption/unit output, to the organic-synthetic-fibre sector, which is more energy-conservative^.

Table 1.3Comparative Energy Consumption in the Manufacture of Man-made Fibres

Energy Consumption (kWh/kg)

Fibre 1971 1973

ViscoseAcetate fibrePolyester fibresNylonAcrylic and modacrylic fibresOlefin fibres

40.0043.4112.8516.4730.4315.89

32.5640.7011.1813.3128.0412.27

From Table 1.3, it is evident that energy consumption per kg of viscose and acetate was morethan three times that required for the manufacture of polyester fibres and that, even in the twoyears between 1971 and 1973, energy consumption per kg of synthetic fibres decreased.

Within each of the ten highest energy-consuming industries, the FEA (Federal EnergyAdministration) identified the corporations that would consume at least 293 X 10^ kWh per yearin the U.S.A. Each of these industry groups was then assigned an energy-conservation target. Forthe synthetic-fibre industry, the target for energy conservation was 20% of 1972 consumption,and for the textile industry it was 27%'^^- .̂ Details are shown in Table 1.4.

Table 1.4Energy Usage and Component Goals in Energy Conservation for the Fibre-producing and Textile Industries

Component

Viscose and acetate fibrePolyester fibreNylonAcrylic fibrePolyolefin fibreOther synthetic fibresSpinningTexturingWeavingKnittingGreige millsFinishing (woven fabrics)Finishing (knitted fabrics)Yam-dyeingFloorcoverings manufactureSecondary processes

Energy usedin 1972

(lO'^kWh)

211414931

108817

48196

1121

Energy Usage perUnit Production

1972

40.9112.8516.4730.4315.8916.155.404.854.761.759.07

18.6720.7111.8111.4314.66

(kWh/kg)1980

36.8210.0013.5525.2612.7012.844.864.213.681.297.68

10.7713.689.128.19

11.96

Energy-efficiency

Goal

(% Reduction)

10.022.217.717.020.120.510.013.222.726.215.342.333.922.828.318.4

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Energy Consumption and Conservation in the Fibre-producing and Textile Industries - Kim et al. 3

From Table 1.4, it can be seen that the energy-efficiency target for cellulosic man-madefibres is 10%, which is one of the two lowest conservation goals among the sectors listed. Thereason is that the cellulosic-man-made-fibre processes are old, and demand for these fibres isdecreasing. The only energy-conservation method available for this group is therefore improvedhousekeeping^. Spinning also has a 10% efficiency-improvement target, since the energy-savingapproach for this process is restricted basically to quality-control improvements, fewer vacantspindle positions, fewer yam breaks, and increases in the power factors of the motors. As can beseen from Table 1.4, the second-largest user of energy per kg output is acrylic fibre. If researchcould develop a technique for melt-spinning acrylic fibres, a large additional saving would bepossible* .̂

In the textile industry, about 60% of the energy is used by dyeing and finishing operations.Improving the efficiency of the operating technology in these processes should therefore achievelarge savings.

2. ENERGY-CONSERVATION TECHNOLOGY

2,1 Approaches to Energy ConservationTo achieve its energy-conservation target, it is necessary for the industry to introduce

energy-saving techniques. Four major effective approaches in the synthetic-fibre and textileindustries are as follows^:

(a) the recovery of energy;(b) the management of energy;(c) saving energy with old processes; and(dj the development of new processes for energy-savings.

Fig. 1 indicates how the four approaches are related to the manufacturing processes. Theseconcepts of energy-saving will be discussed first for the synthetic-fibre industry and then for thetextile industry.

/SAVING ENERGY ^OLD PROCESS/

i (DEVELOP NEW PROCESS)

LABOR

/ENERGY( MANAGEME

Fig. 1Saving energy in the manufacturing process

2.2 Synthetic-fibre Industry2.2.1 General Considerations

In the synthetic-fibre industry, energy recovery means essentially energy-recycling. In mostcases, process heat is exhausted into the atmosphere - or poured down the drain. Instead ofwasting it, some processors can reclaim heat removed by mould chillers and hydraulic-pumpcoolers to augment or replace plant-heating systems in winter. For example, Essex International,of Peru, IN., U.S.A., claims a two-thirds reduction in winter-heating cost by using heat pumps inits new thermoplastic-moulding facility'^.

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4 Textile Progress

Management of energy is one of the most efficient energy-conservation approaches forreducing energy loss, by such means as raising power factors of motors or reducing peak demandin electricity.

One example of energy-saving in an established process is reducing the power required in anextrusion process by increasing output. A new screw reportedly reduces power consumption by10-15% across the board while increasing output by as much as 300% in some cases. Translatingthese gains into energy-savings shows that the cost of power per unit of output can be cut by about25% to almost 1%^^. Since process-energy costs in the synthetic-fibre industry are about 6% ofthe total production costs, saving process energy will therefore lead to a direct increase in profit.

Work reported at an American Chemical Society (ACS) Symposium in September, 1978,also confirmed that many energy-conservation approaches have been utilized in the polymer andtextile industries". Progress and prospects for energy conservation were discussed in detail interms of raw-material economics, process technology, and cost of energy. For screw extruders,the trend in the last two decades has been to introduce ever-increasing speeds and sizes ofextruders in order to obtain higher production rates with hardly any concern for energy efficiency.But the pressing energy problems in the world have created a growing concern about energyefficiency. Extrusion mechanisms, especially melting theory, have therefore been investigatedthoroughly with respect to energy efficiency.

By introducing the three approaches of energy-savings mentioned above, that is,energy-recovery, managing energy, and energy-saving with old processes, it should be possibleto conserve about 20% of the energy formerly consumed, and the effect should be evident within aperiod of between six months and three years. To increase energy-saving above 20%, thedevelopment of new processes or new technology will probably be necessary and will requirefrom seven to ten years'". This approach is thus a long-term energy-saving technique. It would bebetter and more effective, of course, to adopt both short- and long-term conservation approachesin synthetic-fibre industries to save energy.

2.2.2 Specific Company Example2.2.2.1 Introduction Among the various corporations, the energy-saving techniques of E.

I. du Pont de Nemours & Co. Inc. at Wilmington, DE., U.S.A., will be considered as anexample'^. Du Pont engineers have identified possible reductions in plant-site fuel and electricalconsumption of 7-15%. Parts of this can be accomplished immediately, but other approachesrequire capital expenditures. Fig. 2 shows that, in the ten years between 1963 and 1972, du Pont

225r

200

63 6465 66 67 68 69 7071 72

YEARSFig. 2

Relation between du Pont energy requirements and production'^

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Energy Consumption and Conservation in the Fibre-producing and Textile Industries - Kim et al. 5

production has increased by 100% while energy consumption (including electricity) has increasedby only about 50%.

The three basic approaches to energy conservation taken by du Pont were: eliminate physicalwaste, tighten-up operations, and perform a system-energy analysis.

2.2.2.2 Elimination of Physical Waste This is the most general approach to conserveenergy in heating, cooling, and lighting in plant and office buildings. The heating-and-ventilating-system controls must be reviewed to ensure that reduction of temperatures willactually accomplish what is desired. Eliminating leaks is an additional item in this approach.Steam and compressed air are wasted through flange and valve leaks. The managements of plantshaving large numbers of steam traps are naturally interested in reducing trap costs by purchasingsteam traps at the lowest possible costs to reduce the investment. Experience has shown that goodtraps, which have a long life, will more than pay for themselves. With present high fuel costs,steam costs are frequently in the range of $4.40 per 1000 kg of steam, and it does not take long foran improperly operating trap to waste its initial cost at leakage rates of only 500 kg/h.

Insulation should also be included here. Insulation is normally installed on the basis of aneconomic analysis. Standards need to be reviewed in the light of fuel-cost increases. Increasinginsulation thickness from 2.5 cm to 5 cm on 30 m of 7.5-cm steam pipe reduces heat loss from 126X 10"^ kWh h^' m-' (129 Btu h"' f r ' ) to 78 kWh h"' m"' (80 Btu h"' f r ' ) . In a year, this changecan save 8.3 bbl of fuel oil/year per 30 m of 7.5-cm pipe.

2.2.2.3 Tightening'Up of Operations A tightening-up of operations is always possible.Plants are usually designed so that they are based upon certain considerations, but it is not longbefore operations become lax. In one operation, a solvent is extracted in water and returned to adistillation column to recover the solvent. When a decrease in solvent concentration occurs, steamis wasted in boiling off the excess water. A tightening-up of these operations to the original'operating procedures' will reduce steam consumption to the expected levels.

When motors are operated at a small fraction of the full load ratings, electrical wastageoccurs. For instance, efficiency drops from about 93% at full load to 84% at half load. Fig. 3shows the relation between the power factor and the motor load. The reduction in power factorfrom 0.9 for atypical fully loaded motor to 0.79 at half load indicates arise in the ratio of reactivedemand from 1.1 to 1.25 kW. Thus more energy is required. If a machine, for example, a filamentextruder, runs with only half of the positions in use, extra pumps, fans, compressors, etc., wouldbe running. Hence, in the interest of energy conservation, full operation should be used wheneverpossible.

100

80-

! ; 60

40

20-

LCW SPEED

40 50 60 70 80 90 100

LOAD ON MOTOR (%)

Fig. 3Relation between motor load and power factor

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6 Textile Progress

Process yield is also a helpful means of monitoring the energy utilization. If a plant isdesigned to operate at 95% of capacity but is operating at 90%, then there is a production loss of5.5%. Many man-made fibres require energy inputs in the region of 9.7 kWh/kg. For a plantshipping 100 million kg/year, 5.5% waste is 5.5 million kg/year. This amounts to a waste ofenergy of 56.3 million kWh/year or just over 31 OOObblofoil. Elimination of this energy wastewould provide a substantial saving in energy and money.

222.4 System-energy Analysis Analysis of system-energy requirement is a long-rangeapproach for reducing the designed energy consumption of a process. It amounts to making acomplete review of the entire process and plant site with a goal of introducing innovations toreduce energy requirements. An example is the use of booster pumps. It frequently happens thatthe pump pressure must be increased to provide more water at a higher pressure. However, if onlya small amount of the total water is required at the higher pressure, say, for boosting to asixth-floor consumer, then booster pumps can be installed that will provide the higher head foronly that portion of the water required for this service. The same is true with air compressors. If apressure of 2000 kPa of compressed air is required for a process, there is no reason to compress allthe plant air to this pressure. It is much more economical to distribute 700 kPa of air and boost itfor 2000-kPa service on the site where needed. It takes approximately 22.4 kW (30 bhp*) per 2.7m^/min (100 ft^/min) to compress air to 2067 kPa, an increase of 50% over the 15 kW (20 bhp)required to compress air to 700 kPa (100 ^

2.3 The Textile Industry2.3.1 Wet Processing

First, some of the examples of energy-conservation research in the textile industry will beintroduced from the ACS Symposium'"*. A study of the energy-saving in cotton-ginning hasresulted in a fuel-saving of 27% by raising the drying efficiency and a fuel-saving of 30% byrecovering ginning wastes.

In sizing and desizing, an energy-saving approach was developed through introducingultrasonic desizing procedures. It has been estimated that 55-60% of the energy required by thetextile industry is used in the desizing, bleaching, dyeing, and finishing of fabrics. Thus,considerable effort has been spent on developing methods for reducing the amount of energyconsumed in the wet processing of textiles. One approach has been to increase the energyefficiency of conventional processes by introducing techniques such as improving energyconversion, recycling energy, and utilizing better mechanical techniques to extract a greaterportion of the water from wet fabrics prior to drying them.

The second approach has been to devise waterless or reduced-water techniques for applyingfinishes or colouring agents to fabrics. Waterless techniques include solvent-dyeing andsolvent-finishing, powder-dyeing, and a '100% solids' system. A continuous-foam process hasbeen developed to save energy. Durable-press finishing utilizing a foam process has been reportedto cut energy consumption by 54%. In a softening treatment of 100% flannel, the use of a foamprocess might reduce energy consumption by 78%.

The American textile industry uses approximately 125 billion* US gal (473 GL) waterannually. Much process water is discharged with appreciable quantities of organic and inorganicchemicals (dyes, pH-control agents, lubricants, surfactants, auxiliaries, oligomers, etc.), whichrequire extensive treatment of the waste water and which contribute to the pollution problemsassociated with textile processing. The pollution problem has been attacked by the construction ofwaste-treatment plants. Energy use has therefore been increased owing to the strict control ofpollution.

* Brake horsepower.

* This is the U.S. billion, i.e., 1 000 000 000.

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Energy Consumption and Conservation in the Fibre-producing and Te.xtile Industries - Kim et al. 1

Because of these requirements, new processes or process modifications must be im-plemented, especially in the two basic types of procedure used for textile coloration: pad-fix(continuous) processes and exhaust (batch) processes. When dyebath and other auxiliary baths aredischarged to the drain after a single use, considerable amounts of energy, water, and chemicalsare also wasted. To save this energy wasted in batch processes, dyebath reuse should bedeveloped. It was reported that reuse of the dyebath in dyeing nylon 6.6 pantie-hose with dispersedyes resulted in savings of 5.2% of dyes, 86% of auxiliaries, 90% of water, and 35% of energy.

More than half the energy consumption in textile finishing is attributed to drying. In general,drying can be done by both mechanical dewatering and thermal convection. The cost of removing0.3 kg of water from a 0.2-kg/m^ fabric with 150% moisture content can be separated into thefollowing steps:

0.3 -0 .15 kg ....0.257 X 10~̂ dollars squeeze rollers0.15 -0.072kg ....O.OOI x lO"* dollars vacuum slot0.072-0.00 kg ....7.2 X 10^^ dollars thermal removal

Total 7.46 X 10^ dollars/m'^ of fabric processed

The total drying cost is only 3.9% greater than that required for thermal removal, so it can besaid that the cost of thermal removal is the dominant portion of the drying cost. In this case, thedrying cost could be greatly reduced by increasing mechanical dewatering.

According to Bemet'^, energy checklists have been prepared for the oil burners, boilers,steam, air-conditioning, and electricity (illumination and power) to reduce idling, reclaim wasteheat, eliminate leaks, save petrol, etc., as a general aid to conservation. Examples of items on thechecklist for steam are leaks, insulation breakdown, condensate, reduced steam pressure, steamdemand, steam-averaging, and double use.

23.2 Dry ProcessingIn spinning, it has long been appreciated that energy, capital, and labour costs are closely

correlated. There is an inverse first-order relationship between the operating speed and capitalcost per unit of product. The power required to drive the spinning frame increases as the cube ofthe speed^^. Fig. 4 offers an example of how the relationship affects the combined cost of capitaland power for three yarn counts at 1973 prices.

2 2UJ

6 8 10 12 14 16

THOUSANDS rpm

Fig. 4Effect of spindle speed on combined cost of capital and power for ring-spinning

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° Textile Progress

Tables 2.1 and 2.2 show the power requirements for ring and open-end spinning,respectively'^ The data in Table 2.1 indicate that, although production increases with increasingspindle speed, the production per unit power, that is, energy efficiency, decreases to one-half andone-quarter as the speed increases from 13 000 to 18 000 and 24 000 r/min, respectively. Foropen-end spinning, the production efficiency decreases by 15% and 24%, respectively, when therotor speed is increased from 30 000 to 36 000 to 40 000 r/min, as shown in Table 2.2.

Table 2.1Power Requirement of a 300-spindle Spinning Frame with 4.7-cm-diameter Rings and a 21.6-cm Traverse

Spindle Speed(r/min)

13 000

18 000

24 000

Yam Linear Density(tex)

49.114.849.114.849.114.8

Power Required(kW)

16.411.946.332.8

132.888.0

Heat Generated(kW)

2.51.86.94.9

20.713.2

Table 2.2Energy Requirement ofa Toyoda Open-end-spinning Machine (200 Deliveries)

Rotor Speed Energy Required(r/min) (kWh)

30 000 16.736 000 23.540 000 29.0

In weaving, the relationship between energy, capital, and labour is simple because the powercost does not increase appreciably more than directly with speed; it is always most economical torun looms at the highest speed consistent with satisfactory mechanical and technicalperformance'^. The energy consumed in power looms is expended largely in operating thepicking, shedding, and other mechanisms, as noted in Table 2.3'^.

Table 2.3Forms of Energy Dissipation in a Power Loom*

Loom Mechanism Form of Energy Dissipation

(1) Crank and Crankshaft Friction in bearings and gears.

(2) Shedding Mechanism Bearing friction in the treadle shaft.Friction between warp yams.

(3) Lay Mechanism Bearing friction of the rocking shafts, sword pins, and crank pins.Sliding friction between reed wires and weft against warp yams.

(4) Picking Mechanism(i) Picking Stick Impact with buffer.

Frictional losses in the mechanism.(ii) Shuttle Impact with binders and picker during checking.

Friction within the shuttle boxes and in transit across the shed.

(5) All Motions Windage.

*As reported by Mohamed and Lord'''.

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Energy Consttmption and Conservation in the Fibre-producing and Textile industries - Kim et al. 9

The most important factors affecting the magnitude of the power consumption of looms are:(a) the loom width;(b) the loom speed;{c} the type of drive;(d) the mass of the shuttle and the timing and duration of the picking in the loom cycle;(e) the values of the rotating and oscillating masses; andif) the type of bearings and lubrication.

The variation in load on the motor due to the reciprocating and impulsive loads results in adecrease in motor efficiency and power factor; consequently, the power consumption andfluctuation increase. To reduce energy consumption, the actual behaviour of the loom should bemonitored accurately. Approaches for raising power efficiency can then be studied.

Energy requirements in knitting are so low that they cannot be regarded as economicallyimportant, particularly in view of the high cost of many knitting yams^°.

The texturing process is different from those considered above, indeed unique, in thatmechanical- and thermal-energy requirements are almost equal in importance. The installation ofa Best Tense Tensioning System on a texturing machine reduced power consumption byone-third^'. It also increased production by 40% and permitted some drawing on a single-heatermachine.

3. ADDITIONAL SUGGESTIONS EOR SAVING ENERGY

According to PurcelP^, energy means materials and materials mean energy. Energyconservation and materials conservation therefore go hand in hand. Purcell proposed seven majorconservation strategies for producers and users of material goods and products. They entailsocio-economic and policy components as well as technological innovations.

These strategies are:(a) make/use fewer products;(b) make more durable or reusable products;(c) make more energy-efficient products;(d) use products longer;(e) make/use lighter products by:

using fewer materials; orusing lighter-weight material;

(/) substitute less energy-intensive materials in products; and(g) recycle waste products:

to energy; orto raw materials.

Okuyama^^ stated that the ratio of energy consumed in polymerization, spinning, anddrawing in synthetic-fibre processes is 7:5:3 and that three-quarters of the energy consumed is forutilities, such as generator, water-cleaning, and nitrogen-gas manufacturing. According toOkuyama, energy-conservation techniques should be implemented for motors, electric heaters,fans, pumps, air-conditioning, cooling, and recovery of waste heat.

The energy consumption required for natural- and synthetic-fibre products can be compared,and the results could be very important for formulating energy policy. Van Winkle et al,~'^calculated the energy required to make 100% cotton, cotton-poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET)blended-fibre, and 100% PET-fibre shirts. Tables 3.1 and 3.2 present the results of this analysis.From Table 3.1 it can be seen that about 25% more energy is required to produce and manufacturea 65-35 polyester-fibre-cotton blended-fibre shirt from its raw materials than is required toproduce a 100% cotton shirt.

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10 Textile Progress

Table 3.1Comparison of Energy Requirements to Produce the Shirting Material and to Manufacture One Shirt (in kWh of

Fossil-fuel Equivalents)

Fibre production, per shirtcottonpolyester fibre

Cloth manufacture, per shirtShirt manufacture, each requiring

2.368 m" of fabric

Total

Mass of raw cotton fibre (g)Mass of raw polyester fibre (g)Mass of shirt (g)

100%Cotton

5.0

18.5

2.8

26.3

372

308

50-50PET-Cotton

2.36.5

20.2

2.8

31.8

168

136111

65-35PET-Cotton

1.58.1

20.2

2.8

32.6

113

168

268

100%PET

1L67.3

2.8

21.7

245

240

Table 3.2Comparison of Energy Requirements (in kWh) for Maintenance of Shirts through 50 Launderings by Different

Methods

Scenario 1

automatic washer,automatic dryer,electric iron

Scenario 2

" energy- and water- "saving washer, noautomatic dryer.

L electric iron

Process

WashingDryingIroning

Total

WashingDryingIroning

Total

100%Cotton

32.240.816.2

89.2

14.8

16.2

31.0

50-50PET-Cotton

15.823.25.3

44.3

8.4

5.3

13.7

65-35PET-Cotton

15.818.75.3

39.8

8.4

5.3

13.7

100%PET

15.88.9

24.7

8.4

8.4

The energy required for the laundering and maintenance of shirts is considered in Table 3.2.From this and the preceding table, it can be seen that the total energy requirement for themanufacture and maintenance of a cotton shirt is 115.5 kWh, whereas for a 65-35 polyester-fibre-cotton shirt the requirement is 72.4 kWh. Information of this type, such as details ofenergy-efficient processes and energy-efficient materials, is useful for developing a policy forconverting the structure of the textile industry and for establishing trends in fabric use. Care mustbetaken, however, to consider human-behaviour factors, such as whether the consumer would belikely to wear a shirt through 50 launderings (because it discolours, for example).

Short-term energy-saving solutions recommended by the American Apparel ManufacturersAssociation Inc. will be considered next^^. These are as follows.

(a) Establish responsibility for an energy-management programme in the person of amember of the top management of the company.

(bj Create a comprehensive list of good-housekeeping approaches, as an immediate andpractically zero-cost initial step.

(c) Create at each plant an Energy Task Force, headed by a properly qualified member ofthe local plant management.

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Energy Consumption and Conservation in the Fibre-producing and Textile Industries - Kim et al. 11

(d) Start to investigate and implement commercially available low-cost aids to conserveenergy.

(e) Under the direction of the energy supervisor for the entire company and by using themembers of each physical location's Energy Task Force, establish and implement anenergy audit for each location.

Finally, one of the summary presentations given at an energy workshop at Reston, VA.,U.S.A., in November, 1978, will be listed"^.

The probable and desirable characteristics of textile-industry manufacturing operations inthe year 2000 are as follows:

(a) materials:increased waste-recycling, conservation;increased reprocessive and material recovery (especially garment manufac-

ture);closed-loop system;

(b) energy:selected cogeneration (on-site energy generation);increased use of altemative fuels (waste, etc.);

(c) process:continuous flow;compressed (fewer unit operations);more efficient, precise manufacture;more flexible;largely automated;mix of traditional and revolutionary processes;

(d) less variety, fewer styles:individualization in finishing, not manufacture;need for lower price (less discretionary consumer income);

(e) general:increased agglomeration (fewer and larger organizations);attractive work environment;capital-intensive.

At the workshop, it was said that energy waste in the United States was 45 quads in 1979,which corresponds to more than the total energy used in 1960^^. Energy conservation is thereforean urgent task, and the approaches to conservation should be both short- and long-term, everypossible approach being tried.

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^- Textile Progress

, REFERENCESInternational Energy Agency. 'Energy Conservation in the Intemational Energy Agency 1978 Review', Organization

tor Economic Co-operation and Development, Paris, 1979, p. 7.~ D. Balmforth. 'Energy and Water Use and Conservation in the Textile Industry - A Literature Survey, 1973-1977'

(ITT Report No. 51), Institute of Textile Technology, CharioUesville, VA., U.S A 1978.-' M. Wolf Enertiy Conversion. 1974, 14, 9.•* M. Sittig. 'Practical Techniques for Saving Energy in the Chemical, Petroleum, and Metals Industries', Noyes Data

Corporation, Park Ridge, N.J., U.S.A., 1977, p. 291.^ Federal Energy Administration. 'Developing a Maximum Energy Efficiency Improvement Target for SIC 28:

Chemical and Allied, e tc . \ Batelle, Columbus, Ohio, U.S.A., 1976, p. 141.*" Federal Energy Administration. "Energy Efficiency Improvement Target in the Textile Mill Products Industry' (SIC

22), 1977. p. 10.^ Federal Energy Administration. 'Project Independence Blue Print Final Task Force Report', Vol. 3, 1974, p. (3)53.^ National Research Council. "Energy Consumption Measurement; Data Needs for Public Policy', National Academy of

Sciences, Washington, D.C., 1977, p. 44." M. Sittig. "Practical Techniques for Saving Energy in the Chemical, Petroleum, and Metals Industries', Noyes Data

Corporation, Park Ridge, N.J., U.S.A., 1977, p. 291.'° F. Eickelberg. Mod. Plastics. 1977, 54, 38." T. L. Vigo and L. J. Nowacki (Editors). "Energy Conservation in Textile and Polymer Processing' (ACS Symposium

Series 107), American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C., 1979.'" C. G. Tewksbury. 'Future Raw Materials and Energy Use in Industry - a Research Agenda', Sheraton Intemational

Conference Center, Reston, VA., U.S.A., Nov., 1978.'-* R. P. Perkins. 'Energy Conservation-Short and Long Term', E. 1. du Pont de Nemours & Co. Inc., Wilmington, DE.,

U.S.A.'"* T. L. Vigo and L. J. Nowacki (Editors). 'Energy Conservation in Textile and Polymer Processing' (ACS Symposium

Series 107). American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C.. 1979.^^ E. J. Bemet. 'Checklist of Energy Savings Suggestions for the Textile Industry' (ITT Report No. 46), Institute of

Textile Technology, Charlottesville. VA., U.S.A, 1974."" H. Catling. 'Energy in Textile Manufacture' in "Implications of Higher Energy Costs for the Textile Industry'(Shirley

Publication S13), Shirley Institute, Manchester. 1974, p. 1.'^ E. J. Bemet. "Checklist of Energy Savings Suggestions for the Textile Industry' (ITT Report No. 46), Institute of

Textile Technology, Charlottesville, VA., U.S.A., 1974."* H. Catling. "Energy in Textile Manufacture' in "Implications of Higher Energy Costs for the Textile Industry' (Shirley

Publication S13), Shirley Institute, Manchester, 1974, p. 1.''' M. H. Mohamed and P. R. Lord. J. Engng Industr.. 1977, 99, 65.^^ H. Catling. 'Energy in Textile Manufacture' in "Implicationsof Higher Energy Costs for the Textile Industry' (Shirley

Publication S13), Shirley Institute, Manchester, 1974, p. 1.-' L. W. Seidel. Text. Industr., 1977. 141, No. 4. 89.•̂^ A. H. Purcell in 'Energy Technology V (Proceedings of the Fifth Energy Technology Conference), Washington,

D.C., 1978, p. 643.- ' T. Okuyama. J. Text. Mach. Soc. Japan. 1980, 33, P3L^'^ T. L. van Winkle, J. Edeleanu, E. A. Prosser, and C. A. Walker. Amer. Sci.. 1978, 66, 280.^̂ S. L. Marshall. Bobbin. 1977, 19, Nov., 43."** BNL/DOE. Summary Presentation of Textile Panel from BNL/DOE Workshop entitled 'Future Raw Materials and

Energy Use in Industry', Sheraton Intemational Conference Center. Reston, VA., U.S.A., Nov., 1978.^̂ K. F. Weaver. "Our Energy Predicament' (A National Geographic Special Report), 1981, Feb., p. 18.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A general bibliography of references concerning energy conservation in the fibre-producingand textile industries is presented below and is classified in the following categories:

(I) General References on Energy Conservation in the Textile Industry;(II) Conservation Techniques in Specific Sectors:

(A) Man-made-fibre Production;(B) Yam Manufacture;(C) Fabric Manufacture;(D) Dyeing;(E) Finishing;(F) Apparel Industry;

(III) Use of Solar Energy.

I. General References on Energy Conservation in the Textile Industry

1 J. G. Roberts. 'Energy Audits' in 'Profitable Energy Saving in the Textile Industry' (Shiriey Publication S40), ShirleyInstitute, Manchester, 1980, p. 219.

2 B. Hazel. "The Energy Situation and the Textile Industry, Special Appraisal'. Colourage, 1980, 27, April, 15.

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Energy Consumption and Conservation in the Fibre-producing and Textile Industries - Kim et al. 13

3 J. L. Clark. 'Energy Conservation in the Textile Industry' {Georgia Institute of Technology Report), 1979.4 M. E. Denham. 'Oil Prices-What Effect on Fiber Usage?' Mod. Text. Mag.. 1980, 61, No. 1, 27.5 C. D. E. Jones. 'Energy Usage in the U.K. Textile Industry'. Canad. Text. J., 1980, 97, No. 2, 14.6 A. P. Earle. 'Energy Savings at Dominion Textile, Inc.', Canad. Text. J.. 1980, 97, No. 2, 28.7 Dan River Inc. "Energy Conservation at Dan River', Te.xt. Industr.. 1979, 143, No. 9. 61.8 D. Bowen. 'Textiles and Energy: Throwing off the "Throwaway Syndrome'". Da/VvA'evv.v/?^ .̂. 1979,9, No. 89,20.9 S. G. Cooper. The Textile Industry: Environmental Control and Energy Conservation'. Noyes Data Corporation, Park

Ridge, N.J., U.S.A., 1978.10 Wira. 'Energy Use in the Woollen and Worsted Industries' (Industrial Energy Thrift Report No. 2), U.K. Dept. of

Industry, London, 1978.11 'Energy Saving in the Wool Industry'. Dyer. 1979, 161, 21.12 C. E. Buonassisi. 'The Practical Meaning of Energy Management'. AATCC International Technical Conference,

Montreal, Canada. 1976, p. 28.13 L. A. Halliday, G. V. Barker, and R. G. Stewart. 'Energy Survey of the New Zealand Textile Industry'. WRONZ

Report No. 40, 1977.14 S. M. Suchecki. 'Energy Conservation: Opportunities Unlimited', Text. Industr., 1976, 140, No. 10, 25.15 R. D. Looper. 'Energy and Ecology'. Te.xt. Industr.. 1976, 140, No, 7, 69.16 C. D. Livengood and P. L. Grady. 'Energy Conser\'ation in Dyeing and Finishing: A Collection of Papers', School of

Textiles, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, N. C , 1979.17 Y. I. Szmuilowicz. 'Modelingof Energy Consumption of Textile Processes', M. S. Thesis, School of Textiles, North

Carolina State University, 1981.

II. Conservation Techniques in Specific SectorsA. Man-made-fibre Production1 W. Cowling. "Energy Saving in Man-made-fibre Production". Canad. Text. J.. 1980. 97, No. 2. 12.2 J. Entwistle. 'Corporate Problems and Priorities: Industrial Energy Conservation', Batelle Columbus Laboratories

Report, Batelle. Columbus, Ohio. U.S A.. 1978.3 A. D. Apostolides. 'Man-made Fibers'. Ford Foundation Energy Policy Project Report, 1976, p. 291.4 A. D. Apostolides. 'Cyclic Intermediates and Crudes: Energy Consumption in Manufacturing'. Ford Foundation

Energy Policy Project Report, 1976, p. 219.

B. Yarn Manufacture

1 N. Hammond and G. B. Peacock. 'Energy Consumption in Yam Manufacturing Processes' in 'Profitable EnergySaving in the Textile Industry' {Shirley Publication S40), 1980, p. 45.

2 F. Watson. 'Reducing Electrical Consumption of Existing Yam Twisting Machinery', Amer. Te.xt. Rep. Bull.. 1980,AT9, No. 2, 12.

3 Shirley Institute. 'Energy Use in the Spinning and Doubling (Cotton System) Sector" {Industrial Energy Thrift SchemeReport No. 6), U.K. Dept. of Industry. London, 1979.

4 M. Levecque, J. A. Battigelli. and D. Plantard. 'Fiberization Energy Conservation', U.S.P. 4,113,456 {12 Sept ,1978).

5 G. Quandt, W. Ries. and J. Richter. 'Open-end Spinning Unit Having Reduced Operating Power Requirements',U.S.P. 4,070,813 {31 Jan., 1978).

6 "Low-cost Yams Spark Air-jet Interest'. Text. World. 1978, 128, No. 2. 71.7 M. J. Collins. 'Improved Polyester Radial Tyre Yam for Material, Pollution and Energy Savings', ACS Text. Pap

Chem. Symp.. 1977, 48, 280.

C. Fabric Manufacture

1 Hatra. 'Energy Use in the Knitting Industry' {Industrial Energy Thrift Scheme Report No. 16), U.K. Dept. of Industry,London. 1979.

2 'Foam Sizing Can Halve Energy Costs, Text. World. 1980. 130, No. 3. 55.3 Shirley Institute. 'Energy Use in the Weaving {Cotton System) Sector" (Industrial Energy Thrift Scheme Report No

13), U.K. Dept. of Industry, 1979.4 W. J. Pettyjohn and W. R. Dodd. 'Relighting a Weave Room to Conserve Energy', 1978 IEEE Annual Textile Industry

Technical Conference, Atlanta, GA., U.S.A., April, 1978, p. I.5 P. E. Exbrayat and R. A. Schutz. 'Saving Energy in High-performance Sizing through High-pressure Squeezing Rolls',

in 'Third Intemational Sizing Symposium' {Shirley Publication, S29), Shirley Institute, Manchester, 1977, p. 215.6 A. C. Bullerwell. 'A Study of Power Consumption in Weaving', M.S. Thesis, School of Textiles, North Carolina State

University, 1978.

D. Dyeing

1 W. J. Marshall. 'Energy-saving Aspects of Jet Dyeing' in 'Profitable Energy Saving in the Textile Industry' (ShirleyPublication S40), Shirley Institute, Manchester, 1980. p. 75.

2 A. M. El-Nashar. 'Energy and Water Conservation through Recycle of Dyeing Wastewater Using DynamicZR(4)-PAA Membranes'. Desalination, 1980, 33, No. 1, 21.

3 F. T. Wallenberger. 'New Methods for Dyeing of Dacron/Orlon Offer Savings in Both Energy and Labor Costs' TextChem. Col.. 1979, 11, 263.

4 F. L. Cook, et al. 'Evaluation of New Energy-conserving Processes for Batch Dyeing of Polyesler/Cotton Blends'AATCC National Technical Conference, Cherry Hill, N.J., U.S.A., Oct., 1979, p. 89.

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' ^ Textile Progress

5 G. J. Parish. 'Energy Conservation on Existing Equipment', Knitt. Times. 1979, 48, No, 22, 13.6 R. Freytag. G. J. Parish, and E. A. Syson. 'Energy Problems in the Dyeing and Finishine Industry Today and

TomorTOw\ Ovf/-. 1979, 161,436.7 D. H. Wyles. 'Energy in Relation to Textile Coloration', Rev. Prog. Coloration. 1978. 9, 35.8 K. J. Lanier. 'Conserving Energy in Textile Dyeing', Amer. Text. Rep. Bull., 1979, AT8, No. 1, 17.9 F. Schlaeppi. 'Novel Approaches to Energy Conserving Dyeing and Printing Processes', Abstract of American

Chemical Society 176th Meeting, Miami Beach, FL., U.S.A., Sept., 1973, p. 13.10 W. A. Haile and M. W. Somers. 'Conserving Energy in the Jet Dyeing of Textured Polyester', Text. Chem. Col.,

1978. 10, 202.11 C. A. Brandon and F. A. Aycr. "Energy Conservation by the Renovation of High-temperature Textile Wastewater',

Symposium on Environment and Energy Conservation, Denver. Col., U.S.A., Aug., 1976, p. 476.12 W. H. Hebrank. 'Use of Computers and Automatic Controls to Reduce Energy Consumption in Dyeing and Finishing',

AATCC National Technical Conference, Atlanta, GA., U.S.A, 1977. p. 192.13 J. G. Camp,jun. 'Cut Energy Use by Manipulating Dye Machine Variables', Amer. Dye^f. Rep., 1977, 66, No. 5, 52.14 L. C. Woodall and E. F. Godshall. 'Energy Economics in a Dyehouse', Text. Industr.. 1976, 140, No. 10, 90.15 J. K. Skelly. ' Methods of Reducing Power Consumption in Coloration Industries', 7. 5t>c.Z)>'e/-5C<)/., 1976,92, 117.

E. Finishing

1 Shiriey Institute. 'Energy Use in Textile Finishing Sector' (Industrial Energy Thrift Scheme Report No. 20), U.K.Department of Industry, London, 1980.

1 K. V. Datye, K. V. Narasimhau, and V. S. Gururajan. "Energy and Its Saving in Processing House', Text. Dver &Printer. 1980, 13, July. 23.

3 R. J. Lyons. 'Foam-processing Technology, How to Save Energy and Money in Your Finishing and Dyeing With aSample: Inexpensive Conversion to Foam Processing', Amer. Dyest. Rep., 1980, 69, No. 4, 22.

4 R. S. Gregorian. "Report of the Proceedings of the Department of Energy Workshop on Energy Conservation in theTextile Industry: Foam Finishing and Dyeing Project', U.S. Departmentof Energy (DOE-TIC-10007), 1978, p. 25.

5 M. W. Duke. "Energy Conservation: Application of Foams to the Processing of Fabrics', United Merchants" andManufacturers* Report to U.S. Department of Energy, 1980, April.

6 'Project Ideas for Energy Conservation', Text. Industr.. 1979, 143, No. 11, 88.7 B. J. O'Hare. "Economic Use of Energy in Wet Processing - An Introduction', J. Soc. Dyers Col., 1979, 95, 401.8 S. M. Suchecki. 'Energy Conservation: Process . . . Equipment. . . Ttchmqnts'.Text.Industr., 1979,143,No. 9, 50.9 W. H. Hebrank. 'Drying: A Major Target for Energy Conservation', Te.xt. Industr., 1979, 143, No. 9, 66.

10 G. J. Parish. "Energy Consumption in Continuous Finishing', Te.xt. Month. 1979, Sept, 49.11 M. V. Avril. 'Foam Use in Finishing Saves Energy. Speeds Output', Amer. Dyest. Rep., 1979, 68, No. 7, 28.12 'Energy Recovery on Dryers and Drying Tenters in Finishing', Textilbetrieh. 1979. 97, No. 3, 75.13 D. E. Black and J. J. Porter. 'Energy Conservation through Wastewater Recycle on a Continuous Preparation Range",

AATCC National Technical Conference. Anaheim. CA., U.S.A.. 1978, p. 179.14 B. Wygand. 'Energy Management Programs in Textile Finishing Plants'. Knitt. Times. 1978, 47, No. 41. 21.15 J. A. Williams. 'Energy Conservation: First Get the Facts', Text. Industr.. 1978, 142, No. 5, 74.16 P. L. Gaffney. 'Energy Conservation in a Finishing Plant'. Amer. Dyest. Rep. 1977, 66, No. 5, 45.17 B.H.Freze. 'Fuel-saving Apparatus and Method for Textile Dyeing and Finishing", U.S.P. 3,994,988 (7 Dec , 1976).18 H. T. Zika and R. A. Dispaka. 'Energy-conserving Surfactant', Amer. Dyest. Rep.. 1976, 65, No. 9, 68.19 R. E. Wagner. 'Energy Conservation in Dyeing and Finishing Operations', E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Co. Inc.,

Wilmington, DE., U.S.A.. 1976.

F. Apparel Industry

1 F. T. Wallenberger. 'Dacron/Orlon Blends in Apparel-product Value: Wear Comfort, Energy Savings, andEnvironmental Aspects'. Text. Res. J. 1980, 50, 289.

2 T. L. Vigo and C. B. Hassenboehler. 'Effective Use of Textiles for Energy Conservation', Abstract of AmericanChemical Society 176th Meeting, Miami Beach, FL., U.S.A.. Sept.. 1978, p. 43.

3 K. Crippen. "Energy Efficient Textile Products', AATCC National Technical Conference, Anaheim, CA., U.S.A.1978, p. 175.

4 "Impact of Changes in the Availability and Prices of Energy and Textile Raw Materials on the Future Activities of theTextile and Clothing Industry', Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, Paris, 1976.

III. Use of Solar Energy

1 J. W. Ellington. 'Barrels of Sunlight', Text. Industr., 1979, 143, No. 10. 78.2 J. B. Trice and A. D. Chen. 'Lafrance Solar Hot Water Points the Way to Industry Programme', Awitr. Dyest. Rep.,

1978. 67, No. 12, 43.3 J. B. Trice, K. Pater, and S. A. Haas. 'Design of a Solar Energy Process Hot Water System for Textile Dyeing", 1977

IEEE Textile Industry Electrical Conference. Charlotte, N.C., U.S.A., May, 1977.4 'Solar Energy System to Provide Power for Knitting Mill in Georgia", Cainid. Text. J.. 1978, 95, No. 3, 25.5 P. L. Edwards. 'Solar Process Designs Being Readied in Four Industries (Canning, Textiles, Concrete, and Laundry)',

Energy User News. 1976, 1, No. 2, 19.6 J. B. Trice, R. J. Spera, S. A. Haas, A. A. Koepig, and R. L. McCarthy. 'Potential for Solar Energy in Dyeing and

Finishing', Amer. Dyest. Rep., 1977. 66, No. 5, 24.7 P. F. Kandor. 'Solar Energy: How soon?', Te.xt. Industr., 1976. 140, No. 10, 76.

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