Energy Policy 38 (2010) 7048–7053

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy Policy

0301-42

doi:10.1

n Corr

E-m

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enpol

Energy conservation potential in Taiwanese textile industry

Gui-Bing Hong a, Te-Li Su a, Jenq-Daw Lee b, Tsung-Chi Hsu b, Hua-Wei Chen a,n

a Department of Cosmetic Application and Management, St. Mary’s Medicine Nursing and Management College, 100, Lane. 265, Section 2, Sanxing Road, Sanxing Township, Yilan

County, Taiwanb Technology Center for Service Industries, Industrial Technology Research Institute, 195, Section 4, Chung Hsing Road, Chutung, Hsinchu, Taiwan

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:

Received 24 March 2010

Accepted 13 July 2010Available online 31 July 2010

Keywords:

Energy conservation

Textile industry

Taiwan

15/$ - see front matter & 2010 Elsevier Ltd. A

016/j.enpol.2010.07.024

esponding author. Tel.: +886 3 9897396; fax

ail address: superlemi@smc.edu.tw (H.-W. Ch

a b s t r a c t

Since Taiwan lacks sufficient self-produced energy, increasing energy efficiency and energy savings are

essential aspects of Taiwan’s energy policy. This work summarizes the energy savings implemented by

303 firms in Taiwan’s textile industry from the on-line Energy Declaration System in 2008. It was found

that the total implemented energy savings amounted to 46,074 ton of oil equivalent (TOE). The energy

saving was equivalent to 94,614 MWh of electricity, 23,686 kl of fuel oil and 4887 ton of fuel coal. It

represented a potential reduction of 143,669 ton in carbon dioxide emissions, equivalent to the annual

carbon dioxide absorption capacity of a 3848 ha plantation forest. This study summarizes energy-saving

measures for energy users and identifies the areas for making energy saving to provide an energy

efficiency baseline.

& 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

The concentration of greenhouse gases (GHG) from manufac-turing factory activities, vehicle emissions, as well as the serviceand sales sectors has increased significantly. Greenhouse gaseshave an adverse environmental impact (Saidur et al., 2009).Increasing energy efficiency is an important strategy for reducinggreenhouse gas emissions. Consequently, energy research insti-tutes and governmental energy departments in various nationsare all committed to developing methods for assessing energyefficiency; these can be used as references for policy-making.Additionally, energy utilization status can be compared amongdifferent countries to achieve the common aim of reducinggreenhouse gas emissions. Numerous analytical studies havebeen undertaken on energy auditing or energy conservation fordifferent industries, such as the iron and steel industry (Mohsenand Akash, 1998; Ross, 1987; Thollander et al., 2005; Chan et al.,2010), cement industry (Anand et al., 2006; Hasanbeigi et al.,2010), textile industry (Palanichamy and Babu, 2005), petroleumindustry (Pollio and Uchida, 1999), small and medium scaleindustries (Gruber and Brand, 1991; Priambodo and Kumar, 2001;Thollander et al., 2007), manufacturing industry (Chan et al.,2007; Fromme, 1996; Harris et al., 2000; Mukherjee, 2008;Worrell et al., 2009) and industrial/commercial/residential sectors(Anderson and Newell, 2004; Ibrik and Mahmoud, 2005; Krameret al., 1999; Lang and Huang, 1993; Sardianou, 2007; Steg, 2008).

ll rights reserved.

: +886 3 9890917.

en).

There are additional studies that recommend improving energyefficiency with the help of energy conservation techniques (Bloket al., 1993; Lang and Huang, 1993), by heavy investment ininfrastructure (Lin, 2007) or through energy management (Caffal,1995; Christoffersen et al., 2006; Thollander and Ottosson, 2010).Increasing energy efficiency is the most direct means of reducingGHG emissions (Mohsen and Akash, 1998). Little or no investmentis needed to achieve a 10–30% reduction in greenhouse gasemissions (Ghaddar and Mezher, 1999; IPCC, 1996). If energyusers are willing to adopt improved technology, or governmentincentives are implemented, emissions can be further reduced(Priambodo and Kumar, 2001).

To alleviate the adverse environmental impact (such as globalclimate change and global warming), the United Nations passedthe Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC) in 1992with the aim of building international cooperation to limitgreenhouse gas emissions (IEA, 2006b). In December 1997, theKyoto Protocol1 was signed during the third Session of theConference of the Parties to the United Nations FrameworkConvention on Climate Change. The Kyoto Protocol specifies thatfor the nations which have signed and ratified the protocol,overall emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrousoxide (N2O) must be reduced by 6–8% below the 1990 levelsduring the commitment period, namely 2008–2012 (Kramer et al.,1999). For these reasons, Taiwan’s government has alsoactively promoted the concept of saving energy and implemented

1 The Kyoto Protocol is a protocol to the United Nations Framework

Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC or FCCC), aimed at fighting global

warming.

Non-industrial42.8%

Others 0.6%

Electronics14.3%

Iron and Steel11.4%

Cement 5.8%

Chemical 55.8%

Industrial57.2%

Pulp and Paper2.2%

Food andBeverage 2.0%

Textiles 8.0%

G.-B. Hong et al. / Energy Policy 38 (2010) 7048–7053 7049

energy-saving measures. According to the ‘‘Energy ManagementLaw’’ of Taiwan, energy users should observe the regulationspromulgated by the central authority to conduct an energy audit,and set an energy conservation target and action plan. Energyusers can declare the energy use status and energy savingimplemented every year by the on-line Energy DeclarationSystem2 which was developed by Industrial Technology ResearchInstitute (ITRI) and initiated in 1986. This work aims to examinewhat Taiwan has done in the past in energy conservation andalso describes the current energy conservation situation in theTaiwanese textile industry. In addition, a comprehensive and easyto understand perspective on Taiwanese textile producers as wellas policy makers, regarding the effectiveness of some energyconservation measures, is given in this paper.

Fig. 1. 2008 Energy use in Taiwan.

Source: bureau of energy website.

Table 1Energy use summary of Taiwanese textile industry.

Year Energy type (million TOEa)

Electricity Steam coal Fuel oil NG Summation

2004 3.69 0.80 1.20 0.04 5.732005 3.37 0.78 1.09 0.04 5.282006 3.31 0.77 0.99 0.04 5.112007 3.20 0.95 0.95 0.04 5.142008 2.85 0.90 0.74 0.04 4.53

a TOE: tonne of oil equivalent.

1.16E-02

2. Energy situation in Taiwan

2.1. Energy use structure

Taiwan has extremely limited coal and petroleum resources,although it does have abundant hydro resources and natural gas.New energy developments (including geothermal, wind, solar,bio-energy, ocean temperature difference, and so on) cannotcompensate for the lack of energy resources in Taiwan. Taiwandepends on imports for approximately 97.9% of its primaryenergy, with rapid economic development having rapidly in-creased energy and electricity demand. National total energy usewas estimated at 99.5 million TOE in 2008, having increased by8.1% from the 2004 figure. The industrial sector accounted for57.2% of the national total energy use, and energy-intensiveindustries, such as: iron and steel, chemicals, textiles andelectronics accounted for 89.5% of total industrial sector energyuse, as shown in Fig. 1.

1.10E-02

1.12E-02

1.14E-02

2004Year

E/G

OV

(LO

E/$

)

2005 2006 2007 2008

Fig. 2. The energy intensity (E/GOV) of textile industry, 2004–2008.

2.2. Energy utilization status in the Taiwanese textile industry

In 2008, Taiwan’s textile industry consumed 4.5 million TOEfor its total annual production. In comparison with 2007, the ratedecreased by 11.7%. Meanwhile, the entire industrial sectorconsumed 56.9 million TOE, for a decrease of merely 1.8%.Table 1 shows that the ratio of the textile industry’s energy usecompared to the entire industrial sector energy use decreased. Anaverage energy use in the industrial sector increased by 3.2%,while an average textile industry energy use decreased by 5.2%during 2004–2008 (Bureau of Energy website). In fact, energy useby the textile industry was reduced from 11.4% of total industryenergy use in 2004 to 8.0% in 2008. This phenomenon wasinduced by the reduction in the number of companies in Taiwan,since the textile industry in China has risen sharply in recentyears.

In comparison with 2007, energy use in 2008 was decreased11.7%, predominantly in the form of electricity and steam coal, asshown in Table 1. Energy intensity, defined as energy use percapita divided by gross domestic product (GDP) per capita(E/GDP) or energy use per unit of GDP (E/GOV), a measure ofthe energy efficiency of a nation’s economy, is used to compareenergy use and efficiency trends (Brown-Santirso and Thornly,2006). E/GOV in this study is calculated as units of energy (E) perunit of gross output value (GOV); E/GDP stands for the units of

2 The on-line Energy Declaration System is a website which is established by

the Industrial Technology Research Institute (ITRI of Taiwan). Energy users can

declare the energy use status and energy saving potential per year for the

reference of the government.

energy (E) per unit of GDP in the textile industry. Figs. 2 and 3show the energy intensity of the textile industry in recent years. Itcan be seen that the energy intensity of Taiwanese textile industrywas 1.137� E�2 (E/GOV) and 2.63� E�2 (E/GDP) LOE per NTdollar3 in 2008, having increased by 1.4% and 1.3%, respectively,compared with 2007. The reason for worse energy efficiency in2008 compared to 2007 was the negative influence of the globalfinancial tsunami. In addition to the general objective of savingenergy to offset rising coal and oil prices, the improving energyefficiency is also due to the increasing price of various textileproducts.

3 The New Taiwan dollar (NT dollar), or simply Taiwan dollar, is the official

currency of the Taiwan Area of the Republic of China (ROC) since 1949.

2.4E-02

2.5E-02

2.6E-02

2.7E-02

2.8E-02

2.9E-02

2004Year

E/G

DP

(LO

E/$

)

2005 2006 2007 2008

Fig. 3. The energy intensity (E/GDP) of textile industry, 2004–2008.

Fig. 4. The production trend of textile products.

G.-B. Hong et al. / Energy Policy 38 (2010) 7048–70537050

2.3. Energy declaration system

The purpose of the energy declaration system was to analyzethe energy audit declaration data of the energy users, so that thegovernment could use them as reference for energy conservationpolicy-making. At the same time, the data from the energydeclaration system could help energy users: to establish anenergy conservation schedule, search for energy conservationopportunities and set energy conservation goals. According to the‘‘Energy Management Law’’ of Taiwan, energy users shouldobserve the regulations promulgated by the central authority toconduct an energy audit, as well as set an energy conservationtarget and action plan. Besides, energy users need to declare theirenergy use status and energy-saving measures implementedevery year, via the on-line Energy Declaration System. Accordingto this system, we can readily determine total energy conserva-tion and estimate the effect of greenhouse gas reduction onindividual industrial circles and macroeconomics. The targets ofthe energy declaration system follow:

Fig. 5. The price trend of textile products.

(1) Assist energy users to construct an energy managementsystem as well as accomplish an energy audit declaration andpreparedness.

(2)

Collect data on actual industrial energy conservation mea-sures for all years.

(3)

Establish an on-site energy audit database of energy users tounderstand the energy use situation, energy use per productunit, energy use of equipment and an energy saving potentialof energy users.

(4)

Establish the energy efficiency index database of the entirenation, and to collect current data on industrial energyintensity indicators.

(5)

Establish an Energy Information Network and provide energy-saving measures, domestic and foreign energy news/laws/regulations or information concerning energy auditing.

(6)

Accomplish the cost-effectiveness analysis for the usage ofenergy conservation equipment and technologies in energy-intensive industries.

4 Global financial tsunami: the American financial crisis has sent shockwaves

throughout Asia from 2008 as governments, banks and corporations scramble to

cope with plunging share prices, international financial turmoil and the prospects

of a serious downturn in the US and other major economies.

3. Textile production and price analysis

The main products of textile industry in Taiwan are polyesterfilament yarn, polyester textured yarn and polyester texturedyarn fabrics. After the feverish construction for the BeijingOlympics slowed down, and the negative influence of the global

financial tsunami4 in 2008, the production of textile productsdecreased and the inventory increased significantly, as shown inFig. 4. The production of polyester filament yarn, nylon filamentyarn, nylon draw textured yarn and polyester textured yarndecreased by 15.7%, 13.7%, 4.6% and 12.0%, respectively, comparedwith 2007. Likewise, cotton fabrics, polyester textured yarnfabrics, nylon textured yarn fabrics and man-made spun fabricsproduction also decreased 16.2%, 12.0%, 14.9% and 15.3%,respectively, compared with 2007.

Textile product is a synthetic polymer made of purifiedterephthalic acid (PTA) or its dimethyl ester dimethyl terephtha-late (DMT) and monoethylene glycol (MEG). The price of textileproduct is influenced by the international crude oil price. After thefinancial typhoon in 2008, the price of petrochemical materialswas influenced by the fluctuations in the international crude oilprices, causing serious inventory increase of the raw materials

200

250

300

and

yard

Average value

G.-B. Hong et al. / Energy Policy 38 (2010) 7048–7053 7051

(PTA, DMT and MEG). Fig. 5 shows the unit price trend of thetextile products. The unit price of nylon filament and nylontextured yarn in 2008 decreased by 1.9% and 1.7%, respectively,compared with 2007. On the contrary, polyester staple fiber,cotton fabrics, polyester textured yarn fabrics, nylon texturedyarn fabrics and man-made spun fabric prices increased 6.0%,5.1%, 6.6%, 9.0% and 15.4%, respectively, compared with 2007.

0

50

100

150

0No. of machines

LOE

/thou

s

10 20 30 40 50 60

Fig. 6. The energy efficiency distribution of the stenter setting machine.

Source: bureau of Energy website.

4. Energy conservation for the textile industry

4.1. Energy efficiency analysis

The main electricity energy use equipment includes: dynamicfacilities, air compressors, spinning frames and refrigerators,which are responsible for 57.0%, 17.0%, 5.4% and 1.0%, respec-tively, of total energy use (Chan et al., 2007). The main thermalenergy use equipments are steam boilers, thermal oil boilers anddyeing machines.

(a)

Air compressorThree types in common used are: reciprocal type, screw typeand centrifugal type. For most applications, flow and pressureconsiderations will restrict the choice of compressor, withcost (and hopefully efficiency) being the determining factors(Falkner, 2009). During the air compressor operation process,only 60% of the total energy input is applied to themanufacturing process, 30% energy consumption is surgeand leakage and the other 10% wasted is caused by poorcontrol. In general, the compressor has to work more than itought to, in order to maintain pressure in the compressed airline, which leads to a higher electricity consumption than isnecessary. Therefore, system controls are one of the mostimportant elements of a compressed air system, and also acentral factor in air compressor system efficiency.

(b)

Spinning framesThe yarn manufacturing process includes: mowing, carding,combing, ironing, roving, spinning and vending. In the steps ofyarn production, the staple fibers are fed to the spinningframes, after passing through the blow room (opening andcleaning) and the carding frame, drawing frame and flyer(separation of individual fibers, parallelization and formationof a fiber tape). The finished yarn is produced by drawing androtating operations. The spinning step accounts for 55.6% oftotal energy use in the yarn manufacturing process. Energyuse of spinning frames is high due to conventional drivesystems in different sections of the machine. High-speedspinning frames with modified system, including: motor drivesystem, transmission of motion and spindle drive systemprovide significant improvement in energy conservationalong with reduction in noise level and vibration (Basuet al., 2003).

(c)

RefrigeratorsThere are a wide range of refrigerators available, dependingon style and use. Energy use per unit product is significantlyinfluenced by the efficiency of the refrigerators. The efficiencyof the old equipment is around 0.8–1.1 kWh/RT (RefrigerationTon) with appropriate chiller capacity. If old equipment isreplaced with a high efficiency type (0.6–0.65 kWh/RT), theenergy conservation potential should be over 25%.

(d)

5 Denier is a unit of measure for the linear mass density of fibers. It is defined

as the mass in grams per 9000 m.

Dyeing machinesNowadays, overflow dyeing machines are still being widelyused in the knitted fabrics segment. The conventional over-flow machines consume a large amount of water, electricity,steam and chemicals, which lead to high cost of wastewatertreatment, as well as serious environmental pollution. If old

equipment was replaced with new type (high-speed dyeingmachine), heating steam energy would be saved by a smalldye bath rate realized by circulating the cloth at a high speed,and increasing its contact with the dyestuff. Therefore, with ahigh-speed dyeing machine equipped with an inverter typevariable-speed pump, which generates a power consumptionvariable in function of the torque of the motor, the energysaving potential could reach 20–40%.

(e)

False twist machineFor the false twist machine, the energy efficiency depends onoperating schedules, maintenance, machine vintage and otherfactors with negligible impact on energy efficiency. In general,the energy efficiency of the false twist machine is between646 and 2152 kWh (kilowatt per hour) per metric tons for 75denier5 product, 557–924 kWh per metric tons for 150 denierproduct and 469–1400 kWh per metric tons for 300 denierproduct.

(f)

Stenter setting machineA stenter setting machine provides fabric stability, preventingit from shrinking. The machine is mainly used in the stentingand heat setting of pure cotton, polyester cotton and otherblended fabrics, as well as various knitted fabrics. Eachprocessing station comprises several regulating units and awinding device. Energy use of the stenter setting machine isusually determined by the efficiency of the thermal oil boiler.At present, the energy efficiency of the stenter settingmachine is around 85.6 LOE per thousand yard textileproduct. In general, the discharge temperature of the stentersetting machine is around 170 1C and the operating tempera-ture setting is about 200 1C. This will cause 90% heat loss intothe atmosphere. However, for the newest type stenter settingmachine, the energy efficiency will be reduced to 60 LOE perthousand yard textile product, if the operating temperaturesetting is under 180 1C. Fig. 6 shows the energy efficiencydistribution of the stenter setting machine.

4.2. Energy conservation technologies in textile industry

The energy conservation technology and potential for thetextile industry can be categorized according to the supportand production process based on the article by Trygg and

Table 2Total energy saving for Taiwanese textile industry in 2008.

Energy saving items

Energy saving

Electricity (MWh) Fuel oil (kiloliters) Steam coal (ton) Summation (TOE)

Process control system 27,360 4156 4223 12,644 08

Air conditioning system 26,473 – – 5919

Air compressor system 17,820 – – 3985

Lighting system 4642 – – 1038

Motor system 6229 – – 1393

Electrical system 8991 – – 2010

Boiler system 1401 17,816 664 17,129

Others 1698 1714 – 1957

Summarynn 94,614 23,686 4887 46,074

n Heat value transfer: 1 kWh¼2236 kcal; 1 l fuel oil¼9200 kcal; 1 kg steam coal¼6400 kcal; 1 TOE¼41.868 GJ¼10 Gcal.nn The summary results of the energy saving data.

Table 3Carbon dioxide emission coefficientsa.

G.-B. Hong et al. / Energy Policy 38 (2010) 7048–70537052

Karlsson (2005). The production processes produce products,while the support processes support production.

Source of

energy

Carbon dioxide emission

coefficient (kg-C/GJ)

Carbon dioxide emission

coefficient (ton-CO2/KLOE)

(1)

Electricity – 2.78b

Fuel oil 21.1 2.86

Steam coal 25.8 3.53

a Data source: 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories,

2006.b This is a Taiwan reference on the mix of power plants.

Table 4CO2 reduction potential by textile firms in 2008.

Energy saving items Carbon dioxide saving (ton-CO2)

Process control system 40,742

Air conditioning system 17,887

Air compressor system 12,040

Lighting system 3136

Motor system 4209

Electrical system 6075

Boiler system 53,531

Others 6049

Summation (ton-CO2) 143,669

Support process(a) Air conditioning system

Reduce the use of cooling water under low load andincrease the cold water outlet temperature setting.

(b) Air compressor systemA well-known problem with air compressor systems isleakage. Leakage means that the compressor has to workmore than it ought to in order to maintain pressure in thecompressed air line, which leads to a higher electricityconsumption than is necessary (Trygg and Karlsson,2005). If an air compressor system is converted to asystem with electrically powered tools, an air-free chilleris installed and a screw type air compressor is used toreplace the centrifugal type, the coefficient of utilizationwould be raised.

(c) Lighting systemIf daylight is used as an alternative light source, lightingenergy consumption would be reduced (Kim and Kim,2007). Moreover when traditional fluorescent lighting isreplaced with high frequency (HF) fluorescent lighting, ormercury lighting is changed to high-pressure sodium orceramic metal lamp; this should also save lighting energy.

(d) Fans, pumps and motorsElectricity use should be saved if the motor is switched toan energy-efficient motor-driven system. Moreover vari-able frequency drives are an excellent choice for adjus-table-speed drive users, because they allow operators tofine-tune processes, while reducing costs for energy andequipment maintenance in the heating, ventilating andair-conditioning of buildings (Jayamaha, 2006; Teitelet al., 2008). The electricity usage could be reduced ifmotors are combined with frequency control.

(2)

Production process(a) Process control system

Fuel oils and electricity should be saved if high-speeddyeing machines and high-speed spinning frames areused. If idle machines are monitored or operating hoursreduced, this also could reduce energy use. By the way,old equipment should be upgraded or replaced as this is acost effective method in terms of energy saved and lowercosts.

(b) Electrical systemThe total capacity could be decreased and still meetthe demands of production, since the capacities of energyusers were over-dimensioned. Furthermore, the power

factor can be improved on the low-voltage side. Energy-saving measures are adopted for the power converter.

(c) Boiler systemAdding inverters to blowers of the boiler could saveelectricity. Other energy conservation measures such ascontrolling the discharge oxygen concentration andminimizing excess air, recycling the cooling water andwaste heat, and lowering the discharge temperature tobelow the original design setting, are effective.

5. Results and discussion

According to the ‘‘Energy Management Law’’ of Taiwan, energyusers should observe the regulations promulgated by the centralauthority to conduct an energy audit, as well as set up an energyconservation target and an action plan. Energy users can declarethe energy use status and energy saving implemented every yearvia the on-line Energy Declaration System. The energy savingimplemented in 2008 of 303 textile producers was 94,614 MWhof electricity, 23,686 kl of fuel oil and 4887 ton of fuel coal. Thetotal energy saving implemented thus was 46,074 TOE, as listed in

G.-B. Hong et al. / Energy Policy 38 (2010) 7048–7053 7053

Table 2. Based on the CO2 emission coefficients listed in Table 3,it is estimated that the total CO2 reduction potential was143,669 ton, as listed in Table 4. From the perspective ofCO2 reduction, the greatest potential for CO2 reduction lies withboiler, process control and air conditioning systems, whichpotentially comprise 78.1% of total CO2 reduction. Forests arecrucial in the global carbon (C) cycle. Tree growth provides animportant means of capturing and storing atmospheric CO2 inbiomass. According to Lasco et al. (2002), plants have the followingCO2 absorbing capability: tree plantations (10.09 tC/ha/yr)ococonut (4.78 tC/ha/yr)obrush land (4.29 tC/ha/yr)onaturalforest (0.92 tC/ha/yr). The energy saving implemented from theon-line Energy Declaration System, thus, is equivalent to the annualCO2 absorption capacity of 3848 ha of plantation forest or 42,206 haof natural forest.

6. Conclusions

Taiwan must conform to the Kyoto Protocol in the future.Preparations must be made. The Bureau of Energy of the Ministryof Economics Affairs6 has taken substantial preparatory measures andestablished an energy audit group and on-line Energy DeclarationSystem to help energy users enhance energy efficiency, reduce CO2

emissions and promote energy savings by all industrial sectors. Theenergy saving implemented from the on-line Energy DeclarationSystem in 2008 of 303 textile producers was around 46.1 kton of oilequivalent, equivalent to a 143.7 kton potential reduction in carbondioxide emissions. Annual carbon dioxide reduction would be around1.0% of energy use in the textile industry, representing the annualcarbon dioxide absorption capacity of a 3848 ha forest plantation.

Acknowledgment

The authors would like to thank the Bureau of Energy, Ministryof Economic Affairs, Taiwan, for financially supporting thisresearch under Contract no. 9455CE1210. The anonymousreviewers are also appreciated for their comments.

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