Electronics Engineering (Survival Kit)

7/27/2019 Electronics Engineering (Survival Kit)

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4. Pentodea. A thermionic valve which has five electrodes (anode, cathode,

control grid, screen and suppressor grid)

5. Beam Power Tubea. An electron-beam tube built so that directed electron beams

contribute substantially to its power handling capacity.

Vacuum Tube Coefficients1. Amplification Factor()

The ratio of the change in anode voltage of an electron tube to a

change in control electrode (grid) voltage that produces the samechange in anode current when other voltages and current are heldconstant.

2. Plate Resistance (rp)

The circuit resistance of the internal plate to cathode circuit

3. Transconductance (gm)

It is the ratio of a change in anode current with respect to a change

in control grid voltage.

SEMICONDUCTOR FUNDAMENTALS

An atom is the smallest particle of an element that still retains the

characteristics of that element

Atomus in Greek meaning invisible

Consists of positively charged particles and uncharged particles

Basic particles of negative charge.

An atom or molecule that has been electrically unbalanced by the loss or

gain of one or more electrons.

An atom that has lost an electron

An atom that has gained an electron

Are formed when the electron in the outer shell of an atom gains sufficient

energy from the surrounding media and break away from the parent atom.

Broad Categories of Materials

1. Conductor any material that will support a generous flow of chargewhen a voltage source of limited magnitude is applied across itsterminals.

2. Insulator a material that offers a very low level of conductivity underpressure form an applied voltage source.

3. Semiconductor a material that has a conductivity level somewherebetween an insulator and a conductor.

a. A class of material whose electrical properties lie between theextremes of conductors and insulators.

Element Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge)

Compound Glaium Arsenide (GaAs)

Semiconductor whose electrical properties are dependent on semiconductor

added to the semiconductor crystals.

Impurity that gives up electrons

Impurity that accepts electrons

The process of adding

impurity elements toincrease the number offree charges that can bemoved by an externallyapplied voltage.

ATOMS

NUCLEUS

ELECTRONS

OIN

POSISTIVE ION

NEGATIVE ION

FREE ELECTRONS

INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

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DONOR IMPURITY

ACCEPTOR IMPURITY

DOPING

A semiconductor whose density of hole concentration in the valence band

exceeded by the density of electrons in the conductor band.

Pentavalent Impurities (Donor Atom) N-type1. Phosphorous (P) z = 152. Antimony (Sb) z = 513. Arsenic (As) z = 33

*Majority carrier is Electrons

A form of semiconductor material whose electron density in the conduction

band is exceeded by the density of holes in the valence band

Trivalent Impurities (Acceptor Atom) P-type1. Boron (B) z = 52. Aluminum (Al) z = 133. Gallium z = 314. Indium (I) z = 49

*Majority carrier is Hole

The tendency of an atom to share electrons with their neighboring atoms to

achieve stable condition

The merging of a free moving and spatially separated electrons and holes,

stopping their movement and current carrying capability.

The amount of time between the creations and disappearance of free

electrons.

A two-terminal semiconductor device that exhibit a nonlinear current voltage

characteristics.

In the absence of an applied bias voltage, the net flow of charge in any

direction for a semiconductor is zero.

The current that exists under the Reversed biased condition which is a

function of temperature alone.

The semiconductor diode condition where the association of p-type and n-

type material has been established.

Diode Parameters

The maximum reverse voltage that a diode can with stand without destroying

the junction.

Current that flows through a RB diode caused by thermally produced minority

carriers.

Caused by surface impurities and imperfection in the crystal structure.

DIODE CIRCUITS AND APPLICATIONS1. Clipping Circuit

a. Limiter (clipper)i. A diode circuit whose output is a function of the

instantaneous input amplitude for a range of values betweenpredetermined limits.

ii. A diode network that have the ability to clip off a portion ofthe input signal without distorting the remaining part of the

alternatingwaveform.

Two Categories1.Series Limiter the

diode appears asseries element

2.Parallel Limiter thediode appears as ashunt element

N TYPE MATERIAL

P TYPE MATERIAL

COVALENT BONDING

RECOMBINATION

LIFETIME

SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

UNBIASED DIODECONDITION

REVERSE SATURATIONCURRENT (Is)

FORWARD BIASEDCONDITION

PEAK INVERSE VOLTAGE(PIV)

REVERSE SATURATIONCURRENT (RSC)

SURFACE LEAKAGECURRENT

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Methods of determining the output waveform of a clipper1. Determine the output waveform without the effect of the diode by:

a. Shorting the diode for series limiterb. Opening the diode for parallel limiter.

2. Determine the clipping line

a. For series limiter, clipping line is at the abscissab. For parallel limiter, clipping line is the output reflection of the

voltage source if there is no voltage source present; the clippingline is at the abscissa.

3. Inspect the position of the diodea. For series limiters, if the arrow head of the diode is:

i. Pointing to the right the output waveform is above theclipping line.

ii. Pointing to the left, the output waveform is below theclipping line.

b. For parallel limiters, the procedure is:i. Pointing upward, the output waveform is above the

clipping line.

ii. Pointing downward, the output waveform is below theclipping line.

4. For double diode clippers, the procedure is:a. Determine the output waveform without the effect of the diodes.b. Draw the clipping lines as dictated by the voltage sources.c. The resulting waveform is between the two clipping lines.

A circuit that shifts the DC level of the input signal

Is two or more peak detectors or peak rectifiers that produce a dc voltage

equal to a multiple of the peak voltage.

A rectifier that gives approximately double the output voltage of a

conventional half-wave rectifier by charging a capacitor during the normallywasted half-cycle and discharging it in series with the output voltage duringthe next half-cycle.

A type of diode circuit that converts alternating current into a current with a

large unidirectional component (DC)

A rectifier circuit consisting of a transformer with a single diode in the

secondary circuit that conduct current during positive or negative half-cycleof input AC signal at a rate determined by the input frequency.

The maximum allowable instantaneous reverse voltage that may be applied

across the diode.

Advantages of half wave rectifier1. simplicity2. low cost3. requires only one diode and can be used with or without transformer

Disadvantages of half wave rectifier1. it is very efficient since only half of the input is used2. average output voltage is low3. ripple frequency is hard to filter

Employs two diode and a

center tappedtransformers enablingcurrent to conduct throughthe load during both half

cycle of input voltage

A bridge arrangement of

four diodes providing fullwave rectification of thefull secondary voltage ofthe power transformerconsequently, eliminatinga center tappedsecondary.

Advantages of full waverectifier

1. it is more efficientsince it operates onboth half cycle of thesine wave

2. ripple frequency iseasier to filter

3. since the current sinthe halves of thetransformersecondary areopposite, there is noproblem with DC coresaturation.

.

CLAMPER OR DC RESTORER

VOLTAGE MULTIPLIER

HALF-WAVE VOLTAGEDOUBLER

DIODE RECTIFIER

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HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

PEAK INVERSE VOLTAGE(PIV)

FULL WAVE RECTIFIER (CENTER TAPPED)

FULL WAVEBRIDGE RECTIFIER

Disadvantages of full wave rectifier1. it requires a center tapped transformer2. diodes require higher PIV rating3. for a given transformer, the peak voltage requirement is lower in the full

wave rectifier than in the half-wave.

Changes the available electrical energy (usually AC) to the form required by

the various within the system (DC).

Changes the line voltage to the desired AC voltage with little loss of power

Its function is to transform the AC voltage to DC voltage

Smoothens the output of the rectifier so that the DC voltage is relatively freeof ripple.

To provide a DC voltage of minimum ripple content

The AC component of the output waveform

Holds the DC output voltage constant, regardless of changes in the load or

input voltage.

Filters1. Capacitor Filter2. RC Filter used to further reduce the amount of ripple across the filter

capacitor while reducing the DC voltage

Its ability to hold the output under conditions of changing input or changing

load

Special Purpose Diodes1. Light Emitting Diode (LED) a semiconductor PN junction that when

forward biased, emits light at a wavelength that is a function of itsmaterial and dopants.

Typical AverageForward Current 10mA to 20mATypical ForwardVoltage 2.2 V to 3 V

2. Photodiode asemiconductor PN

junction device whoseregion of operation islimited to the RBregion. Theapplication of light tothe junction will resultin a transfer of energyfrom the incidenttravelling waves (inthe form of photons)to the atomic structureresulting in an

increase number ofminority carrier and inreturn increase thelevel of reversecurrent.

3. Optoisolator asolid state device thatprovide high electricalisolation by convertingthe input signal tolight emission andreconverting it to anelectrical signal.

4. Schottky Diode (HotBarrier or SurfaceBarrier) asemiconductor diodeformed by contactbetween asemiconductor layerand metal contact; ithas a non-linearrectifyingcharacteristic.

5. Zener Diode asilicon PN junction of

reference diode thatprovides a specifiedreverse referencevoltage when it isoperated into itsreverse-biasavalanche breakdownregion. It exhibits asharp reversebreakdown at lessthan 6V.

6. Tunnel Diode - aheavily doped junctiondiode that hasnegative resistance inthe forward directionover a portion of itsoperating range, dueto quantummechanical tunneling.

7. Varactor Diode aPN semiconductordiode whosecapacitance varies

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with the applied voltage. It is variable-reactance tuning element inoscillator and amplifier circuits, including parametric amplifiers.

Advantages of Transistor over Vacuum Tubes1. smaller and light weight2. has no heater requirement or heater3. has rugged construction4. it is more efficient since less power is absorbed by the device itself5. it is instantly available for use; requiring no warm-up period6. lower operating voltages are possible.

POWER SUPPLY

TRANSFORMER

RECTIFIER

FILTER

REGULATOR

RIPPLE

REGULATOR

REGULATION OF A POWER SUPPLY

Transistor BaseConfiguration

1. Common BaseConfiguration

a. The inputsignal isapplied at theemitter, theoutput istaken at thecollector and

the base isthe commonterminal.

b. Very low inputimpedance

In the dc mode the levels

of IC and IE due tomajority carrier are relatedby a quantity of alpha.The ratio of a smallchange in IC to smallchange in IE.

2. Common EmitterConfiguration

a. The input isapplied at thebase, theamplifiedoutput istaken fromthe collector,and theemitter is thecommon

terminal.b. The best

combinationof current andvoltages gain

In the DC mode the levels

of IC and IB are related bythe quantity beta. Theratio of a small change inIC to a small change in IBand is also calledcommon-emitter forward

current amplificationfactor.

3. Common CollectorConfiguration

a. The inputapplied at thebase, the

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output taken at the terminal and the collector is the commonterminal.

b. This is often used for impedance matching

Forward current gain in common collector configuration

Comparison of Amplifier ConfigurationsCharacteristics Common Common CommonBase Emitter Collector

Power Gain MODERATE HIGHEST MODERATEVoltage Gain HIGHEST MODERATE LOWEST

(Less than 1)Current Gain LOWEST MODERATE HIGHEST

(Less than 1)Input Impedance LOWEST MODERATE HIGHESTOutput Impedance HIGHEST MODERATE LOWESTPhase Inversion NONE 180 OUT OF

PHASEApplication RF AMP UNIVERASAL ISOLATION

Regions of Transistor Action:1. Active Region emitter-to-base junction is forward biased and the

collector-base-to-base junction is reverse biased.2. Saturation Region both junctions are forward biased, amplifier3. Cut Off Region both junctions are forward biased

Transistor Biasing

An electrical, mechanical or magnetic force applied to a device to establish a

desired electrical or mechanical reference level for its operation

Is a DC voltage or current that sets the operating point for amplifying the AC

signal.

Reasons for biasing1. To turn ON the device2. To place it in operation in the region of its characteristics where the

device operates most linearly.

Types of Bias Circuits1. Fixed Bias is taken from a battery or power supply2. Self Bias (Emitter-Stabilized Bias) the amplifier produces its own DC

voltage from an IR drop across a resistor in the return circuit of thecommon terminal.

3. Voltage Divider Bias the most stable type of biasing

4. Signal Bias the AC signal produces its own bias by rectification in theinput circuit of the amplifier.

ALPHA ()

BETA ()

GAMMA ()

BIAS

AMPLIFIERS

A circuits designed to

increase the amplitude orlevel of an electronicsignal

Classification of Amplifiers:

I. According to Functiona. Voltage

amplifierb. Current

amplifierc. Power

amplifierII. According to

Configuration

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a. Common base amplifierb. Common collector amplifierc. Common emitter amplifier

III. According to class of operationa. Class A amplifierb. Class B amplifierc. Class C amplifierd. Class AB amplifier

Comparison of Amplifier Classes

Class A Class B Class C Class AB

Efficiency 50% 78.5% 100% BetweenA and B

Conduction 360 180 180 BetweenAngle A and B

Distortion LOW HIGH EXTREME MODERATEBias (Base LINEAR CUT-OFF BELOW ABOVE

Emitter) PORTION CUT-OFF CUT-OFF

IV. According to Frequencya. DC amplifierb. Audio amplifierc. RF amplifierd. IF amplifiere. Video amplifier

V. According to the Signal being amplifieda. Small signal amplifiersb. Large signal amplifier

VI. According to method of coupling

a. Direct couplingb. Capacitive couplingc. Inductive couplingd. Transformer coupling

BJT SMAL SIGNAL ANALYSIS

H Parameters

Short circuit input impedance

open circuit reverse voltage gain

short circuit forward current gain

open circuit output admittance

AMPLIFIER

hi

hr

hf

ho

Compound Configuration1. Cascaded Connection a

series connection with theoutput on one stage thenapplied as input to thesecond stage. The cascadeconnection provides amultiplication of the gain ofeach stage for a largeroverall gain.

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2. Cascode Connection has one transistor on top of (in series with) another.This arrangement is design to provide high input impedance with low voltagegain to ensure that the input Miller capacitance is minimum.

3. Darlington Connection the composite transistor acts a single unit with acurrent gain that is the product of the current gains of the individual transistor.

4. Feedback Pair is a two-transistor circuit that operates like the Darlingtoncircuit. It uses a PNP transistor driving an NPN.

5. FET (Field Effects Transistor) a unipolar device which operates as avoltage controlled device with either electron current in N-channel FET or ahole current in a P-channel FET.

a. A three-terminal unipolar device which depends for its operation on thecontrol of current by an electric field.

Difference between BJT and FET1. its operation depends upon the flow of majority carriers only (unipolar

device)2. simpler to fabricate and occupies less space in integrated form than BJT3. extremely high input resistance. Can take more input signal voltage.4. less noise than BJT

5. exhibits no offset voltages at zero drain current. Excellent signal chopper6. relatively immune to radiation7. greater thermal stability than BJT8. less internal noise as an amplifier.

Disadvantages1. Less gain2. Smaller power ratings3. switching speed is slower

FET BJTSource Emitter Drain Collector

Gate Base

terminal where the charge carriers enter the channel bar to provide current

thru channel

terminal where the current leaves the channel

controls the conductance between the source and the drain

Two Types of FET1. JFET (Junction Field Effect Transistor)2. MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET)

or IGFET (Insulated Gate FET)a. Depletion Enhancement MOSFETb. Enhancement only MOSFET

Linear

Indicates that for low values of Vds, current varies directly with voltage

following ohms law.

Saturation region/ amplifier region

JFET operates as a constant current device because Id is relatively

independent of Vds.

If Vds increased beyond its value corresponding to Va, JFET enters the

breakdown region where Id increase to an excessive value.

Drain current with gate shorted to source condition

SOURCE

DRAIN

GATE

OHMIC REGION

PINCH-OFF REGION

BREAKDOWN REGION

IDSS

Proper Biasing for a JFET

VDSVGS

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N-CHANNEL + -P-CHANNEL - +

DC Biasing for a JFET1. Fixed Bias a separate power source2. Self Bias3. Source Bias4. Voltage Divider

Static Characteristics of JFET1. Drain Characteristics gives relation between ID and VDS for different

values of VGS (running variable).2. Transfer Characteristics gives relation between ID and VGS for

different values of VDS.

Small Signal JFET Parameters1. AC Drain Resistance, rd

a. The AC resistance between drain and source terminals whenJFET is operating in the pinch-off region

b. Dynamic drain resistance.

2. Transconductance, gm (U or S)a. Forward Transconductance or forward trans-admittanceb. Slope of transfer characteristicc. Similar to gm characteristics of vacuum tubes.

3. Amplification Factor4. DC Drain Resistance, RDS

Neutrally or lightly doped silicon

Serves as a platform on which the other electrodes are diffused

Channel has free charge carriers

Current can be produced in the channel with voltage applied between drain

and source but no gate voltage.

The gate voltage can deplete or enhance the charge carriers in the channel

to a greater or lesser extent to control the drain current.

Normally ON device

Normally OFF device

The channel has very little doping

Gate voltage must be applied to enhance the amount of charge carriers in

the channel to produce drain current.

Either or both gates control the amount of drain current

Region void of free carriers and therefore unable to support conduction thru

the region.

Proper Biasing of MOSFETVDS VGS

N-CHANNEL + +P-CHANNEL - -

Proper Biasing of Depletion EnhancementVDS VGS

N-CHANNEL + +/-P-CHANNEL - +/-

IGFET or MOSFET

DEPLETION ENHANCEMENT

ENHANCEMENT ONLYMOSFET

DUAL GATE IGFET orMOSFET

DEPLETION REGION

FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERAND OSCILLATORS

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The application of a portion of the output signal of a circuit back to the input

circuit.

One in which a fraction of the amplifier output is fed back to the input circuit.

Two Parts

1. amplifier2. feedback circuit

Types of Feedback1. Positive Feedback (Regenerative)

a. if the feedback signal is combined in phase with the input signalb. if the feedback voltage or current is so applied to increase the

input voltage or currentc. application: Oscillator circuits

2. Negative Feedback (Degenerative)a. If the feedback signal is combined 180 degrees out-of-phase

with the input signalb. If the feedback voltage or current is so applied to reduce

amplifier inputc. Application: Amplifier circuits

Signal Sources1. Thevenins Source2. Nortons Source

Two Types of Sampling1. Voltage Sampling if the feedback network is connected in shunt

across the output node.2. Current Sampling if the feedback network is connected in series with

the output loop.

Two Types of Mixing1. Series Mixing the feedback network is connected in series with the

input loop so that the feedback signal is in the form of voltage.2. Shunt Mixing the feedback network is connected in shunt with the

input terminal so that what is added to the input is current.

Effect of Negative Feedback1. Stabilize the amplifier2. Increase the bandwidth of an amplifier3. Improve the linearity of the amplifier4. Improve noise performance5. Improve the characteristics of an amplifier to approach ideal condition

(Raise or lower the impedance of an amplifier)

Effect of Positive Feedback1. increased pain that may lead to oscillation

Feedback Configuration1. Voltage Series Feedback2. Voltage Shunt Feedback3. Current Series Feedback4. Current Shunt Feedback

Parameter Voltage-Series Current-Series Voltage-Shunt Current-ShuntZif increased increased decreased decreased

Zof decreased decreased decreased increased

FEEDBACK

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Process by which variations in amplitude are repeated continuously at a

specific frequency

Accomplished by using an amplifier in a circuit where part of the output is fed

back to the input.

The use of positive feedback which results in a feedback amplifier having a

closed loop gain greater than unity

If the output signal varies sinusoidally

If the output voltage rises quickly to one voltage and later drops quickly to

another voltage level.

Uses an Op Amp and RC bridge circuit, with the oscillator frequency set by

the R and C components.

Oscillator Type Reactance ElementX1 X2 X3

Colpitts C C L

Hartley L L CTuned input LC LC --Tuned output

Inductors L1 and L2 have a mutual coupling, M, which must be taken into

account in determining the equivalent inductance for the resonant tank circuit

Basically a tuned circuit oscillator using a piezoelectric crystal as a resonant

tank circuit

The crystal (usually quartz) has a greater stability in holding constant at

whatever frequency the crystal is originally cut to operate

Exhibits the property that when mechanical stress is applied across oppositefaces of crystal, a difference of potential develops across opposite faces ofthe crystal

Piezoelectric effect

2 Resonant Frequencies1. Series Resonant Circuit

a. The reactance of the series RLC Leq are equal (and opposite),the impedance is very low (=R).

2. Parallel Resonant Circuita. Higher frequencyb. The reactance of the series RLC Leq equal the reactance of

capacitor, Cm

c. Very high impedance

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER AND INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

A very high gain, high rin directly coupled negative feedback amplifier which

can amplify signals having frequencies ranging from 0 Hz to 1 MHz.

Originally designated to perform mathematical operations like summation,

multiplication, differentiation and integration.

An Ideal Operational Amplifier would have

1. infinite input impedance it would consume no current from the source2. zero output impedance it would like a perfect voltage source to a load3. infinite gain any input would be infinitely amplified

Typical Uses of Op Amp1. scale changing2. analog computer operations3. instrumentation and control system4. phase shift and oscillator circuit

OSCILLATION

SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATOR

SQUARE WAVE ORPULSE OSCILLATOR

WEIN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR

HARTLEY OSCILLATOR

CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR

QUARTZ CRYSTAL

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

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The terminal marked (-)

Whatever signal polarity is applied to the inverting will cause the opposite

polarity on the output terminal.

The terminal marked (+)

Whatever polarity is applied to the non-inverting input terminal will cause thesame polarity in the output terminal.

Op Amp Circuits1. Constant Gain Inverting Amplifier2. Non-Inverting Amplifier3. Unity Follower provides a gain with no polarity reversal4. Summing Amplifier5. Integrator feedback component (capacitor), the output is the integral

of the input with an inversion and scale multiplies of1/RC6. Differentiator the output is proportional to the time derivative of the

input. The magnitude of the output is increase linearly with increasing

frequency, and the different circuit has high gain at high frequencies.7. Differential Amplifier the differential amplifier is the marriage of boththe inverting and non-inverting amplifiers. The output is the result of thedifference between the two inputs.

8. Comparator can be used as a limit, level detector or switch. It can alsobe used to convert a ramp input to a pulse and the pulse to reset theramp.

Op Amp Specifications1. Input Offset Voltage

The difference in the DC voltages that must be applied to the

input terminals to obtain equal quiescent operating voltage (0output voltage) at the output terminals

2. Input Offset Current The differences in the current at the 2 input terminals

3. Quiescent Operating Voltage

The DC voltage at either output terminal with respect to the

ground4. DC Device Dissipation

The total power drain of the device with no signal applied and no

external load current5. Common Mode Voltage Gain, Ac

The ratio of the signal voltage developed at either of the 2 output

terminal to the common signal voltage applied to the 2 inputterminals connected in parallel

6. Differential Voltage Gain Single Ended Input

The ratio of the change in output voltage either output terminalwith respect to the ground to difference in the input voltages.

7. Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)

The ratio of the full differential voltage gain to the common mode

voltage gain8. Single Ended Input Resistance (Rin)

The ration of the change in input voltage to the change in input

current measured at either terminal with respect to the ground9. Single Ended Output-Resistance (Ro)

the ratio of the change in output voltage to the change in output

current measured at either output terminal with respect to theground

10. Slew Rate

Device parameter including how fast the output voltage changeswith time

11. Drift

The term describing the change in output voltage resulting from

change in temperature12. Roll-Off

The reducing of op-amps gain due to increasing operating

frequency.

INVERTING INPUT

NON-INVERTING INPUT

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INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

Lee de Forest invented the Triode Tube

W.H. Brattain and I. Bardeen invented the transistor

ICs (Microelectronics)

A complete electronic circuits in which both the active and passive

components are fabricated on an extremely tiny single chip of silicon

J.K. Kilby develop the first IC

Built by connecting separate components

Advantages of ICs over Discrete Components1. extremely small physical size

2. very small weight3. reduced cost (individual transistor)4. extremely high reliability

a. absence of soldered componentsb. need for fewer interconnectionc. small temperature rise due to low power consumption

5. suitable for small signal operation6. low power consumption7. easy replacement

Disadvantages of ICs over Discrete Components1. coils or inductors cannot be fabricated2. ICs function at fairly low voltages

3. handle only limited amount of power4. quite delicate and cannot withstand rough handling or excessive heat

Scale of Integration1. SSI Small Scale Integration

The number of circuits containing in an IC package is less than 30

2. MSI Medium Scale Integration

The number of per package is between 30 100

3. LSI Large Scale Integration

Circuits density is between 100 100, 000

4. VLSI Very Large Scale Integration

In excess of 100, 000

Classifications of ICs by Structure1. Monolithic Integrated Circuits

a. single stoneb. single solid structurec. all circuit components (both active and passive) are fabricated

inseparably within a single continuous piece of Silicon crystallinematerial

2. Thick and Thin Film ICsa. Only passive components are formed through thick and thin film

techniques on the insulating surface as glass or a ceramicmaterial

b. The active elements are added externally as discrete elementsto complete a functional circuit.

Resistors and conductors are formed by varying the width and thickness of

the film and by using materials of different resistivity

Capacitor are produced by sandwiching an insulating oxide film between 2

conducting films

Printed thin film circuits

Silk screen are made of

fine stainless steel wiremesh and the links arepastes (of pulverizedglass and aluminum)which have conductive,

resistive or dielectricproperties.

1907

1948

1960

INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

1958

DISCRETE

THIN FILM ICs

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THICK FIM ICs

3. Hybrid or Multichip ICsa. formed either by interconnecting a number of individual chips or

by a combination of film or monolithic IC techniques

Classification of ICs by Function1. Linear ICs analog ICs because their inputs and outputs can take on a

continuous range of values and the outputs are generally proportional tothe inputs

Applications1. Op Amps 5. Small Signal Amplifier 2. Power 6. RF and IF Amplifier 3. Microwave Amps 7. Multiplexer 4. Voltage Comparators 8. Voltage Regulators

2. Digitals ICs

switching circuits

monolithic integration because a computer uses a large number of

identical circuits

Applications1. logic gates 5. calculator chips

2. flip flops 6. memory chips3. counter 7. microprocessors4. clock

attachment of wires to an IC

an extremely small part of a silicon wafer on which IC is fabricated

Si wafer of 2cm diameter 1000 IC chips

To check the proper electrical performance of each IC with the help of

probes

Introduction of controlled small quantities of a material into the crystal

structure for modifying its electrical characteristics.

A glass plate with circuit pattern drawn on it

Putting a cap over the IC and sealing it

Physical placement of materials on a given surface

Removal of surface material form a chip by chemical means

Providing ohmic contacts and interconnections by evaporating aluminum

over the chip

A photo sensitive emulsion which hardens when exposed to ultraviolet light

Incising or cutting with a sharp point

A thin slice of a semiconductor material either circular or rectangular in

shape in which a number of ICs are fabricated simultaneously

How Monolithic ICs aremade?

1. Wafer Preparation

a P-type SI bar is

taken and cut intothin slices called

wafers this wafers after

being lapped andpolished to mirrorfinish serve as thebase or substratefor hundreds ofICs

2. Epitaxial Growth

An N-type layer

(15m thick) isnow grown on theP-type substrate

by placing thewafer in furnaceat 1200C andintroducing a gascontainingphosphorous

BONDING

CHIP (DIE)

CIRCUIT PROBING

DIFFUSION

DIFFUSION MASK

ENCAPSULATION

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EPITAXY

ETCHING

METALLIZATION

PHOTORESIST

SCRIBING

WAFER

3. Oxidation

A thin layer of SiO2 is grown over the N-type layer by exposing the

wafer to an oxygen atmosphere at about 1000C4. Photolithographic Process

Involves selective etching of Sio2 layer with the help of photographic

mask, photoresist and etching solution.

Helps to select particular areas of the N-layer which are subjected to

an isolation diffusion process.5. Isolation Diffusion

The wafer is subject to a P-layer diffusion process by which N-type

layer is isolated into islands on which transistor or some othercomponents is fabricated.

6. Base and Emitter Diffusion

The P-type base of transistor is diffused into the N-type layer which

itself acts as collector.7. Pre-Ohmic Etch

For good metal ohmic contact with diffused layers, N+ regions are

diffused into the structure.8. Metallization

Done for making interconnections and providing bonding pads

around the circumference of the chip for later connection of wiresI. Transistor

II. ResistorIII. Capacitor

9. Circuit Probing

Each IC on the wafer is checked electrically for proper performance

by placing probes on the bonding pads

Faulty chips are marked and discarded after the wafer has been

scribed and broken down into individual chips10. Scribing and Separating into Chips

Wafer is broken down into individual chips containing the integrated

circuits

Wafers are first scribed with a diamond tipped tool and thenseparated into single chips

11. Mounting and Packing

The individual chip is very small and brittle

It is cemented or soldered to a gold plated header through which

leads have already been connected12. Encapsulation

A cap is now placed over the circuit and sealing is done in an inert

atmosphere

Digital ICs

Receives input of a linear

voltage, comparing it to areference input voltage to

determine which isgreater

Digital to AnalogConverter Circuits

Vary continuously over

some range of values

At one of 2 levels

representing the binaryvalues of one or zero

Uses a network of resistor

Accepts inputs of binary

values at typically 0V orVref and provides anoutput voltageproportional to the binaryinput values

Analog to DigitalConversion

Used to interconnect

different types of signals,both linear and digital

May be used to drive a

load or to obtain a signalas a receiver circuit

Used in the generation of

pulse signals that aretriggered by an inputsignals

Generation of a clock

signal that operates at a

frequency set by externalresistor and capacitor

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i. permanent (internal)ii. temporary (external)

A test in which ultrasound is used to examine the heart

Heart in motion image

Provide single dimension images that allow accurate measurement of theheart chambers

Capable of displaying a cross-sectional slices of the beating heart, including

the chambers, values and major blood vessels that exit from that left andright ventricle.

Nerve and muscle test

A test that assesses the health of the muscle and the nerves controlling the

muscle

555 TIMER

EEG

CT SCAN or CAT SCAN

CAT

AED

MAMMOGRAPHY

ECG or EKG

ULTRASOUND

NATURAL PACEMAKER

ECHOCARDIAGRAM

M MODE

2D ECHO

ELECTROMYOGRAPHY

Magnetic Resonance

Imaging

A method of creating

images of the inside ofopaque organs in livingorganisms as well asdetecting the amount ofbound water in geologicalstructures.

Nuclear Magnetic

Resonance Imaging

Universally dropped due

to negative annotations

Uses large magnets and

radio frequency waves tocreate moving images

INDUSTRIALELECTRONICS

Includes all

semiconductor deviceswhich inherent on-offbehavior, as opposed toallowing gradual change

in conduction Non-linear

Regenerative switching

devices and they cannotoperate in a linear manner

Gate triggering circuit

Small thyristors which do

not switch the main loadcurrent

Useful in the gate

triggering circuit of alarger load power

switching thyristors

A 3-terminal device used

to control large currents toa load

Rectifier

3 PN junction

acts like a switch

ON closed switchOFF open switch

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Advantages of SCR over rheostat and transformers1. small and relatively inexpensive2. needs no maintenance3. wants very little power

Applications1. lightning2. motor speed control3. electric wilding4. electric heating

The no. of degrees of an AC cycle during which the SCR is turned ON.

The no. of degrees of an AC cycle that elapses before the SCR is turned ON.

Amount of gate current needed to fire a particular SCR.

To further delay the firing of the SCR

C values = 0.01 to 1uFTime constant = 1 to 30 msec.

Disadvantages1. temperature dependence2. inconsistent firing behavior between SCRs of the same type

break over in only one direction

Unilateral Breakdown Devices1. Schochley Device 4 layer diode2. SUS Silicon Unilateral Switch3. Triac Triode AC

- can conduct current in either direction when it is turned on- A 3-terminal device used to control the average current flow to a

load.

MRI

NMRI

THYRISTOR

BREAK OVER DEVICES

SCR(SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIER)

CONDUCTION ANGLE (CA)

FIRING DELAY ANGLE (FDA)

IGT

Advantage of 4 layer diodeover SCR

1. relatively independentof temperature

2. break over voltage

can be heldconsistent from oneunit to another

Advantages of Triac overMechanical Switches

1. no contact bounce2. no arcing across

partially openedcontacts

3. operates much faster4. move precise control

of element

Other important electricalcharacteristics of Triac

1. ITrms the maximumallowable mainterminal rms current

1, 3, 6, 10, 15 and

25 Amps.2. VDROM breakdown

voltage

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The highest main terminal peal voltage the triac can block in either

direction

100, 200, 400 and 600 Volts

3. VTM the ON state voltage across the main terminals

Ideal VTM = 0

VTM = 1 to 2 Volts

Bilateral Breakover Devices1. Diac (Diode AC)

Bilateral trigger diode

Symmetrical trigger diode

2. Silicon Bilateral Switch

Popular in low voltage trigger control circuits

Has lower breakover voltages than diacs

Advantages of Diacs1. relatively temperature stable2. have fairly close tolerance on breakover voltage

Advantages of SBSs over Diacs1. more vigorous switching characteristics2. more temperature stable3. more symmetrical +VBO and VBO difference 0.3 V4. less batch spread than a diac < 0.1 V

diacs 4 V

Other PNPN Devices1. SCS Silicon Controlled Switch2. GTO - Gate Turn Off Switch3. LASCR Light Activated SCR

Advantages of SCS over SCR1. reduced turn off time2. increased control and triggering sensitivity more predictable firing

situation

Disadvantages of SCS1. limited to low power, current and voltage ratings

Application of SCS1. counters, registers and timing circuits2. pulse generators3. voltage sensors

4. oscillators

Advantages of GTO1. can be turned ON or OFF by applying the proper pulse to the cathode

gate.2. improved switching characteristics

Applications of GTO1. counters2. pulse generators3. Multivibrator4. voltage regulators

Applications of LASCR1. optical light controls2. relays3. phase control4. motor control5. computer application

Unijunction Transistor

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A break over type switching devices

Applications of UJT1. timers2. oscillators3. waveform generators

4. gate control circuits for SCRs and triacs5. relaxation oscillator

Programmable Unijunction Transistor

Has effectively the same operating characteristics with as standard UJT and

is used in similar application.

Analogy between PUT and UJTCathode base 1

Anode emitterGate base 2

ROBOTICS

Reprogrammable

Multi-functional

Designed to move materials, parts tools or other specialized devices by

means of variable programmed motions and to perform a variety of othertasks

Forced labor

Worker

Slavery

Czeck playwriter

Coined in1920 in R.U.R. (Rossums Universal Robots)

Robot Institute of America

Branch of the Society of Manufacturing Engineers (SME)

Accepted by the 11th International Symposium of Industrial Robotics in 1981

Robot Assembly1. Arm

Provides necessary motion to move the tool or part into proper

position for an operation.

Manipulator

2. Drive Muscle

Engine that drives the links (the sections between the joints their

desired position).

Powered by air (pneumatic), water pressure (hydraulic), or electricity

3. Controller

Connected to a computer, which keeps the pieces of the arm

working together.

The brain of the robot

UJT

PUT

4. End-Effector

The tool that

performs theactual work

Hand connected

to the robots arm

actual work

5. Sensor

Send information,

in the form ofelectronic signalsto the controller

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Gives the robot controller information about its surroundings and lets

it know the exact position of the arm, or the state of the world aroundit.

Sight, sound, touch, taste and smell.

6. Power Supply

Provides the necessary power for moving the robot arm through its

range of motion. The power source for hydraulic or pneumatic arms is generally much

larger than their electrical equivalents.

Axes of motion of robotic arms.

Available to a fixed-base fully articulated arm.

Motion of the entire arm about the fixed base.

Movement above the waist

Elbow movement

Different types of wrist motion1. pitch up and down2. yaw side to side3. roll rotation of the wrist about the axis of the forearm

Classification of Robots1. movement2. control used3. program used

Classification According to Control1. Fixed and Variable Sequence Robots

Also known as pick and place robot.

Can be programmed for a specific sequence of operations

2. Playback Robot

Memorizes and records the path and sequence of motions and can

repeat them continuously without any further action or guidance formthe operator

3. Numerically Controlled Robots

Programmed and operated much like a numerically controlled

machine.

Servo-control by digital data and its sequence can be changed with

relative ease.4. Intelligent (sensory) Robots

Robots capable of performing some of the functions and tasks

carried bout by human beings.

Equipped with a variety of sensors with visual and tactile (touching)

capabilities

Classification According to Movement1. Rectilinear

It can move its end effector in only 3 directions: up and down, left

and right along a track and front to back,

Box shaped work envelop

Smaller range of motion

Easiest to program because of rectangular coordinates system theyuse.

DEGREES OF FREEDOM

WAIST MOTION orARM SWEEP

SHOULDER orVERTICAL MOTION

ELBOW EXTENSION

2. Cylindrical

Has a greater

range of motionthan the

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RESOLUTION

ACCURACY

Costs and benefit consideration

Safety of robot is an important consideration

COMPUTER

An electronic data processing machine capable of performing mathematical

and logical operations accurately and processing large volumes of data athigh speeds.

Characteristics1. electronic2. internal3. stored data4. program execution modulation

General Capabilities1. performs operations at extremely fast speeds and almost perfect

reliability and accuracy2. ability to store and retrieve information3. ability to perform mathematical and logical operations4. ability to handle large volumes of repetitive tasks accurately over long

periods of time5. can communication with its operations and with other machines6. performs decisions based on a program7. capable of remote processing8. capable of processing one job at a time or several job almost

simultaneously.

ECONOMICS

ROBOTS SAFETY

COMPUTER

24

Actuator Type Advantages Disadvantages

Electric Lower initial cost a fluid system

Much lower operating cost than

a hydraulic system

Clean no oil leaks to wipe up

Accurate servo-type positioning

and velocity can be achieved

Not such great force capability as

a hydraulic system

Very little holding strength when

stopped will allow a heavy loadto sag; mechanical breaks arerequired.

Hydraulic Great force capability can

handle heavy loads

Great loads

Great holding strength when

stopped hydraulic cylinder willnot allow a heavy load to sag.

Accurate servo-type positioning

and velocity control can beachieved.

Intrinsically safe in flammable

environments such as painting.

High initial cost

High operating cost

Messy tends to leak oil

Pneumatic Lower initial cost than a

hydraulic system.

Lower operating costs than a

hydraulic system.

Clean no oil leaks to wipe up

Quick response

Programming of accurate

positioning and velocity controlare impossible; use mechanical

stops Weak force capability

Not so much holding strength

when stopped as hydraulicsystem allows a heavy load tosag


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LIMITATIONS1. functions only when it is provided with input information2. can detect but cannot correct an in accurate entry3. subject to occasional breakdown

Classification of Computer1. According to age and component generators

a. 1st generation computers (1951-1958)- Vacuum tubes (UNIVAC I)

b. 2nd generation computers (1959-1965)- transistors

c. 3rd generation computers (1965-1970)- ICs- Improved reliability and faster speed

d. 4th generation computers- MSI and LSI- Apple II, TRS-80

e. Current generation computers- VLSI, optical devices, parallel processing, etc.- Multi-user, multitasking

2. According to sizea. mainframe

- large scale- medium scale- small scale

b. Minicomputersc. Microcomputers

3. According to applicationa. Scientific

- small volumes

- performs complex calculations using sophisticatedformulas

b. business- large volumes of data- simple calculations

4. According to Designa. General purpose

- Performs variety of operations- Versatile enough to process diversified tasks

b. Special purpose- Performs specific operations- Ex. Automatic Tire Alignment

Main Parts of a Computer System1. Software- programs that make a computer works- set of instructions for the computer to follow

2. Hardware- physical components that make up a computer

Interface or group of devices where people talk to the computer

Consists of electronic circuits that interpret and execute program instructions

as well as communication with the Input/Output and storage devices.

2 parts of CPU1. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)2. Control Unit

Devices that give out information coming from the computer

Devices where computer interacts with the user

Storage where programs are placed inside the computer system

2 Types

1. main memory2. secondary memory

INPUT UNIT

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT(CPU)

OUTPUT DEVICES

MEMORY

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Input Devices

The keys on the computer keyboard are arranged in much the same way as

those on the typewriter

Device that is moved by hand over a flat surface

Has a ball on its underside.

Device that uses a laser beam to read special letters, numbers or symbol

Output Devices

An indispensable output device similar to a television

VDU (Video Display Unit)

VRT (Video Display Terminal)

CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)

Produces printed reports as instructed by a computer program.

Produces information on paper output

Combine a magnetic roller with powdered ink called toner to transfer high

quality characters of image onto a page.

Have small nozzle that actually spray fast drying ink onto the page to form

characters of image.

Use print head to strike an inked ribbon against paper like a typewriter

creating characters out of a series of dots.

Device that uses al light source to read text and images directly to thecomputer.

Looks and behaves like a photocopier.

Looks and acts like fax machine

The page or item is fed into the machine scanned, then split out on the other

end.

Low cost alternative

Manual device you move over a flat surface just as you do your PCs mouse

Memory

Type of permanent memory

Non-volatile

Stores some of the operating system software of the computer.

The only software built-in into the computer system

Provides the interface between the computer hardware system and the

operating system

Provides control to all devices that require interaction or services of the

microprocessor.

Where the various parameters needed by the BIOS to perform its tasks are

permanently saved in a little piece of CMOS

Enable a ser of instructions so the CPU can communicate with other parts of

the motherboard

Memory where data and programs are stored

Working storage of the computer system

Read/write memory

Data are written to and read from it temporary of volatile memory

The main board

The most input part of the

computer

Manage all transaction of

data between CPU andthe peripherals

Houses the CPU and its

second level cache, thechipset, the BIOS, mainmemory, I/O chips, partsfor keyboard, serial I/O,parallel I/O disks and plugin cards

KEYBOARD

MOUSE

BAR CODE READER

MONITOR

PRINTER

LASER PRINTER

INKJET PRINTER

DOT MATIRX PRINTER

SCANNER

FLATBED SCANNER

SHEETFED

HAND SCANNER

READ ONLY MEMORY(ROM)

BASIC INPUT OUTPUTSYSTEM (BIOS)

COMPLEMENTARY METALOXIDE SEMICONDUTOR(CMOS)

CHIPSET

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RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY(RAM)

MOTHERBOARD

Plug into an expansion slot in PC.

Has a set of connectors that are exposed on the back of the PC

Microphone and speakers

May include a volume control.

A metal box found at the portion of the system unit case

Used to convert high voltage AC to a lower DC voltage to power up thecomputers electronic components.

+5 volts supplies all electronic circuits on motherboard, adaptor cards, and

peripherals such as disk devices, keyboard, mouse, etc.

+12 volts used to power motors of disk device systems such as hard disk,

CD-ROM and floppy disk devices.

Let communicate over standard telephone lines with other computer users.

Transfer data, exchange electronic files and ever carry typed, conversation

real time.

Hardware founds plug into an expansion slot in PCs system unit

Connected to the PC by plugging a cable into a port on the system unit.

Number System

Said to be of base 10 because it uses 10 digits and the coefficients are

multiplies by power of 10.

Two possible values 0 and 1.

A number expressed in base r can be converted to its decimal equivalent by

multiplying each coefficient with the corresponding power of r and adding.

Multiplication is by r and the coefficient found form the integers may range in

value from 0 to r-1.

Used in digital computers for simplifying the subtraction operations and for

logical manipulations.

Binary digit.

It is possible to arrange n bits in 2nd distinct ways.

To represent a group of 2n elements in a binary code requires a minimum of n

bits.

Binary Coded Decimal

A straight assignment of the binary equivalent.

Decimal digit BCD Excess 30 0000 00111 0001 01002 0010 10103 0011 01104 0100 01115 0101 10006 0110 10117 0111 1010

8 10001011

9 10011100

Error Detection Codes

An extra bit included with

a message to make totalno. of 1s either odd oreven.

A no. in the reflected code

changes by only one bitas its provides from oneno. to the next.

Binary code of a group of

elements consisting of the

10 decimal digits, the 26letters of the alphabet anda certain no. of specialsymbols such as dollarsign.

SOUND CARDS

POWER SUPPLY

MODEMS

INTERNAL MODEM

EXTERNAL MODEM

DECIMAL SYSTEM

BINARY SYSTEM

NUMBER BASECONVERSION

CONVERSION OF A DECIMALFRACTION TO BASE r

COMPLEMENTS

BIT

BCD

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ERROR DETECTION CODES

REFLECTED CODE GRAY CODE

ALPHANUMERIC CODES

American Standard Code for Information Interchange

Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code

Circuit whose input and output signals are 2-state, low or high voltages

Deals with variables that take on 2 discrete values and with operations that

assume logical meaning

Consists of binary variables and logical operation.

1 stands for the more + of 2 voltage levels

1 stands for the more of the 2 voltage levels

a logic circuit with one or more input signal but only one output signal

Basic Logical Operations

Represented by a dot or by the absence of an operator

A logic circuit where output is high only when all inputs are high

A table that shows all input and output possibilities for a logic circuit

ANDX Y Z0 0 00 1 01 0 01 1 1

Represented by a plus signal

A logic circuit with 2 or more inputs and only one output 1 or more high

inputs produce a high output.

OR

X Y Z0 0 00 1 11 0 11 1 1

Represented by a prime (sometimes by a bar)

A gate with 1 input and 1 output (complement)

NOT

X Z0 11 0

Electronic digital circuits

Logic circuits

Block of hardware thatproduces a logic 1 or logic0 output signal if inputlogic requirements aresatisfied digital circuits

Switching circuits

Other Logic Operations

Compliment of the OR

function and its name isan abbreviation of Not-OR.

All inputs be low to get a

high output.

NORF = (X+Y)X Y F0 0 10 1 01 0 01 1 0

ASCII

EBCDIC

CIRCUIT LOGIC

BINARY LOGIC

POSITIVE LOGIC

NEGATIVE LOGIC

GATE

AND (INTERSECTION) GATE

TRUTH TABLE

OR (UNION) GATE

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NOT (INVERSION) GATE

LOGIC GATES

NOR FUNCTION

Complement of AND Abbreviation of Not-AND

NANDF = (XY)X Y F0 0 10 1 11 0 11 1 0

Similar to OR but excludes the combination of both X and Y equal to 1.

XORF = XY + XYF = X + YX Y F0 0 00 1 11 0 11 1 0

A function that is 1 when the 2 binary variables are equal

i.e., when both are 0 or both are 1.

X-NOR

F = XY + XYF = X . YX Y F0 0 10 1 01 0 01 1 1

Produces the transfer

function but does notproduce any particularlogic operation since thebinary value of the outputis equal to the binary

value of the input.

BUFFERX F0 01 1

A set of elements, a set of

operators and a no. ofunproved axioms ofpostulates.

Most Common Postulates inAlgebra

1. closure2. associate law3. commutative law4. identity element5. inverse6. distributive

History of Boolean algebra

George Boole introduced

a systematic treatment oflogic and develops for thispurpose an algebraicsystem.

C.E. Shannon introduced

a 2-valued BooleanAlgebra called SwitchingAlgebra, in which hedemonstrated that theproperties of bistableelectrical circuits can berepresented by thisalgebra.

Every algebraic

expression deducible fromthe postulates of Boolean

Algebra remains valid ifthe operators and identityelements areinterchanged.

NAND FUNCTION

EXCLUSIVE OR(XOR or EOR)

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EQUIVALENCE or EXCLUSIVE-NOR or EXCLUSIVE OR-NOT

BUFFER

BOOLEAN ALGEBRA(SYMBOLIC OGIC)

1854

1938

DUALITY PRINCIPLE

Symbol is of the form mj where j denotes the decimal equivalent of the binary

no. of the mintern designated.

The complement of a function expressed as the sum of minterns equals the

sum of minterns missing from the original function.

A Boolean expression containing AND terms called product terms of one or

more literals each.

A Boolean expression containing OR terms called sum terms

May be regarded as a pictorial form of a truth table of as an extension of the

Venn Diagram.

A primary building block

from which more complexfunctions are obtained.

Specifies the no. of

standard loads that the

output of the gate candrive without impairmentof its normal operation.

The current flowing in the

input of a gate in thesame IC family.

Power consumed by the

gate which must beavailable from the powersupply.

The average transitiondelay time for the signal topropagate form input tooutput when the signalschange in value.

The limit of a noise

voltage which may bepresent without impairingthe proper operation ofthe circuit.

Consists of logic gates

whose outputs at any timeare determined directlyfrom the presentcombination of inputswithout regard to previousinputs.

2 binary inputs and 2

binary outputs

A combinational circuit

that forms the arithmeticsum of 3 input bits.

Consists of 3 inputs and 2outputs.

A combination logic circuit

that recognizes thepresence of a specificbinary no. or word.

A digital function that

produces a reverseoperation from that of adecoder.

An electronic switch thatpermits any one of anumber of inputs to bechosen and routed to theoutput.

Has 2 or more inputs and

a single output.

A combinational logic

circuits that receives

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information on a single line and transmits this information on one of 2npossible output lines.

Employ memory elements (binary cells) in addition to logic gates.

Their outputs are a function of the inputs and the state of the memory

elements.

A system whose behavior can be defines from the knowledge of its signals at

discrete instant of time.

A 2 state circuit that can remain in either state indefinitely.

An external trigger can change the output.

Also called a Bistable Multivibrator.

To eliminate the possibility of race condition.

Ideal memory element when it comes to circuits that count.

Change of the output to the opposite state in a JK Flip Flop.

MINTERM OF STANDARD PRODUCT

CONVERSION BETWEEN CANONICAL FORMS

SUM OF PRODUCT (SOP)

PRODUCT OF SUMS (POS)

KARNAUGH MAP

BASIC CIRCUIT

FAN-OUT

STANDARD LOAD

POWER DISSIPATION

PROPAGATION DELAY

MOISE MARGIN

COMBINATIONAL LOGIC CIRCUITS

HALF ADDER

FULL ADDER

DECODER

ENCODER

MULTIPLEXER (DATA SELECTOR CIRCUIT)

DEMULTIPLEXER

SEQUENTIAL CIRCUITS

SYNCHRONOUSSEQUANTIAL CIRCUIT

FLIP FLOP

D FLIP FLOP (D-LATCH)

JK FLIP FLOP

TOGGLE

Changing the output state

of a flip flop on the risingand falling edge of a clockpulse.

The minimum amount of

time the input signalsmust be held constantafter the clock edge hasstruck.

The minimum amount of

time the inputs to a flipflop must be presentbefore the clock edgearrives.

Time it takes for the

output of a gate or flip flopto change after the inputshas changed.

A type or of triggering in

which the output of a F/Fresponds to the level(high or low) of the clocksignals.

The simplest type of F/F,

consisting of 2 crosscoupled NAND and NORlatches.

Type of triggering using 2

cascaded latches.

An undesirable condition

which may exist in asystem when 2 of moreinputs changesimultaneously.

A group of memory

elements that worktogether as a unit primarypurpose is to store aword.

A register that temporarily

stores a word during dataprocessing.

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A register that can shift the stored bits one position to the left of right.

Has control inputs that determine what it does on the next clock pulse.

Means storing a word in the shift register by entering 1 bit per clock pulse.

Loading all bits of word in parallel during one clock pulse.

A register capable of counting the member of clock pulses that have arrived

at its clock input.

Counts clock pulses only when commanded to do so.

A counter in which the clock drives each F/F to eliminate the ripple delay.

A counter producing words with 1 high bit which shifts one position per clock

pulse.

The no of stable states a counter has.

Divide by 10 circuits

Decade counter.

Counts down.

F/F outputs are connected to steering networks

The counter starts at a number greater than 0

A non-inverting buffer that can be closed or opened by a control signal

A tri-state switch

A counter that allows you to preset a number from which the count begins.

A group with wires used as a common word path by several registers.

Where the programs and data stored before calculations begins.

A way of specifying the location of data in memory similar to a house

address.EDGE TRIGGERING

HOLD TIME

SET-UP TIME

PROPAGATION DELAY TIME

LEVEL CLOCKING

LATCH

7 MASTER SLAVE TRIGGERING

RACE CONDITION

REGISTER

BUFFER

SHIFT REGISTER

CONTROLLED SHIFTREGISTER

SERIAL LOADING

PARALLEL LOADING(BROADSIDE LOADING)

COUNTER

CONTROLLED COUNTER

SYNCHRONOUS COUNTERS

RING COUNTER

MODULUS OF A COUNTER

MOD 10 COUNTER

DOWN COUNTER

UP DOWN COUNTER

PRESETTABLE COUNTER

3-STATE SWITCH

PRESSENTABLE COUNTER(PROG. COUNTER)

BUS

MEMORY

ADDRESS

The time it takes to read

the contents of a memorylocation after it has been

addressed.

A type of memory in

which data stored in thememory is lost when thepower is turned off.

A type of memory in

which the stored data isnot lost when the power ifturned off

Programmable ROM

Allows the user to storethe data.

Programming is

permanent.

Erasable PROM

A device that is ultraviolet-

erasable and electricallyreprogrammable.

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Electrically Erasable PROM

Non volatile like EPROM but does not require ultraviolet light to be erased.

Read Write Memory

Core Ram

Non volatile.

Uses bipolar or MOS F/Fs

Data is retained indefinitely as long as power is applied to the F/Fs

Uses MOSFETs and capacitors that store data.

Highly volatile because not only must the power be kept on, but the

capacitor charge also be refreshed every few msec.

Must be able to process data.

Brain of the computer

Shingle chip capable of processing data and controlling all the components,

whether input of output.

Keep all other parts working together in the right time and sequence.

Contains the microprocessor data processing logic.

Prominent part of microprocessor wherein the data is being stored.

Programs which can assist users of particular type of computer to make the

best use of their machine.

A way detailed list of steps which must be followed to accomplish a certain

task.

A diagrammatic representation of a sequence of events.

A section of program which will repeat over and over again.

A program in which each step is followed by the next without any alternate

routes or paths.

Allows us to write one program that can do different things at different times.

A section of a program which causes different actions to be taken on

conditions.

A portion of the program which is called upon to perform a specific task.

Only language the computer actually understands

Consists of 1s and 0s.

A low-level language which uses mnemonics in place of binary patterns.

Abbreviations for machine language instructions.

ACCESS TIME

VOLATILE

NON-VOLATILE

PROM

EPROM

EEPROM

RAM

STATIC RAM

DYNAMIC RAM

PROCESSOR

CONTROL UNIT

ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT

REGISTER

SOFTWARE

PROGRAM

FLOWCHART

LOOP

STRAIGHT-LINE PROGRAM

BRANCHING

BRANCH

SUBROUTINE

MACHINE LANGUAGE

ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE

MNEMONICS

Uses advanced

commands.

Formula translation Language that handles

high level mathematicsvery well and isdesignated for scientistsand engineers.

Common Business

Oriented Language

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Measurements of quantities in Electrical Engineering or Electrical

Engineering quantities such as voltage, current, etc.

Device that can give quantitative description on a given parameters.

Electromechanical device with moving pointers, spring and moving coils or

moving vanes.

Utilize electronic circuits in place of electromechanical and provide a

numerical readout.

Auto range

Minimum power consumption.

Bearing friction

Frequency variations

Possible loss of magnetism.

Parallax error-reading from the sides.

Interpolation error-estimating between graduation Interpretation error-reading on the wrong side of the scale and falling to

consider the multiplying factor.

Consists of a movable coil situated within the magnetic field of a permanent

magnet.

Consists of moving coil, spring and permanent magnet.

Consists of a moving coil, called: armature that is free to move within a

magnetic field set-up by two stationary field coils.

2 soft iron vanes, movable and stationary.

Resistance of the ideal ammeter is zero. Needle deflection is directly proportional to current.

Arises form the fact that meter face is not accurately marked.

Error caused by the internal resistance of the ammeter.

Resistor connected in parallel with meter to increase the measuring

capability of the ammeter.

R(ab) dictates the circuit what must be obtained in measuring circuit.

R,L,C (DC), and Z (AC) Variable control use to losing the bridge to a balanced equation is connected

to branches.

Galvanometers for DC and Oscilloscope for AC

Basic meter movement consisting of a fixed coil divided into two equal halves

and a moving coil between the field coils.

Consists of a fixed coil of many turns and tow iron-vanes placed in the fixed

coil.

Variable capacitor

Used to measure high voltage but little current.

Used to measure RF AC signal.

Consists of a heater and a dArsonval meter movement.

Consists of a permanent magnet and a moving coil.

To measure alternating current with the dArsonval meter, first rectify the AC

by use of a diode rectifier to produce unidirectional current flow.

INSTRUMENTATION

INSTRUMENT

ANALOG METER

DIGITAL METER

LIMITATION OF ANALOGMETER, ERROR

LIMITATION OF ANALOGMETER, USER ERROR

DARSONVAL METER

ELECTRODYNAMETER

IRON VANE MOVEMENTS

IDEAL AMMETER

CALIBRATION ERROR

AMMETER LOADING EFFECT

DC AMMETER SHUNTRESISTANCE, Rsh

COMPARING CIRCUIT

MEASURING CIRCUIT

DETECTION CIRCUIT

ELECTRODYNAMOMETERMOVEMENT

ERON-VANE METERMOVEMENT

ELECTROSTATIC METERMOVEMENT

THERMOCOUPLE METER

DARSONVAL METERMOVEMENT

DARSONVAL METER,HALFWAVE RECTIFICATION

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To improve the sensitivity of a rectifier type of voltmeter, full-wave

rectification is used.

Making a comparison measurements are widely used to measure resistance,

inductances, capacitances and impedance.

Consists of two parallel resistance branches containing two series elements,usually resistors.

Modified version of the Wheatstone bridge containing additional set of radio

arms to compensate for lead and contact resistors of 1 ohm or loss.

Known and simplest of loop tests used principally to locate ground faults in

short sections of communications and power cables.

Ground faults and short circuits in high resistance loops such as long

communications lines.

Used to measure inductance and capacitance accurately.

Used to measure the impedance of a capacitive circuit.

Also called as Capacitance Comparison Bridge or the series RC bridge.

Also called as parallel capacitance comparison.

Used to determine an unknown inductance with capacitance standards.

Measure either the equivalent-series components or the equivalent parallel

components of impedance.

Measure insulating properties, for phase angles of nearly 90 degrees.

Used on laboratories to measure the impedance of both capacitive and

inductive circuits at higher frequencies.

BASIC ELECTRICITY

An invisible force that can produce heat, light motion and many other

physical effects that can be seen in battery, static charge, lightning,electronics.

Negatively charges particle

Positively charge particle

Have no electric charge

Static electricity at rest, without any potion.

Mks unit of quantity

Charge in motion, a continuous flow of free electrons.

The base unit of current

Source of electrons, the force that causes the motion of electrons

A potential energy difference that exist across two points which tend to cause

a flow of electrons

Unit of emf and voltage, specifies the energy available when a given charge

is transported from the low to high potential.

A property of electric circuit, material and substance that converts electrical

energy to heat energy.

The base unit or

resistanceDARSONVAL METER, FULLWAVE RECTIFICATION

DC BRIDGE

WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

KELVIN BRIDGE

MURRAY LOOP

VARLEY LOP

AC BRIDGE

AC WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

SMILAR ANGLE BRIDGE

OPPOSITE-ANGLE BRIDGE

MAXWELL BRIDGE

WEIN BRIDGE

SCHERING BRIDGE

ELECTRICITY

ELECTRONS

PROTONS

NEUTRONS

CHARGE

COULOMB

CURRENT

AMPERE

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE

VOLTAGE

VOLT

RESISTANCE

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OHMS

The opposite or reciprocal of resistance, it measures how fast electrons

could easily pass through a material

The unit of conductance

The resistance of a conducting material is directly proportional to its length

( R L ) and inversely proportional to its cross sectional area (R L/A ).

A convenient use of area used with circular wires because the use of

square inches or square feet results in complicated calculations andinconveniently small numbers for ordinary size of wires.

Effect of temperature on resistance

To increase the resistance of pure metals. The increase is large and fairly

regular for normal ranges of temperature.

To increase the resistance of alloys though in their case, the increase is

relatively small and irregular. To decrease the resistance of electrolytes, insulators (such as paper

rubber, glass, mica etc.) and partial conductors such as carbon.

Change in resistance per degree change in temperature.

The ratio of potential difference (V) between any two points on a conductor

to the current ( I ) flowing between them is constant provide thetemperature of the conductor does not change.

Device having known specific values of resistance and used for the control

of current or the production of heat.

The resistor in an incandescent lamp.

Used as heating elements in toasters, flat irons and other heating

resistance heating elements.

They are very accurate and its ohmic and wattage (above 2 W) is painted

on its covering.

1/8 W to 2W in rating, and its ohmic rating can be determine by its color

code.

Use a thin film of metal or a metal particle mixture to achieve various

resistances.

Made by depositing a carbon film on a small ceramic cylinder.

Connected n a circuit to vary the current

Connected in a circuit to vary the voltage.

A potentiometer equipped with plastic thumbwheel or a slot for a

screwdriver for occasional adjustment.

A temperature sensitive resistors

A voltage sensitive resistors.

A light sensitive resistors.

Materials through which electron can freely travel silver (Ag 47) , copper

(Cu 29) gold (Au 79).

Consist of a group of wires twisted to form a metallic string.

The term given to an

insulated wire.

CONDUCTANCE

SIEMENS

RESISTANCE LAW

CIRCULAR MIL

TEMPERATURECOEFFICIENTS OFRESISTANCE

OHMS LAW

RESISTORS

FINE TUNGSTEN WIRE

NICKEL-CHROMIUM ALLOY

WIRE WOUND

CARBON COMPOSITION

METAL FILM

CARBON FILM

RHEOSTAT

POTENTIOMETER

TRIMMER

THERMISTOR

VARISTORS

PHOTORESISTORS

CONDUCTORS

CORD

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INSULATORS

Serves as physical shield against heat or moisture, and they are rated from

250 to 15,000 volts.

The current in amperes, a conductor can carry continuously under the

condition of use without exceeding its temperature rating.

Materials whose electrical characteristics fall between that of conductors

and insulators silicon ( Si 14 ) germanium ( Ge 32) metallic compoundscadmium sulfide ( CdS) and cadmium selenide ( CdSe).

Rate of producing work or consuming energy.

The S.I. unit of electric power.

Power rating of electric motor

The accomplishment of motion against the action of a force which tends to

oppose the motion

The S.I. unit of electric energy and work.

Ratio of useful energy to total input energy which is always a decimal or a

number less than 1.

A natural phenomenon in which some material (ferromagnetic) can be

attached by a magnet but not other material ( non-magnetic)

A substance that attracts pieces of iron (and its compound) steel, nickel,

cobalt.

A field force like electricity and earths gravitational force which acts without

physical contacts.

A region in which magnetic materials is acted upon by a magnetic force.

Represents the line which seems to emanate from north and terminates to

South Pole.

The areas where the effect of magnetic field is concentrated.

Characteristics of magnetic lines of force.

They possess a positive direction

They always form a complete loop

They tend to become as short as possible

They repel one another

Like poles repel one another

They arrange to set up their maximum number

The total number of magnetic lines of force in a magnetic field.

The S.I. unit is the Weber (Wb)

Establishment the magnetic flux in magnetic circuit the counterpart of EMFan electric circuit.

The limiter of the magnetic circuit to the establishment of a magnetic flux

A measure of the ability of a magnetic circuit to permit the setting up of flux

A figure indicating the ability of a material to permit the setting up of flux.

Ratio of absolute permeability of a material to permeability of vacuum.

The flux per cross

sectional area.

Magneto motive force

per unit length.

Magnetic materials

whereby a change in amagnetization LAGSthe application of amagnetizing force.

CONDUCTOR INSULATOR

AMPACITY

SEMICONDUCTORS

POWER

WATTS

HORSEPOWER

WORK

JOULE

EFFICIENCY

MAGNETISM

MAGNET

MAGNETIC FORCE

MAGNETIC FIELD

MAGNETIC LINES OF FORCE

POLES

MAGNETIC FLUX

MAGNETOMOTIVE FORCE

RELUCTANCE

PERMEANCE

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LOOP

MESH

DIRECT METHOD

NETWORK REDUCTION METHOD

KIRCHOFFS LAW

KIRCHOFFS CURRENT LAW

KIRCHOFFS VOLTAGE LAW

MESH ANALYSIS

MESH CURRENTS

A systematic application of KCL at a node and after simplifying the

resulting KCL equation, the node voltage ca be calculated.

A node with three or more circuit elements joined together.

The node from which unknown voltages are measured.

The current through or voltage across an element in a linear bilateral

network is equal to the algebraic sum of the current or voltages producedindependently in each source.

Any resistance R in a branch of network in which current I flowing can be

replaced, for the purpose of calculations by a voltage equal to IR, or

If the resistance of any branch of the network of a network is changed from

R to (R + R) where the current flowing originally is 1, the change ofcurrent at any other place in the network may be calculated by assumingthan assuming than an emf of -1 (R) has been injected into the modifiedbranch while other sources have their emfs suppressed and arerepresented by their internal resistance only.

In any linear-bilateral network if a source of emf, E in any branch produces

a current I in any branch., then the same emf, E acting in the secondbranch would produce the same current I in the first branch.

A voltage source and series resistance combination is equivalent to a

current source and parallel resistance combination if their respective opencircuit voltages and currents are equal,

Any 2 terminal of a linear, active bilateral network of fixed resistances and

voltages sources may be replaced by a single voltage source and a seriesinternal resistance

Any 2 terminal active network containing voltage sources and resistanceswhen viewed from its output terminals, is equivalent to a constant-currentsource and a parallel internal resistance

A special case of the application of Thevenins theorem or Nortons

theorem used for finding the Common Voltage across any network whichmay contains a number of parallel voltages sources.

For loads connected directly to a DC voltage supply, maximum power will

be delivered to the load when the resistance equal to the internal

resistance of thesource.

Produced an emf when

two dissimilar metalsare immersed in an acid

or salt solution, knownas electrolyte.

Can not be used again

after it has dischargedall its electrical energy.

Almost obsolete; used

in larger bell, indicatorcircuits, and for railwaysignaling.

It can be recharge after

supplying it with theelectrical energy

Consist of positive and

negative leadelectrodes and anelectrolyte of dilutesulphuric acid all placedin an acid resistantcontainer.

Measures the capacity

of cell.

Used to measure the

specific gravity of a cell.

The maximum of force

available in a cell toproduce current flow

Some resistance to

current flows throughthe cell (less than 1ohms in a good cell)

The voltage measuredin the terminal of a celland is less than the cellemf.

NODAL ANALYSIS

PRINCIPAL NODE

REFERENCE NODE

SUPERPOSITION THEOREM

COMPENSATION THEOREM

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RECIPROCITY THEOREM

SOURCE CONVERSION THEOREM

THEVENINS THEOREM

NORTONS THEOREM

MILLSMAN THEOREM

MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER

CELL

PRIMARY CELL

DRY CELL

SECONDARY CELL

LEAD ACID CELL

AMPERE HOUR

HYDROMETER

EMF OF CELLS

INTERMNAL RESISTANCE

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE

Provide high PD by connecting the positive terminal of one cell to the

negative terminal of the other.

Heavier currents can drawn

ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS

A complete set of positive and negative alternation of sinusoidal waveform

Number of cycles completed in one second.

The amount of time required for one cycle to be completed.

The value at any point in time on a sine wave, at different points.

The value of voltage or

current at the positive ornegative maximum withrespect to zero timeaxis.

The voltage or currentfrom the positive peakto the negative peak orvice versa.

For sinusoidal half

period

The equivalent of DC as

far as heating atresistance is concerned.

The ratio of the effective

value to the averagevalue.

The ratio of maximum

value to the effectivevalue.

An angular

measurement thatspecifies the position ofa sine wave relative to arelative to a reference.

A rotating arrow used torepresent the timevarying quantities interms of their magnitudeand angularmeasurements.

Total circuit limiter to

flow of AC, in ohms.

The product of rms

value voltage andcurrent

The power actually

consumed by an ACcircuit.

The power taken by a

reactance ( inductive orcapacitive)

The cosine of angle

between voltage andcurrent in AC circuit.

Current remain in phasewith the voltage

Current leads voltage

by an angle electricaldegree.

Current lags voltage by

an angle electricaldegree.

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There is a phase difference of 90 electrical degrees between current and

voltage, so no useful work done.

Maybe two, three, four six. Nine-phase but the most common for power

and lighting applications is the three phase.

Resistance offered by inductor or capacitor to alternating current in AC

circuit.

Resistance of inductive device to AC.

Resistance of capacitive device to AC.

The reciprocal of impedance, in Siemens

CELLS IN SERIES

CELLS IN PARALLEL

CYCLE

FREQUENCY

PERIOD

SINE WAVE INSTANTANEOUS VALUE

PEAK OR MAXIMUM VALUE

PEAK TO PEAK VALUE

AVERAGE VALUE

EFFECTIVE OR ROOT MEAN SQUARE VALUEFORM FACTOR

CREST FACTOR

PHASE

PHASOR

IMPEDANCE

APPARENT POWER

AVERAGE POWER

REACTIVE

POWER FACTOR

UNITY PF

LEADING PF

LAGGING PF

ZERO PF

POLYPHASE CIRCUIT

REACTANCE

INDUCTIVE REACTANCE

CAPACITIVE REACTANCE

ADMITTANCE

Is the ability of the

inductance andcapacitance to pass AC,in Siemens

The ability of the

inductor to permitcurrent to flow.

The ability of the

capacitor to permitcurrent to flow.

RESONANCE ANDFILTERS

Is the condition existing

in a circuit, containingR, L, and C, where theapplied voltage V is inphase with the resultingcurrent I;

Is the ability of a circuit

to respond more readilyto signals of a particularfrequency to which it istuned than to signals of

other frequencies.

Is a range of

frequencies betweentwo points on itsselective curve? Thebandwidth is takenbetween the pointswhere the current,voltage, or impedanceis 70.7% of maximum,depending on whether itis a series or parallel-

tuned circuits.

A figure of merit for RLC

circuit: that is refers tothe goodness of areactive component.

The higher the Q-factor,

the narrower the BWand more selective isthe circuit.

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Q-factor in the order of 100-300 are useful in communication engineering

The disadvantage of high Q-factor in series circuit, it can lead to dangerous

high voltage across the insulation and may result in electrical breakdown.

ELECTRICAL MACHINES

A rotating machine used

Documents

Electronics Engineering (Survival Kit)