Electronic Warfare Pocket Guide - archive.org

Electronic WarfarePocket Guide

David L. Adamy

Raleigh, NCscitechpub.com

Published by SciTech Publishing, Inc.911 Paverstone Drive, Suite BRaleigh, NC 27615(919) 847-2434, fax (919) 847-2568scitechpublishing.com

Copyright © 2011 by SciTech Publishing, Raleigh, NC. All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system ortransmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 ofthe 1976 United Stated Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission ofthe Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee tothe Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978)750-8400, fax (978) 646-8600, or on the web at copyright.com. Requests to thePublisher for permission should be addressed to the Publisher, SciTech Publishing,Inc., 911 Paverstone Drive, Suite B, Raleigh, NC 27615, (919) 847-2434, fax (919)847-2568, or email [email protected].

The publisher and the author make no representations or warranties with respect tothe accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim allwarranties, including without limitation warranties of fitness for a particular purpose.

Editor: Dudley R. KayProduction Manager: Robert LawlessTypesetting: MPS Limited, a Macmillan CompanyCover Design: Brent BeckleyPrinter: Docusource

This book is available at special quantity discounts to use as premiums and salespromotions, or for use in corporate training programs. For more information andquotes, please contact the publisher.

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ISBN: 9781891121616

Contents

EW Definitions & Subareas 4

Frequency 5

Antennas 6

Radio Propagation 13

Receiver Sensitivity 20

Communication Jamming 24

Communications Electronic Protection 26

Jamming LPI Communications 27

Radar Characteristics 28

Radar Jamming 29

Radar Electronic Protection 31

Expendable Countermeasures 32

Decoys 33

Decibels (dB) 34

Graph & Nomograph Instructions 35

List of Symbols in Formulas 37

List of Abbreviations 38

3

4 Electronic Warfare Pocket Guide

EW Definitions

EW is the art and science of denying an enemy thebenefits of the electromagnetic spectrum while pre-serving them for friendly forces.

EW Subareas

ES Receiving hostile signals to support EAEA Actions to interfere with enemy radar or commEP Features of radars or communication systems that

reduce the effectiveness of enemy EW

EW

ES

RWRsESM SystemsData InterceptComm ES

Comm JammingRadar JammingIR JammingEO JammingARMsHEWsChaffFlares

Radar ECCMLPI Comm

EA EP

Electronic Warfare Pocket Guide 5

Frequencyλ = c/Fλ in metersc = 3 × 108 m/secF in Hz C

λ

EHF

IEEEBands

CommercialBands

EWBands

100k60k

30k

10k

6k

3k

1k

600

300

100

60

30

10

6

3

1

.003

.01

.03

.1

.3

1

3

10

30

100

300

SHF

UHF

VHF

HF

MF

MMW

X

C

S

L

KKa

Ku

UHF

VHF

A

B

C

D

EFGHIJ

K

LM

HF

Fre

quen

cy (

MH

z)

Wav

elen

gth

(met

er)


Antennas

Polarization loss

RHC0 dB

0 dB

3 dB

3 dB

25 dB45 deg

V V

H

∼25 dB

RHC

LHC

Polarization loss is inaddition to antenna gain

No loss for matchedpolarization

Loss of 3 dB from anylinear polarization to anycircular polarization

Gain of non-symetrical 55% efficient Parabolic Dish

Gain (not in dB) = 29, 000

θ1 × θ2

Gain of non-symetrical 60% efficient Horn Antenna

Gain (not in dB) = 31, 000

θ1 × θ2

θ1 & θ2 are orthogonal 3 dB beamwidths in degrees.


Peak gain vs. 3 dB beamwidth for 55% eff. dish

40

70

60

50

30

20

10

0

Gai

n in

dB

(fo

r 55

% E

ffic

ienc

y)

3 dB Beamwidth In Degrees

100604020108642.8 1.6.4.2.1

Antenna efficiencyThis is approximately the % of total input/outputpower to/from an antenna which is transmitted/receivedwithin the 3 dB beamwidth

10% frequency range dish can have 55%2−18 GHz dish efficiency is ∼30%


Antenna Type Pattern Typical Specifications

Dipole El

Az

Polarization: Aligned withelement orientation

Beamwidth: 80◦ × 360◦Gain: 2 dBBandwidth: 10%Frequency Range:

zero through µw

Whip El

Az

Polarization: VerticalBeamwidth: 45◦ × 360◦Gain: 0 dBBandwidth: 10%Frequency Range:

HF through UHF

Loop El

Az

Polarization: HorizontalBeamwidth: 80◦ × 360◦Gain: −2 dBBandwidth: 10%Frequency Range:

HF through UHF

NormalModeHelix

El

Az

Polarization: HorizontalBeamwidth: 45◦ × 360◦Gain: 0 dBBandwidth: 10%Frequency Range:

HF through UHF



Axial Mode Helix Az & El Polarization: CircularBeamwidth: 50◦ × 50◦Gain: 10 dBBandwidth: 70%Frequency Range:UHF through low µw

Biconical El

Az

Polarization: VerticalBeamwidth: 20◦ to

100◦ × 360◦Gain: 0 to 4 dBBandwidth: 4 to 1Frequency Range:

UHF through mmw

LindenbladEl

Az

Polarization: CircularBeamwidth: 80◦ × 360◦Gain: −1 dBBandwidth: 2 to 1Frequency Range:

UHF through µw

Swastika El

Az

Polarization: HorizontalBeamwidth: 80◦ × 360◦Gain: −1 dBBandwidth: 2 to 1Frequency Range:

UHF through µw



Yagi El

Az

Polarization: HorizontalBeamwidth: 90◦ × 50◦Gain: 5 to 15 dBBandwidth: 5%Frequency Range:

VHF through UHF

Log Periodic El

Az

Polarization:Vertical or Horizontal

Beamwidth: 80◦ × 60◦Gain: 6 to 8 dBBandwidth: 10 to 1Frequency Range:HF through µw

CavityBackedSpiral

El & Az Polarization: R & LCircularBeamwidth: 60◦ × 60◦Gain: −15 dB (min freq)

+3 dB (max freq)Bandwidth: 9 to 1Frequency Range: µw

ConicalSpiral

El & Az Polarization: CircularBeamwidth: 60◦ × 60◦Gain: 5 to 8 dBBandwidth: 4 to 1Frequency Range:

UHF through µw



4 ArmConicalSpiral

El

Az

Polarization: CircularBeamwidth: 50◦×360◦Gain: 0 dBBandwidth: 4 to 1Frequency Range:

UHF through µw

Horn El

Az

Polarization: LinearBeamwidth: 40◦ × 40◦Gain: 5 to 10 dBBandwidth: 4 to 1Frequency Range:

VHF through mmw

Horn with Polarizer El

Az

Polarization: CircularBeamwidth: 40◦ × 40◦Gain: 5 to 10 dBBandwidth: 3 to 1Frequency Range: µw



Feed

ParabolicDish

El & Az Polarization:Depends on FeedBeamwidth: 0.5 to ×30◦Gain: 10 to 55 dBBandwidth:Depends on Feed

Frequency Range:UHF to µw

Elements

PhasedArray

El

Az

Polarization:Depends on ElementsBeamwidth: 0.5 to 30◦Gain: 10 to 40 dBBandwidth:Depends on Elements

Frequency Range:VHF to µw


Radio Propagation

Path Through Link (not to scale)

Geometrical,Atmospheric& Rain Loss

ERP

Margin

Rec

eive

dP

ower

Tra

nsm

itte

rP

ower

Sign

al S

tren

gth

(dB

m)

Ant

enna

Gai

n

Ant

enna

Gai

n

Sens.

RCVRXMTR

PR = [PTGT × GR]/L PT & PR in WattsGT, GR & L are ratios

PR (in dB) = PT + GT − L + GR PT & PR in dBmGT, GR & L in dBL is propagation loss

Fresnel zone distanceFresnel zone distance is calculated from:FZ = (hT × hR × F)/24, 000FZ in km, hT & hR in meters, F in MHz


Propagation loss models

Three propagation Loss models commonly used in EW:Line of Sight, Two Ray, Knife Edge Diffraction. All arelosses between isotropic (0 dB gain) transmit andReceive antennas. Atmospheric & rain loss is oftenignored Below 10 GHz

Selection of propagation model

Clear PropagationPath

Low frequency,wide beams, closeto ground

High frequency, narrow beams, far fromground

Additional loss from knife-edge diractionPropagation pathobstructed bylerrain

Link longer thanFresnal Zone

Link shorter thanFresnal Zone

Use line of sightmode

Use two ray mode

Line of Sight (also called free space or spreading loss)

Function of frequency and range

2 Ray (cancellation by reflection from ground or water.Function of range and heights of antennas, not frequency

Knife edge refraction (loss from terrain ridges betweentransmitter and receiver) In addition to line of sight loss


Line of sight loss

L = [(4π)2D2]/λ2 L is ratio, D & λ in metersL(in dB) = 32.44 + 20 log(F) + 20 log(D)

F in MHz D in km

Line of Sight (Free Space) Nomograph

20,000

10,000

Line of Sight Loss (dB)

10

1

100

500

1000

Fre

quen

cy (

MH

z)

100

10

1

Tra

nsm

issi

on D

ista

nce

(km

)

160

140

120

100

80

60

40


Two ray loss

L = D4/[h2

T h2R

]L is ratio, D, hT & hR in meters

L(in dB) = 120 + 40 log(D) − 20 log(hT) − 20 log(hR)

D in km, hT & hR in meters

Two ray loss Nomograph

1

3

Tra

nsm

itti

ng A

nten

na H

eigh

t (m

)

10

30

100

300

1000

3000

10,000

1

3R

ecei

ving

Ant

enna

Hei

ght

(m)

Pat

h Le

ngth

(km

)

10

30

.1

.3708090100110120130140150160170

1

3

10

30

100300

Pro

paga

tion

Los

s (d

B)

1000

100

300

1000

3000

10,000

RTD

hT hR


Knife edge diffraction geometry

T R

H

d2d1

d2 ≥ d1

Calculate d = [sqrt 2 / (1 + (d1/d2)] d1or just use d = d1 which reduces accuracy by ∼ 1.5 dB

Knife edge diffraction nomograph

d in

km

H in

met

ers

0.1

1246100.2

0.40.6

1

15000

3000

600150

30

Freqin MHz

30000

60001500

300

2040601002004006001 k2 k4 k

246

10

204060

100

60

5

4

3210

dB lo

ss if

H b

elow

pat

h

Pat

h lo

ss in

dB

(H

abo

ve p

ath)

30

35

40

25

2018161412

109

8

7


Atmospheric attenuation at sea level

.2

10

64

2

1

.4

.6

.1

0.040.06

0.02

0.01

Atm

osph

eric

Los

s (d

B p

er k

m)

Frequency (GHz)

1008060402010864


Rain & Fog attenuation

0.1

10

5

1

0.5

0.05

0.01

RA

INF

OG

Att

enua

tion

– d

B p

er k

ilom

eter

Frequency – GHz 1008060403020151086543

B 1.0 mm/hr

4.0 mm/hr

16 mm/hr

100 mm/hr

0.032 gm/m3

0.32 gm/m3

2.3 gm/m3

.04 in/hr

.16 in/hr

.64 in/hr

4.0 in/hr

Light Rain

Moderate Rain

Heavy Rain

Very Heavy Rain

Visibility greater than 600 metersVisibility about 120 meters

Visibility about 30 meters

C

D

E

F

G

H

AB

C

HDE

G

F


Receiver Sensitivity

Receiversystem

Output

Sensitivitydefined here

S = kTB + NF + RFSNR

S & kTB in dBm, NF & RFSNR in dB

Sensitivity is the minimum signal level out of antenna atwhich the receiver can provide adequate output SNR

Minimum discernable signal (MDS) is signal level for0 dB RFSNR

RFSNR (dB)

Sign

al s

tren

gth

S (dBm)

MDS (dBm)

kTB (dBm)

NF (dB)

kTB(in dBm) = −114 + 10 log (BW/1 MHz)


System noise figure

w/o Preamp: NF = L1 + NRWith Preamp: NF = L1 + NP + Deg All in dB

RCVRL2PAL1

NP GP NR

35.1 .25 .5 1 2

346810

Readdegradationwhere 2lines cross

30

25

20

15

10

5

5 10 15

NR (in dB)

DEGRADATIONIN DB

Np

+ G

p –

L 2 (

all i

n dB

)

20 25 30 35

L1&L2 = Losses (dB) GP = PA Gain (dB)NP = PA NF (dB) NR = Rcvr NF(dB)


Signal to Noise Ratio RequiredType of Signal RFSNR Output

SNR

Pulse Signal –Expert Operator 8 dB 8 dBPulse Signal – Computer Analysis 15 dB 15 dBTelevision Broadcast 40 dB 40 dBAM Signal 10 to 15 dB 10 to 15 dBFM Signal 4 or 12 dB 15 to 40 dBDigital Signal ∼= 12 dB SQR

FM signal

4 dB for FM improvement with PLL Discriminator12 dB for FM improvement with tuned DiscriminatorFM improvement above RF SNR:IFFM = 5 + 20 log(β)

Output SNR = RFSNR + IFFM

Digital signal

RFSNR depends on required bit error rate Output SNRis determined by digitization. “SQR” is The signal toQuantization error ratio


Effective range (Line of Sight Propagation)

20 log(RE) = PT + GT − 32.44 − 20 log(F) + GR − SRE = anti-log[20 log(RE)/20]

Effective range (Two-Ray Propagation)

40 log(RE) = PT +GT −120+20 log(hT)+20 log(hR)

+ GR − SRE = anti-log[40 log(RE)/40]

REin km, PT & S in dBm, GT & GR in dB, hT & hR inmeters,

KED impact on effective rangeBecause the range impacts the location of the transmitterand/or receiver relative to the ridge line, it is normallybest to calculate the KED loss after the geometry isdefined, then make the appropriate recalculation ofrange after addition of the KED loss.


Communication Jamming

JMMR

XMTRRCVR

LS

LJ

ERPSGRJ

GR

ERPJ

ERPJ = ERP of JMMRERPS = ERP of XMTR

LS = XMTR to RCVR lossLJ = JMMR to RCVR loss

GR = Gain of Rcv Ant to XMTRGRJ = Gain of Rcv Ant to JMMR

General caseJ/S = ERPJ − ERPS − LJ + LS + GRJ − GR

If RCV ant has 360◦ coverageJ/S = ERPJ − ERPS − LJ + LSLoss in signal or jam link can be from any of thepropagation models on pages 15–19.

Jamming effectivenessNote that the above equations and those presented laterfor RADAR jamming assume that all jamming power iswithin the target receiver bandwidth and that thejamming signal will have the same processing gain asthe desired signal. Resulting J/S calculations must beadjusted for both of these factors when they apply.


Required J/S & Jamming duty cycle

Against analog modulations: J/S ∼ 10 dB and 100%duty cycle are required to assure complete interruptionof the target link.

Against digital modulations: J/S ∼ 0 dBDuty cycle = 20−33% over info period (for exampleover the period of a syllable of voice communication)This will cause sufficient bit errors to stopcommunication.Both of these J/S ratios are after any reductions forreceiver processing gain and jamming inefficiency.


Communication EP (LPI Comm)Anti jamming (A/J ) advantageThe amount of total jamming power required relative tothat required for a conventional non-LPI signal with thesame Information bandwidth.

Frequency hoppingRequires digital modulation Slow hop is bits/hopFast hop is hops/bitA/J advantage = hopping range/Information Bandwidth

Chirp

Requires digital modulationSweep at very high rateA/J advantage = sweep range/Information BandwidthLong sweep with many bits per sweep

• Pseudo-random sweep synchronization &/ornon-linear sweep

Sweep per bit with uni or bi directional sweep on eachbit

• Detected in compressive filtersDirect sequence spread spectrumRequires digital modulationSecondary modulation with high rate pseudo-random codeA/J advantage = spreading code rate/information coderate


Jamming LPI Communications

Slow frequency hoppingFollower jammer driven by digital RCVR with FFTPartial band jamming

Fast frequency hoppingPartial band jamming

Chirp (long sweep)Partial band jamming

Chirp (sweep/bit)Match sweep waveform for one or for zero for all bits

Direct sequence spread spectrumCW Jamming or Pulse JammingAdequate J/S to overcome A/J advantage and achieve0 dB J/S after despreading

Partial band jammingSpreads jamming power over the number of channels forwhich 0 dB J/S can be achieved. In general, this providesoptimum hopper or chirp jamming performance.


Radar Characteristics

XMTR

RCVRPR

PT

ERP = PT + G

RCS

Radar range equation (matched filter)PPτGTσAR

(4π)2R4kTsL= 20

Radar return power equationPR = PTG2λ2σ/(4π)3R4

PT PR & PP in WattsG & L are ratiosR in metersτ in sec TSin ◦Kσ & ARin sq metersλ in meters

(dB)PR =PT +2G−103−20 Log F−40 Log R+10 Log σ

PT & PR in dBm , G in dB, F in MHz. R in km, σ in sqmeters

Radar resolution cell

3 dB beamwidth ofRadar Antenna

Cross Range

Dow

nR

ange

Half pulseduration

(x speed of light)

1


Radar Jamming

For non-dB forms: J/S , G, GM , GS are ratiosERPJ & ERPS in wattsR, RT & RJ in meters, σ in m2

For dB forms: J/S in dB G, GM, GS in dBi ERPJ &ERPS in dBm R, RT & RJ in km, σ in m2

Self protection jamming

RADAR

JRadar Signal

Jamming Signal

G

R

Note that G is GM

J/S = (4πERPJR2)/(ERPSσ)

(In dB) J/S = ERPJ −ERPS +71+20 Log R−10 Log σ

Burn through rangeRBT = sqrt[(ERPSσ)/(4πERPJ)]

(In dB) 20 Log RBT = ERPS − ERPJ − 71+ 10 Log RCS + J/S (Rqd)

RBT = Anti-Log {[20 Log R]/20}


Remote Jamming

RADAR

J

RT

RJ

GM

GS

J/S = (4πERPJGSR4T)/(ERPSGMR2

J σ)

(In dB)

J/S = ERPJ −ERPS +71+GS −GM +40 Log RT

− 20 log RJ − 10 Log RCS

Burn through rangeRBT = 4th root of [(ERPS GM R2

J σ)/(4πERPJ GS)]

(In dB)

40 Log RT =ERPS −ERPJ −71−GS +GM +40 Log RT

− 20 Log RJ +10 Log RCS+J/S(Required)

RBT =Anti-Log{[40 Log RT]/40}

Note about burn through range:This is actually the range at which the radar canreacquire the target, but it is common to calculate withthe minimum J/S for which jamming can be assumed tobe effective.


Radar EP

Ultralow side lobes: Reduces J/S & increasesburnthrough range in sidelobe jamming

Sidelobe cancellation: Reduces CW sidelobe jamming

Sidelobe blanking: Cancels pulse sidelobe jamming

Anti-crosspol: Reduces cross polarized (Condon) lobes

Pulse compression: Reduces J/S by the compressionfactor unless jammer has compression modulation

Monopulse radar: Counters multi-pulse angledeception

Pulse doppler radar: Detects non-coherent jamming,detects chaff, requires coherent jamming

Dicke-Fix: counters AGC jamming

Burn-through modes: Increase power or duty cycle toincrease burn-through range.

Frequency agility: Requires jamming energy to bespread to cover transmission frequencies

PRF Jitter: requires longer cover pulses

Home on jam mode: Makes self protection jammingImpractical, endangers stand-off jammers


Expendable Countermeasures

RCS of chaffRCS of one (average) dipoleσ1 = 0.15 λ2

0.46 λ to 0.48 λ dipole lengthDipoles randomly orientedRCS of all (N) dipoles in chaff cloud or in radarresolution cell if cloud is larger

0.925 Nσ1 with λ spacing0.981 Nσ1 with 2λ spacingNσ1 with wide spacing

FlaresOlder flares are much hotter than heat source targeted byheat seeking missiles. Slope of IR energy vs. wavelengthvaries with temp. so 2 color sensor can discriminateagainst flare. 2-color or low temp. flares match energyslope of target.

Expendable decoysProtect Ships and AircraftGenerate more RCS than targetStart within radar resolution cell, capture tracking radar,move resolution cell away from targetTowed decoysTowed within radar resolution cell at acquisition rangebut beyond burst radius of missile warhead.


Decoys

RCS of passive corner reflector decoy

σ = 15.59 L4

λ2 L

Active decoysRCS(dBsm) = 39 + Gain − 20 log(F) L & λ in meters,F in MHz

10 100 1000 10,000

20

40

60

80RCS of constant gain decoy

Frequency in MHz

Eff

ecti

ve R

CS

of d

ecoy

(dB

s m

)

70 dB Gain60 dB Gain50 dB Gain40 dB Gain30 dB Gain

RCS of primed decoy(fixed ERP) repeatingradar signal D

RD

ERPRERPJRADAR

RCS(dBsm) = 71 + ERPJ − ERPR + 20 log(RD)

ERP (both) in dBm, RD in km


Decibels (dB)

N (dB) = 10 log10 (N) Where N is a ratioSpecial case for voltage ratio, N(dB) = 20 log10(N)

N(not in dB) = 10[N(dB)/10]

= AntiLog[N(dB)/10]

A(dB) ± B (dB) = C(dB)A(dBm) ± B(dB) = C(dBm)A(dBm) – B(dBm) = C(dB)A(dB) ± 10 Log(number not in dB)A(dB) ± 20 Log(number not in dB)

when square of number goes into eqn

dBm dB value of Pwr/1 mW Signal StrengthdBW dB value of Pwr/1 watt Signal StrengthdBsm dB value of area/1 sm RCS & Ant. AreadBi dB value of ant gain/ Antenna Gain

isotropic

N(dBm) = N(dBW) + 30 dB


Graph & Nomograph Instructions

Peak gain vs 3 dB beamwidth (p7):draw up from 3 dB beamwidth to 55% efficiency line,then left to peak gain. Note that dish antenna can havevalues to the left of this line but not to the right.

Line of sight loss (p 15):Draw line from distance in km to frequency in MHz.Read loss in dB at center scale.

Two ray loss (p16):Draw line from transmit antenna Height to receivingantenna height (both in meters). Draw Line fromdividing line through distance in km. Read Loss in dB atright scale

Knife edge diffraction loss (p17):Draw line from d in km On left scale through H inmeters to index line. (note that H can be above or belowknife Edge). Draw line from index crossing throughfrequency in MHz to right scale. Read KED loss (aboveLOS loss) in dB at right scale If H is above knife edgeuse left side; if H is below knife edge use right side.


Graph & Nomograph Instructions

Atmospheric loss (p18):Draw vertical line up from Frequency to curve, then leftto loss per km.

Rain & Fog loss (p 19):identify appropriate curve from Table. Draw line fromfrequency up to curve, then left to Attenuation per km.

Receiver system NF (p21):Draw vertical line from NR Draw horizontal line fromGP + NP − L2. lines cross on applicable degradationvalue curve.

Active decoy RCS (p33):Draw up from frequency to Gain line, then left to DecoyRCS


List of SymbolsPT Transmitter power in dBmPR Received Power in dBmGT Transmitting Antenna gain in dBGR Receiving Antenna gain in dBGM Antenna main beam peak gainGS Antenna average side lobe gainL Propagation loss (from any model)F Frequency in MHzD Link distance in kmd distance input to KED nomographd1 distance from XMTR to knife edged2 distance from knife edge to RCVRhT height of transmit antenna in metershR height of receiving antenna in metersFZ Fresnel zone distance in kmS Sensitivity in dBmλ Wavelength in metersc Speed of light (3 × 108 m/sec)R RangeRE Effective rangeRJ Range to jammerRT Range to targetσ Radar cross sectionτ Pulse widthk Boltzman’s constantTS System temperature in ◦Kelvin


List of Abbreviations

EW Electronic WarfareES Electronic SupportEP Electronic ProtectionARM Anti-radiation missileHEW High energy weaponsLPI Low probability of interceptRWR Radar Warning ReceiverLOS Line of sight LossKED Knife Edge Diffraction LossXMTR TransmitterRCVR ReceiverkTB Thermal noise in receiver in dBmRFSNR Predetection signal to noise ratioSNR Output signal to noise ratioBW Receiver effective bandwidthPA PreamplifierLHC Left hand circular (polarizationRHC Right hand circular (polarization)ERP Effective radiated powerRCS Radar cross sectionPRF Pulse repeitition frequencyMDS Minimum discernable signalNF Noise figurePLL Phase locked loopIFFM FM improvement factor

Documents

Electronic Warfare Pocket Guide - archive.org