EGM302 Research Methods and Field School

Literature Reviews and

Scientific Writing

• The dissertation module is a compulsory element of the Marine Science degree programme.

• It is a very different module from previous ones that you have completed, requiring you to work independently on a project of your own choice with help from a supervisor.

• Although this may seem daunting at the outset, the dissertation allows you to study something in which you are really interested and gives you great opportunities to get deeply involved in one aspect of your subject.

Dissertation preparation classesY2 S2

ID supervisor and titleY2 S2

Projects agreed and disseminated

Y2 S2 W6

Submit research plan (mini lit-review, ethics form and risk

assessment)25% of module EGM 302

Y2 S2 W12 Deadline: Mon 14.15 Rory Quinn

Submit literature review (2000 words)

10% of module EGM522

Y3 S1 W5

Oral presentation10% of module EGM522

Y3 S2 W3

Submit dissertation75% of module EGM522

Y3 S2 W12 Deadline: Tue 4pm ORC &

Blackboard

Submit PDP critical reflection5% of module EGM522

Y3 S2 W12 Deadline: Tue 4pm ORC &

Blackboard

 

 

DISSERTATION TYPES

We recognize that dissertation projects may be either field-based or desk-based.

• Field-based projects are based mainly on the collection and analysis of primary data, such as field measurements/observations, surveys (e.g. questionnaires) or the use of ethnographic techniques to study everyday life (interviews, focus groups, participant observation).

• Desk-based projects are based mainly on the collection and analysis of secondary data (existing data collected by the University or an outside agency).

The Research Plan (25% of EGM302)

• In consultation with your supervisor you will have to submit a research plan in week 12. You must pass this component of the module in order to pass the module.

• The plan should be 2000 words maximum, to include sections (a) mini literature review (1000 words maximum), (b) motivation, (c) aims / objectives / research question(s), (d) methodology, data collection and analysis techniques, (e) risk analysis of the project, and (f) a timetable of the work in the form of a Gannt chart.

PLANNING YOUR DISSERTATION

Dissertation diary/notes

• It is essential that you are as organised as possible from the start of your dissertation.

• I suggest you buy a hardback notebook and keep detailed research notes as you progress – a kind of research diary.

• A research diary is a record of your involvement in a project. The main reasons for keeping a research diary are:

[a] To generate a history of the project, your thinking and the research process.

[b] To provide material for reflection. [c] To provide data on the research process.[d] To record the development of your research skills.

• It is important to write in the diary regularly. You should write something every day you do any work on your research project, and also at regular intervals (say weekly).

• The diary is a record of your developing thought and action, and of the real process of action research and reflective practice. Record everything ... references, thoughts, data, methodologies, questions, queries, observations, suggestions for further research etc. etc.

• This record is invaluable when it comes to writing your dissertation.

Literature review

• A literature review is a critical evaluation of the scientific literature published on a specific research topic.

• It describes and analyses existing knowledge and identifies gaps in research related to the dissertation topic.

• The purpose of the review is therefore to summarise, synthesise and analyse the arguments of others.

• The review should reveal similarities and differences, consistencies and inconsistencies and controversies in published research.

• It should therefore be organised around ideas or themes, not around sources.

• It is not a descriptive list of papers or summaries.

According to Caulley (1992) of La Trobe University, the literature review should:

• compare and contrast different authors' views on an issue• group authors who draw similar conclusions• criticise aspects of methodology• note areas in which authors are in disagreement• highlight exemplary studies• highlight gaps in research• show how your study relates to previous studies• show how your study relates to the literature in general• conclude by summarising what the literature says

• The research plan literature review has a word limit of 1000. A minimum of 5 scientific papers should be cited.

• In addition to the training session organised in the library in week 10, Gilbert et al. (2011) contains a good section on literature searches (pages 3-5).

• Two links you might find helpful include an online guide from the University of Canberra (link on weebly site) and a recent paper published in PLOS Computational Biology by Pautasso (2013) 'Ten Simple Rules for Writing a Literature Review'.

‘In science, the credit goes to the man who convinces the world, not to whom the idea first occurs’

Francis Darwin, Eugenics Review, April 1914

Scientific writing• Scientists write, among other things, to inform the public, to

persuade government and industry to fund research, and to communicate results, innovations and discoveries to fellow academics, industry, and public audiences.

• Whatever the form of communication used – oral presentation, report, academic paper, website or news item – the good Science writer (Monash University):

1. thinks objectively and thoroughly2. researches carefully3. keeps good records and notes4. writes clearly, concisely and accurately5. considers the background of the audience6. uses the appropriate format for the type of writing involved7. presents the material neatly8. takes care to acknowledge all sources of information.

In Year 3, the Marine Science dissertation is submitted following the instruction to authors for a specific marine science journal.

Example: Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science

• The scientific paper has developed over the past three centuries into a tool to communicate the results of scientific inquiry.

• The main audience for scientific papers is extremely specialized.

• The purpose of these papers is twofold: to present information so that it is easy to retrieve, and to present enough information that the reader can duplicate the scientific study.

Colorado State University

A standard journal paper format with six main part helps readers to find expected information and analysis:

• Title – the subject area and what aspect of the subject was studied.

• Abstract – a summary of paper: the main reason for the study, how it was done, the primary results, the main conclusions.

• Introduction - why the study was undertaken and what were the aims/objectives.

• Materials and Methods - how the study was undertaken

• Results - what was found.

• Discussion - why these results could be significant (what the reasons might be for the patterns found or not found).

ECSS Types of paper Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science is an international multidisciplinary journal devoted to the analysis of saline water phenomena ranging from the outer edge of the continental shelf to the upper limits of the tidal zone. The journal provides a unique forum, unifying the multidisciplinary approaches to the study of the oceanography of estuaries, coastal zones, and continental shelf seas. It features original research papers, review papers and short communications treating such disciplines as zoology, botany, geology, sedimentology, physical oceanography. Data reports of mainly local interest are discouraged.

Research areas include: Numerical modelling of estuarine and coastal marine ecosystems; Species distribution in relation to varying environments; Effects of waste disposal; Groundwater runoff and Chemical processes; Estuarine and fjord circulation patterns; Meteorological and oceanic forcing of semi-enclosed and continental shelf water masses; Sea-surface and sea-bed processes; Estuarine and coastal sedimentary processes and geochemistry; Brackish water and lagoon phenomena; Transitional waters.

ECSS Paper length The paper should not contain more than 8000 words, and not more than 8 figures and 3 tables.

Simplicity is the ultimate sophistication. Leonardo da Vinci

scientific writing

Any fool can make things bigger, more complex, and more violent. It takes a touch of genius-and a lot of courage-to move in the opposite direction. Albert Einstein

The great enemy of clear language is insincerity. When there is a gap between one's real and one's declared aims, one turns instinctively to long words and exhausted idioms, like a cuttlefish squirting out ink. George Orwell

Anybody can have ideas—the difficulty is to express them without squandering a quire of paper on an idea that ought to be reduced to one glittering paragraph.

I never write "metropolis" for seven cents when I can write "city" and get paid the same. As to the adjective, when in doubt, strike it out. Mark Twain

The next few slides in this lecture are adapted from ‘Writing for Science’, available online from the University of Leicester

Characteristics of good scientific writing

Good scientific writing is:

1. clear - it avoids unnecessary detail;

2. simple - it uses direct language, avoiding vague or complicated sentences. Technical terms and jargon are used only when they are necessary for accuracy;

3. impartial - it avoids making assumptions (Everyone knows that ...) and unproven statements (It can never be proved that ...). It presents how and where data were collected and supports its conclusions with evidence;

4. structured logically - ideas and processes are expressed in a logical order. The text is divided into sections with clear headings;

5. accurate - it avoids vague and ambiguous language such as about, approximately, almost;

6. objective - statements and ideas are supported by appropriate evidence that demonstrates how conclusions have been drawn as well as acknowledging the work of others.

Developing good scientific writing

To reflect the characteristics of good scientific writing in your own work, you need to think about the way that you write and the language that you use.

A good scientific author will have given consideration to the following choices in writing, making decisions that improve the effectiveness of the writing.

Choosing the words

To make your writing clear, accurate and concise you should consider carefully the words that you use, and the ways in which you use them.

Technical terms

In most scientific writing you will need to use some scientific or technical terms in order to be clear and unambiguous. However, use such terms only when you need to do so and do not try to impress the reader by using unnecessary technical jargon or lengthy words.

Abbreviations

Abbreviations can be a very useful way of saving time and avoiding repetition, but they can be confusing and might not be understood by everyone. Use standard abbreviations where these exist, and reduce your use of abbreviations to an absolute minimum; they are rarely essential.

Use objective rather than subjective languageObjective language is language that is impartial and states a fact or process; subjective language is open to question or interpretation as it implies personal thought or belief. For example:

objective   The car travelled at 38 kilometres per hour

is a clear, objective statement of fact.

However:

subjective  The contents of the test tube turned a beautiful blue colour

uses beautiful in a way that is subjective because it cannot be measured or accurately explained to the reader. Always use language that is concrete and specific rather than vague and personal.

Using tenses

Scientific writing frequently uses the past tense, particularly when the main focus of the writing is to describe experiments or observations that took place prior to the time of writing, for example:

The data were analysed. 

The solution was decanted.

The temperature was recorded.

However, the past tense may not be appropriate for everything that you write and sometimes you will need to combine different tenses in the same piece of writing.

For example, the use of different tenses can help to clarify what happened or what you did in the past (past tense), what you conclude (present tense) and what will be an issue for the future (future tense).

The following sentences show how different tenses can be used to achieve clarity in your written work.

The experiment was carried out in a sterile environment (past tense for a statement of what happened).

It is particularly important to avoid contamination (present tense for a statement that is a general 'truth').

It will be necessary to ensure that the same conditions are replicated in future experiments (future tense for a recommendation for the future).

Sentence length

Sentences that are too short and poorly connected can be irritating to read.

Conversely, sentences that are too long and rambling are difficult to follow and are likely to be confusing.

Use a sentence length that allows your thoughts to flow clearly.

As a general rule there should be no more than 20-25 words in any one sentence.

Making the simple complicated is commonplace; making the complicated simple, awesomely simple, that's creativity. Charles Mingus