Science & Sports (2013) 28, e151—e157

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ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Effects of achievement goals on female aestheticathletes’ disordered eating attitudesEffets des buts d’accomplissement sur les désordres alimentaires desathlètes féminines en sports esthétiques

S. Scoffiera,∗,b, K. Corriona,b, F. d’Arripe-Longuevillea,b

a UFR STAPS — Université de Nice Sophia-Antipolis, LAMHESS, EA 6309, 261, route de Grenoble,BP 3259, 06205 Nice cedex 03, Franceb Université de Toulon, LAMHESS, EA 6309, 83957 La Garde, France

Received 12 February 2013; accepted 9 April 2013Available online 6 June 2013

KEYWORDSAchievementmotivation;Eating disorders;Elite sport

SummaryObjective. — This study examined how achievement goals are related to athletes’ eating disor-ders.Method. — The sample consisted of 196 female adolescents involved in aesthetic sports at anelite level. Data were examined through structural equation modeling.Results. — The data showed that performance-avoidance goals were negatively related to eat-ing disorders, whereas both performance-approach and mastery-avoidance goals positivelypredicted these disorders. These findings indicate that performance-approach and mastery-avoidance goals may be risk factors for the development of eating disorders, whereasperformance-avoidance goals may have protective effects.© 2013 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.

MOTS CLÉSMotivationd’accomplissement ;Désordresalimentaires ;

RésuméObjectif. — Cette étude examine comment les buts d’accomplissement sont reliés aux désordresalimentaires des athlètes.Méthode. — L’échantillon est composé de 196 adolescentes pratiquant un sport esthétique à unniveau élite. Les données étaient examinées à partir de modélisations d’équations structurales.Résultats. — Les données montrent que les buts de performance-évitement étaient négative-

limen

Sport d’élite ment reliés aux désordres a maîtrise-évitement prédisaient pde performance-approche et made risque des désordres alimentavoir un effet protecteur.© 2013 Elsevier Masson SAS. Tou

∗ Corresponding author.E-mail address: scoffier@unice.fr (S. Scoffier).

0765-1597/$ – see front matter © 2013 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights rehttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scispo.2013.04.001

taires, alors qu’aussi bien les buts de performance-approche et

ositivement ces désordres. Ces résultats indiquent que les butsîtrise-évitement peuvent être considérés comme des facteursaires, tandis que les buts de performance-évitement peuvent

s droits réservés.

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. Introduction

everal factors influence the development of disorderedating attitudes, which can be defined as maladaptive atti-udes toward eating and weight control. These attitudes andehaviors range from eating habits to help with weight lossr maintenance to severe or harsh food restriction [1—2].hinness norms can confer a competitive advantage in cer-ain sports and, unsurprisingly, participation in these sportsarries a high risk of developing an eating disorder [2].ndeed, sports judged on aesthetic criteria emphasize theppearance of athletes’ bodies and/or require a specificorphology (e.g., figure skating, gymnastics) [3—6]. Some

thletes in aesthetic sports thus often struggle to conformo an ideal body weight in order to present an aestheti-ally pleasing appearance, whereas others may struggle toaintain low body weight or stay within a specific weight

ategory in order to optimize performance. Maintenance of specific body weight is essential in all such sports [5], andhis pressure is added to the already high pressure to achievexcellence and win. Moreover, sports that require the publicisplay of physical grace and skill are typical achievementontexts that favor eating disorders [7], and achievementoal theories might therefore provide insight into the disor-ered eating of female aesthetic athletes.

The literature in social psychology and sport psychol-gy indicates that disordered eating attitudes develop from

complex interaction of personal and contextual factors2,8]. Many psychosocial factors of disordered eating atti-udes have been examined, such as perfectionism, anxiety,elf-esteem, body image, and coaching style. However, theffects of achievement goals on disturbed eating attitudesave been little explored and no study has examined theffects within the 2 × 2 achievement goal framework [9].

In the social psychology literature, achievement motivesave been examined according to several conceptual-zations. Initially, the achievement model [10—12] wasased on a bidimensional approach to goal-oriented behav-or (mastery vs performance). Performance goals seeko demonstrate ability to others. Mastery goals, on thether hand, seek to improve and learn, no matter howwkward you might look to others. Two goals were con-idered to be particularly important in these situations,ach reflecting a distinct way of subjectively defining suc-ess or failure and judging ability. Then, Elliot et al.13—14] proposed a tridimensional approach to achievementoals in which a distinction between performance-approachnd performance-avoidance was operational. Performance-riented goals were interpreted as representing the valencef competence (i.e., positive and negative valences, respec-ively).

More recently, several authors [9,15] have proposed aurther conceptual modification to achievement goal theoryy distinguishing between approach and avoidance goals foroth mastery and performance; this was termed the 2 × 2odel [9]. This model thus takes into account four situa-

ional goals:

mastery-approach, in which individuals define compe-tence in reference to either themselves or absolutestandards and attribute positive or negative valence toit;

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mastery-avoidance, in which individuals define compe-tence in reference to themselves and attribute positiveor negative valence to it. In this case, the goal is to avoidregressing or not mastering every part of the task;

performance-approach, in which individuals define com-petence normatively and attribute positive valence to it;

performance-avoidance, in which individuals define com-petence normatively and attribute negative valence to it.In this case, the goal is to avoid demonstrating incompe-tence compared with others [16—17].

The research based on the 2 × 2 model has shown thathe achievement goal framework is useful for predicting andxplaining a wide range of variables associated with achieve-ent, such as intrinsic motivation, perceived competence,

nd implicit theories (for a review, see [9,15,18—19]). From functional point of view, both goal valences (i.e., approachnd avoidance) are necessary for successful adaptation [20].ndeed, whereas approach goals facilitate growth and flour-shing, avoidance goals facilitate protection and survival20]. Approach and avoidance goals promote distinct typesf affective, cognitive, and behavioral processes, and bothre relevant to adaptive functioning. Overall, the processf pursuing approach goals is different from the process ofursuing avoidance goals. Approach goals appear to be eas-er to monitor and more manageable than avoidance goals.n addition, whereas approach goals elicit positive cogni-ions, avoidance goals elicit negative cognitions. Accordingo activity theories, therefore, the pursuit of approach goalsould be more likely to promote well-being than the pursuitf avoidance goals [20].

Several studies have examined the effects of the 2 × 2chievement goal framework on a variety of variables.astery-approach goals, for example, are related to these of adaptive strategies and positive affects [9] and areenerally related to adaptive achievement patterns. Onhe other hand, the social psychology literature indicateshat mastery-avoidance goals cannot be categorized intodaptive or maladaptive achievement patterns [21]. Indeed,astery-avoidance goals are associated with high-perceived

ompetence, effort, and physical activity [22], yet theyre also related to maladaptive cognitions such as the fearf losing, worrying, disorganization and low self-regulation9], and amotivation [23]. Performance-approach goals areelated to high-perceived competence and the fear of losingn the sport context [24]. Performance-avoidance goals leado maladaptive cognitions, affects, and behaviors for learn-ng and achievement [15], and low interest in performance.hus, performance-approach and performance-avoidanceoals constitute maladaptive achievement patterns. But,voidance strategies might have protected effects (e.g.17]). Avoidance goals, for example, help individuals avoidaking unnecessary risks [25] or consuming harmful sub-tances [26].

Although several studies have applied the 2 × 2 modelo the variables associated with achievement in academicnd athletic contexts, these constructs have not been muchxamined in relation to health variables. A few studies

ave been conducted with the bidimensional approach tochievement goals [12]. Duda et al. showed that an environ-ent that encouraged mastery seemed to protect female

ymnasts from disordered eating attitudes, whereas the

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perception of a performance-oriented climate seemed tohave a negative impact on the body image of these ath-letes and their weight concerns and predisposed them todisordered eating attitudes and low self-esteem [27—29].In addition, the study of Chi [30] showed that performancegoals could lead to destructive behaviors like drug abuse,alcoholism, or extreme weight control.

De Bruin et al. [31] reported partial correlations suggest-ing that strong ego orientation was associated with moredieting behavior, greater tendency toward perfectionism,greater vulnerability to peer pressure about weight, andlower self-esteem. In contrast, the perception of a mastery-oriented climate was correlated with less dieting behaviorand less vulnerability to pressure about weight from peersand coach. Most importantly, regression analysis showedthat after controlling for body mass index, both ego ori-entation and mastery climate made a unique significantcontribution to explaining dieting variance. Maugendre et al.[32] also showed that extrinsic motivation, amotivation andgoals influence the development of eating disorders in younggirls practicing a sport intensively (more than 8 hours perweek).

Recently, Scoffier et al. [7] applied the 2 × 2 achieve-ment goal model in a study of figure skaters. They showedthat induced mastery-approach goals and performance-avoidance goals were associated with a greater capacityfor self-regulation of eating attitudes than inducedperformance-approach goals and mastery-avoidance goals.The relationships were the same at both self-reported andbehavioral levels, except for the performance-approachgoals, which were not significantly related to the self-reported measure of the self-regulation of eating attitudes.This study confirmed the interest in distinguishing betweenthe approach and avoidance valences of achievement goals.As the sample was relatively small, however, and includedonly figure skaters, a next step would be to study a largersample with athletes from different aesthetic sports.

The present study thus aimed to examine the concom-itant relationships between the four achievement goalsdefined in the 2 × 2 model and disordered eating attitudes.We expected that achievement goals would be related todisordered eating attitudes in diversified ways [7], but thatthese differences would be the same across aesthetic sports.We assumed that mastery-approach goals would protectagainst disordered eating attitudes [27], as this type of goalis usually associated with adaptive patterns [9,33]. On theother hand, we expected that performance-approach goalswould predispose to disordered eating attitudes [27,30—31].Performance-avoidance goals are usually associated withmaladaptive patterns of accomplishment like low perceivedcompetence, low self-determination, strong entity theory[9], and low intrinsic motivation [15], and we thus hypothe-sized that this situational goal would favor the appearanceof disordered eating attitudes. Elliot and McGregor [9]associated mastery-avoidance goals with the fear of los-ing, worrying, disorganization and low self-regulation, whileWang et al. [22] associated mastery-avoidance goals withhigh-perceived competence, effort, and physical activity.

We thus assumed that mastery-avoidance goals would bevectors of adaptive or maladaptive patterns and wouldeither predispose or not to disordered eating attitudes; thisrelationship was therefore examined in an exploratory way.

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. Method

.1. Participants and procedure

he sample was composed of 196 French voluntary high-evel female athletes. The ages ranged from 13 to 20ears (Mage = 17.06; SD = 4.41) and all participants practicedymnastics (Ng = 131) or figure skating (Ns = 65) intensivelyM = 8.65 hours per week, SD = 5.55), with a minimum ofve years of experience in national or international com-etition (M = 8.75; SD = 2.40). The ethical committee of theniversity of Nice Sophia-Antipolis approved the study ande obtained written informed consent from participantsnd their parents for minors. The questionnaires were com-leted either at the beginning or the end of training sessions,epending on the athlete’s availability. Questionnaire com-letion was carried out under standardized conditions (i.e.,solation, paper, pencil, and prohibition to communicate)nd did not exceed 20 minutes.

.2. Measures

.2.1. Achievement goals validated French version [34] of Elliot and McGregor’schievement Goals Questionnaire was used to assess theour goals in the 2 × 2 model. Three items assess each goalmastery-approach: e.g., ‘‘This term, I want to learn asuch as possible in my sport’’; performance-approach: e.g.,

‘This term, it is important for me to do better than otherthletes’’; mastery-avoidance: e.g., ‘‘My goal this term iso avoid learning less than I possibly could in my sport’’; anderformance-avoidance: e.g., ‘‘My goal this term is to avoiderforming worse than other athletes’’). This questionnaires actually used for adolescents and adults in studies. Par-icipants responded on a Likert-type scale from 1 (stronglyisagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Each subscale exhibited sat-sfactory internal consistency based on the study samplerespectively, .74, .78, .82, and .83).

.2.2. Disturbed eating attitudesating attitudes and behaviors were assessed with therench version of the Eating Attitudes Test [35—36]. This6-item self-report inventory comprises three subscales:ieting, bulimia and oral control (e.g., ‘‘The desire to behinner worries me’’; ‘‘I cut up my food in small pieces’’;‘I vomit after eating’’) and is actually used for adolescentsnd adults in studies. Participants responded to items on a 6-oint Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (always) to 6 (never).s the participant did not present clinical eating disordersnd consistent with previous studies [37], only a global indexeasuring disturbed attitudes was used. For the analyses,

he scores of this questionnaire were reversed. Thus, theigher the score was, the higher the disordered eating atti-udes were. This global scale exhibited satisfactory internalonsistency based on the study sample (� = .86).

.3. Data analyses

his study tested a model for examining the relation-hip between achievement goals and disordered eating

e154 S. Scoffier et al.

Table 1 Descriptive statistics and internal consistency coefficients of the studied variables and the correlation matrix r ofPearson (n = 196).

M SD � MApG PApG MAvG PAvG DEA

Mastery-approach goal 6.23 1.06 .74 —Performance-approach goal 4.86 1.71 .78 .13 —Mastery-avoidance goal 4.95 1.73 .82 —.05 .06 —Performance-avoidance goal 4.56 1.70 .83 .01 .45* .44* —Disordered eating attitudes 2.25 .67 .86 .10 .52* .55* —.53* —

M: mean; SD: standard deviation; �: internal consistency coefficient; MApG: mastery-approach goal; PApG: performance-approach goal;l; DEA: disordered eating attitudes. *: P < .05.

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Figure 1 Structural equation modeling of the achieve-ment goals that explained disordered eating attitudes inelite female athletes. MApG: mastery-approach goal; PApG:performance-approach goal; MAvG: mastery-avoidance goal;PAvG: performance-avoidance goal; DEA: disordered eating atti-ts

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MAvG: Mastery-Avoidance goal; PAvG: performance-avoidance goa

ttitudes. Multivariate analyses of variance (MANOVAs)ere performed on all variables to detect differences due

o sport type. Analyses were performed using bootstrappedaximum likelihood estimation with the AMOS 7.0 software

38] because of the significant multivariate non-normalityf the data (normalized skewness: 114.35; normalizedurtosis: 28.33). Assessment of model fit was based onultiple indicators recommended by the Comparative Fit

ndex (CFI), the Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) [39—40], andandenberg and Lance [41]: chi-square (�2), the Root Meanquare Error of Approximation (RMSEA), and the RMSEA 90onfidence Interval (RMSEA 90% CI). Scale reliability (�) wasomputed from the model’s standardized parameter esti-ates, using the formula: � = (��i)2/([��i]2 + ��ii),here �i are the factor loadings and �ii the errorariances [42].

The hypothetical model of the influence ofhe four achievement goals on disordered eatingttitudes was examined through structural equationodeling (SEM). Last, the individual parameters of theodel, such as error measurement, inter-item correlations,

nd modifications index, were examined to evaluate theonformity of the model to the data.

. Results

.1. Preliminary analyses

he results of the descriptive statistical analyses areresented in Table 1. The correlation matrix (Pear-on’s r) (Table 1) highlighted the positive relationshipsetween:

performance-avoidance and performance-approach; performance-avoidance and mastery-avoidance; mastery-avoidance and disordered eating attitudes; performance-approach and disordered eating attitudes.

Multivariate analyses of variance (MANOVAs) were per-ormed on all observed variables to examine the differences

ue to adolescent sport type (gymnastics vs figure skating).he analysis of the variables revealed no significant effectf sport type (Wilks � = .98, F(5, 188) = .303, P = .95, �2 = .70),ndicating that the sample was homogeneous.

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udes; r2: percentage of explained variance; *: significanttandardized estimate coefficients at P < .05.

.2. Effect of achievement goals on disorderedating attitudes

he relationships between variables were examined in aEM according to the hypothetical model. The SEM providedcceptable goodness-of-fit indices (�2 (196, 80) = 210.93;FI = .95; TLI = .94; RMSEA = .053; IC RMSEA = .034/.071).he model (Fig. 1) exhibited the negative influencesf performance-avoidance on disordered eating attitudesˇ = —.51, P < .05). We also observed a positive influencef performance-approach and mastery-avoidance on theisordered eating attitudes (ˇ = .52, P < .05; ˇ = .45, P < .05espectively). This SEM explained 53% of the variance of theisordered eating attitudes. All the subscales exhibited goodnternal consistency [42] (Table 1).

. Discussion

his study examined the influence of the four achieve-ent goals defined in the 2 × 2 model on disordered eating

ttitudes in a large sample of athletes from different

esthetic sports. First, our results showed that, in lineith our expectations, performance-approach goals wereositive predictors of emerging disordered eating atti-udes. This finding agreed with those of Chi [30] and De

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Bruin et al. [31], who showed that performance goalswere associated with maladaptive patterns of achieve-ment and could lead to destructive behaviors like drugabuse, alcoholism, or excessive weight control. Mastery-avoidance goals were also positive predictors of disorderedeating attitudes. Elliot and McGregor [9] associated mastery-avoidance with the fear of losing, worry, disorganizationand diminished self-regulation. These relationships illus-trate the maladaptive patterns linked to mastery-avoidanceand reinforce the results observed in the present studybetween mastery-avoidance and disordered eating atti-tudes. These two types of goal thus appear to besituational context that are propitious for developing eatingdisorders.

In accordance with Scoffier et al. [7], but contraryto our expectations, performance-avoidance was a pro-tective factor. As noted earlier, athletes characterized byhigh performance-avoidance goals might have a relativelylow perception of their physical abilities. From this per-spective, they would be unwilling to go to any lengthsto achieve maximal performance and would thus avoiddeviant behaviors like disordered eating [43—50]. However,more researches are needed to support this supposition. Arelationship between mastery-approach and disturbed eat-ing attitudes did not emerge in the structural equationmodel or the correlation table. This result differs fromprevious studies in the sport psychology literature [31].The lack of relationship between these variables couldbe linked to the competitive period for the participant.Last, our results showed that the distinction between theapproach and avoidance valences [9] is particularly rel-evant for explaining athletes’ disturbed eating attitudesin terms of performance goals. The role of this distinc-tion in mastery goals merits further exploration in futureresearch.

To better understand the processes or mechanisms bywhich achievement goals influence disordered eating atti-tudes, the variables that may mediate or moderate thisrelationship should be investigated. One candidate, forexample, would be intrinsic motivation, which is positivelyrelated to mastery goals and negatively related to perfor-mance goals [44]. It has also been shown that perceivedcompetence moderates the effect of ego orientation inthe motivational process, suggesting the hypothesis thatego-oriented subjects who show low perceived compe-tence will manifest a positive relationship with eatingdisorders, whereas those individuals with high-perceivedcompetence will show a negative relationship. Perfection-ism is another potential mediator. Perfectionist tendenciescan be considered as part of a mode of motivationaland achievement-oriented striving [45]. Previous studieshave found task goals to be related to adaptive aspectsof perfectionism, whereas ego goals have been foundto be associated with maladaptive perfectionist tenden-cies [46]. Other studies have shown that eating disordersare more developed in subjects characterized by self-oriented perfectionism and low satisfaction with bodyweight [47].

To conclude, our results indicated that the 2 × 2 modelof achievement goals applies to disordered eating atti-tudes in the aesthetic sport context. Mastery-avoidanceand performance-approach goals seem to be ‘‘risk factors’’

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or the development of eating disorders, and mastery-pproach and performance-avoidance goals seem to berotective factors. The results of this study confirmed thathe 2 × 2 achievement goal model can be fruitfully appliedo gain insight into the development of eating disorders,s observed in the experiment of Scoffier et al. [7]. Wehus can generalize the results observed in our original sam-le of figure skaters to a broader sample of aesthetic sportthletes.

This study has several limitations. First, the data con-erning the key variables were self-reported, suggesting theikelihood that social desirability was operative. Second, thetudy was cross-sectional in nature; therefore conclusionsbout causality cannot be inferred. There was just one timef measure and one context. Third, the athletes’ scoresn the eating psychopathology measure indicated relativelyealthy attitudes; it is therefore unclear whether the rela-ionships observed in this study would extend to athletesith more severe eating disorders. Moreover, as a controlroup of non-athletes was not included, it is also unclearhether these relationships would extend to the generalopulation. The generalization of the results is also lim-ted to the female gender and an elite level of practice.ast, the participants’ ages and competition experienceere not controlled and future research on eating attitudesill thus need to take into account these individual differ-nces.

. Perspectives

ur results nevertheless suggest some research perspec-ives. First, future studies might investigate whether theelationships we obtained can be generalized to athletesn other types of sport or to other types of population, asell as the aforementioned variables that could play a mod-ration or mediation role in this relationship. Thus, futuretudies could replicate the present study with a sample ofon-athletic controls, as well as a clinical sample, in ordero determine whether the mechanisms involved in the eatingsychopathology of athletes are also operative in the generalopulation and patients with eating disorders. Second, theontextual and temporal dimensions could be considered,ith future studies examining the current eating behavior,ith a temporal control especially concerning the currentoals. Moreover, a longitudinal study would provide eventronger evidence of the relationships between variablesnd should thus also be considered.

If our findings are confirmed, programs to prevent dis-rdered eating attitudes in athletes could be specificallyesigned to provide appropriate and healthier contexts foroal involvement. For example, programs could be adaptedo encourage an orientation toward task mastery as a meanso protect from disordered eating attitudes, whereas pro-rams encouraging a performance-oriented climate woulde abandoned because of their negative impact on bodymage and weight concerns, which predisposes athletes toisordered eating and low self-esteem [27—29]. Not least,

orresponding improvements could be made in the man-gement training programs for sports federations and thepproaches to athletes’ mental preparation and healthaintenance.

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isclosure of interest

he authors declare that they have no conflicts of interestoncerning this article.

cknowledgments

his study was financially supported by a grant from the Uni-ersity of Nice Sophia-Antipolis and the France Foundation.he authors are grateful to the athletes for their participa-ion. They also sincerely thank Catherine Carmeni for herelp in the English translation.

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