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Education Service

WildlifeConservation

Marwell Zoological Park, Colden Common, Winchester, Hampshire, SO21 1JH

Telephone: 01962 777407 Facsimile: 01962 777511 Email: [email protected] Website: www.marwell.org.uk Registered Charity No: 275433

Our Mission

Marwell is dedicated to the conservation of wildlife and other natural resources. We work to conserve species and their habitats, and advocate environmental and

social responsibility in support of these goals.

Our Aims

• To conserve species and their habitats, locally & globally.

• To encourage understanding and inspire care for the natural world.

• To undertake and share results of scientific studies. • To understand our impacts and improve our

environmental performance. • To invest in people and provide opportunities for

personal and professional development. • To communicate our mission and the value of our

work for wildlife, the environment and society. • To develop and maintain a world class visitor centre

and zoological park in support of our charitable objectives.

Marwell Education Service Page 1

Contents

Page 2: Introduction to Wildlife Conservation Page 5: The Role of Zoos Page 6: An Introduction to Marwell Zoological

Park Page 10: Case Study: Tropical Rainforests Page 15: Case Study: African Elephants

Page 22: Conclusion Page 25: References and Recommended

Reading Page 29: Appendix 1 – The Zoo Debate Page 33: Appendix 2 – The Education

Conservation Centre


Introduction: Wildlife Conservation The aim of this booklet is to give you an insight into the work that zoos, like Marwell, are trying to achieve and for you to explore some of the dilemmas that are faced by conservationists in the field. Is There a Need for Conservation? There have been many attempts to answer this question and the responses have varied greatly from an emphatic “yes” to “we don’t know”. The reasons for the uncertainty arise from the fact that we don’t exactly know how many species we share the planet with. Currently, there are only about 1.9 million¹ species known to science, but it has been estimated that there are between 10 million and 100 million species. As we can only make educated guesses as to the total number of species, we can only make educated guesses as to the size of the problem. The World Conservation Union (IUCN) has tried to categorise all of the known species (no easy task) to evaluate their status in the wild. These species lists are updated and published every two years in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals, (there is also an equivalent publication concerned with plants). The following list is taken from the Red List website, and the animals that are written in italics are found at Marwell.

IUCN Categories Extinct: Dodo Extinct in the Wild (EW): Przewalski’s horse Critically Endangered (CR): Amur tiger Endangered (EN): Red ruffed lemur Vulnerable (VU): Malayan tapir Near Threatened (NT): White rhino Conservation Dependent (CD): Giraffe Least Concern (LC): Data Deficient: Chapmans zebra Not Evaluated: - an extremely large category The total number of animals listed is 15,589,(1) however this figure can be misleading as so many species have not been evaluated; the only three groups that have been fully evaluated are the mammals, birds and amphibians - of these three groups 23% of mammals, 12% of birds and 32% of amphibians are listed in the book¹. From all of this information it is estimated that 25% of species are threatened with extinction. If we make a (quite conservative) estimate at the total number of species being around 30 million then this means that there could be as many as 7.5 million species threatened with extinction, and possibly more!


Extinction Extinction is a natural phenomenon and the fossil record indicates that 30 million species only represents 5% of the species that have existed, therefore 600 million species may have existed in the 500 million years of Earth’s history. The fossil record also indicates that the average life-span of animal species is 4 million years and the background extinction rate is 1 species every 4 years. At present the extinction rate is estimated to be between 100 - 1,000 (1) times greater than the background extinction rate, which means that we are currently in a mass extinction event. Throughout geological history there have been five other mass extinction events, the last one was 65 million years ago when the dinosaurs and many other species became extinct. No one is quite sure what caused the last five events, however the general consensus of opinion is that the current event is being caused, or at least significantly contributed to, by the presence of just one species - Homo sapiens! Threats There are 5 main threats/reasons why animals are becoming endangered. The first two are both global and indiscriminate, the third affects a wide variety of species for many different reasons and the fourth affects only a relatively few species. The fifth threat can affect particular species but in some habitats have a wide-ranging effect. However the majority of species are not just threatened by one reason in isolation, rather they are becoming endangered due to a combination of the following threats: 1. Habitat Destruction:

• 12 million acres of rainforest have been destroyed - that is equivalent to about 11 football fields a minute.(2)

• (Britain has more heathland than any other nation and the majority of this is found in Hampshire and Dorset. However, British heathland is under threat from housing development, landfill sites, erosion from uncontrolled leisure activities (e.g. mountain biking) and pollution.

2. Pollution:

• Pollution is very serious, as its effects can be encountered far away from its source.

• The emissions from burning fossil fuels, in cars, factories and in the production of electricity, contribute to the problems of global warming and acid rain.

• Chemicals such as Chloroflurocarbons (CFCs) are producing holes in the ozone layer above the Arctic and Antarctic.

• 30 billion litres of raw sewage was discharged into the Thames from September 2004 to August 2005 (that is equal to 33 Olympic swimming pools full of raw sewage per day) (3) (4).

• Pollutants, which are dumped into the rivers and oceans of many countries, have been detected in Antarctica.

3. Hunting/Poaching:

• Animals are killed for several reasons; some, such as the tiger and rhino, are used in traditional medicines; some, such as snakes, elephants and spotted cats, are killed for


the fashion industry; and some, such as gorillas and chimpanzees, are killed for meat.

• Britain is a signatory to CITES (Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species), which completely bans the trade of, or allows a limited controlled trade of, species listed on Appendix I or II respectively (for more information see the African Elephant Case Study).

4. The Pet Trade: • This only affects a few species directly, but species like the Moluccan cockatoo

and the lesser sulphur-crested cockatoo are both listed in the IUCN Red Data Book.

5. Introduction of Alien Species into Habitats:

• Unwanted exotic pets can indirectly affect several species. For example the red-eared terrapins from Central America became very popular pets due to the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, however, they demonstrate a common problem - many exotic pet owners do not find enough information about their chosen pet before they buy it. Sooner or later they realise that for a variety of reasons their chosen pet isn’t suitable and they no longer want them. Many red-eared terrapins have been indiscriminately released into ponds and lakes throughout Britain. They are voracious carnivores and have proceeded to decimate the numbers of indigenous wildlife, as a result of this the EU has banned the import of these animals.


The Role of Zoos Can zoos play an active role in Conservation? Over the past few decades most zoos have been changing their roles, and attempting to also change their image, to one of “Arks for Endangered Species”. However, it is still very easy to get the wrong impression! (Appendix I contains some of the arguments for and against zoos). In the case of long established institutions, which were essentially collections of a wide variety of species for many years, the change of both role and image has not been easy. The transition to keeping breeding groups, especially where this involves herds of ungulates, takes time to achieve from the starting point of a “stamp collection” type of zoo. Zoos in this country are hampered by receiving no government support (unlike those in the USA and Europe etc.) This means that most of them depend almost entirely on visitors’ money to keep going, and thus have to appeal to as wide an audience as possible. Like it or not, they are dependent on the leisure market for their continued existence, and thus the funding of their conservation work. Some zoos, such as Marwell and Jersey, were founded with the specific aim of conserving endangered species and were able to concentrate on breeding groups from the start, enclosures were designed with this in mind. However, in addition to keeping threatened species, we need to keep animals which are not threatened but do attract visitors, such as meerkats and giraffes, (it is also better to train, and be trained, in husbandry techniques on species which are not endangered). Hence the children’s’ play areas and amusements, and although we try not to go any further down that road than we have to, the zoo needs to promote itself as a ‘fun day out’ in order to survive. It is perhaps not surprising that the public’s perception of zoos as ‘living museums - animals for your entertainment’ or even ‘animal prisons’ is hard for zoos to shake off.


An Introduction to Marwell Zoological Park In 1969 Mr. John Knowles bought Marwell Hall and the surrounding estate to set up a centre for the preservation of animal species in danger of becoming extinct. The first animals to arrive were a pair of Siberian (now called Amur) tigers.

Marwell’s Aims 1. Conservation:

• Through captive breeding - to breed animals to ensure the species does not become extinct. Sometimes captive bred animals can be re-introduced to the wild.

• Through ‘outreach’ - to support in situ conservation projects, i.e. work going on in the field.

2. Education:

• To stimulate concern about wildlife. If we cannot persuade people to alter their attitudes today, then the rest of our conservation work is of debatable value.

3. Research:

• To find out more about wild animal species. The more we know, the better the chance we have of saving them.

Captive Breeding The aim of a captive breeding programme is to maintain a healthy, self-sustaining population of each chosen threatened species. The key to this is to preserve as much of the initial genetic variation for as long a time as possible, (ideally 90% over 100 years¹). The genetic variation of a captive population comes from its founders (animals taken from a wild population). It is essential that a founder’s genes are passed on to future generations if a breeding programme is to succeed. To ensure the preservation of genetic variation a captive population of about 500 animals of a particular species is necessary (this is a generalised figure and varies between species). Therefore, at any one zoo you only see a fraction of the captive breeding population.


Ideally animals should not breed with their close relatives and where possible, matings should be between unrelated animals. This ensures that the species remains as healthy and as varied as possible. Sometimes animals are transferred between zoos for breeding; this can be difficult and expensive, but the travelling time is always kept to a minimum. Marwell, like other zoos taking part in breeding programmes, must record as much information as is available about each individual animal involved. Records include details of sex, name, date of birth, parentage as well as veterinary particulars. To help to identify individuals ear tags or electronic tags under the skin may be used. The animals’ details are held on computerised studbooks. The information is used by studbook keepers and species co-ordinators to organise breeding programmes at a national, European and international level. Participating zoos share responsibility for the work involved, and different organisations will ‘hold’ different studbooks. Marwell organises the international studbooks for Grevy’s zebra, Hartmann’s mountain zebra and scimitar horned oryx.

Breeding Successes Most species at Marwell breed successfully, but some births are especially notable. In the UK, we were the first to breed nyala, addax, dama gazelle, maned wolves and secretary birds. Other important births include okapi, Somali wild ass and pygmy hippo. The aim of breeding programmes is eventually to re-introduce the animals back into the wild.

Re-introductions Re-introduction is not just a matter of releasing animals into the wild, but involves many complex factors. These include the availability of suitable habitat, the economic situation and willingness of the country concerned, the co-operation of the local people and, most importantly, the elimination of the threats which made the species concerned rare in the first place. Education, habitat protection and research must go alongside re-introduction for it to succeed. Where this is possible, there are great benefits not only to the species re-introduced, but also to its ecosystem and all the other species within that ecosystem. Although difficult, re-introduction has been successful for several species, and Marwell is proud to have played an important role in several programmes. These include cheer pheasants (to the Himalayan foothills in Pakistan), scimitar-horned oryx (to a reserve in Tunisia), golden lion tamarins (to a reserve in the Brazilian Rainforest), Przewalski’s horses (to a reserve in Hungary - thought to be part of its former range), sand lizards, natterjack toads and reddish buff moths (to protected sites in the south of England.)

Conservation Abroad The ideal, when possible, is to conserve animals in their natural habitats in their countries of origin, and Marwell donates thousands of pounds every year supporting field conservation projects. A major commitment is the Marwell Zimbabwe Trust, based at Marwell Dambari Field Station. This station is a base for conservation initiatives and research in southern Africa, including nutrition studies on black rhino. Marwell


has also supported a number of other projects including: The Epulu project - working to conserve the elusive okapi in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and The Golden Lion Tamarin Project – working to conserve tamarins and their habitat in Brazil (2). Education As long as the threats to wildlife remain, the chances of successfully reintroducing more species back into the wild will remain small. Education is therefore an essential tool in wildlife conservation. The comments below, printed in the Sunday Times (16/08/98), will give you an idea of some people’s attitudes towards wildlife: Visitors’ comments to the American Forest Service about their wilderness areas.

• “There are too many rocks in the mountains.” • “Escalators would help on the steep uphill sections.” • “Trails need to be wider so people can walk holding hands.” • “Too many bugs and leeches and spiders and spider’s webs, please spray the

wilderness to rid the area of these pests.” • “The coyotes made too much noise last night and kept me awake. Please

eradicate these annoying animals.” • “A small deer came into my camp and stole my bag of pickles. Is there a way I

can be reimbursed?” • “A McDonald’s would be nice at the trailhead.”

So as you can see peoples’ attitudes towards wildlife need to be changed if we are to succeed in saving endangered species. Organisation Marwell Zoological Park is a member of the British Zoo Federation (BZF), the European Association of Zoos and Aquaria (EAZA) and the World Association of Zoos and Aquaria (WAZA, formerly IUDZG). The IUCN and the IUDZG joined forces to write the World Zoo Conservation Strategy, which places great emphasis on education. There are roughly 1,000 zoos worldwide that belong to some kind of national or international organisation like the BZF, EAZA or WAZA. Every year roughly 600 million people visit these zoos¹, which is the equivalent of 10% of the global population. Zoos therefore have a huge potential to try to change peoples’ attitudes, and therefore play a major role in conservation (1). At Marwell the Education Service aims to raise peoples’ awareness of conservation issues in a number of ways. Over 32,000 pupils/students a year have formal sessions in the Education Department, whilst the general zoo visitor is targeted by means of our guide book, talks at various animal enclosures, fact sheets, graphics in the zoo and sessions in the Education Centre, in which the zoo’s volunteers play an essential role. Research The health and welfare of the animals is a priority at Marwell. Therefore, comparisons of research carried out in the wild and in captivity are extremely useful to us in caring for these animals. Keepers clean and feed, whilst a vet visits regularly to ensure the


animals are fit and well. Enclosures are designed to allow animals to move and behave naturally - climbing animals have trees, branches and ropes, semi-aquatic animals have water, etc., and animals are kept in their correct social groupings. Each animal receives a carefully planned and well balanced diet, and behavioural enrichment techniques are often used to ‘challenge’ the animals and encourage natural feeding behaviours where possible.


Tropical Rainforests

Key Features of a Tropical Rainforest (TRF)

Strictly speaking, rainforests are just one type of tropical moist forest. Generally, rainforests are wetter, hotter and contain more species than other tropical forests. They are found primarily along the Equator, concentrated in the lowland Amazon, the Congo Basin and SE Asia. TRF once covered 14% of the Earth, today its only 6%. (1) Rainforests are structured in layers. Emergent Layer - about 70m high and consists of individual tall trees. Canopy - about 45m high and contains the majority of trees. Under story - about 5m high and consists of tree ferns, shrubs, herbs and young trees. Forest Floor - consists of shallow soil covered in leaf litter. The various layers act like filters or giant umbrellas, allowing just 2% of the sunlight to reach the forest floor and breaking the force of even the fiercest tropical storm to a fine spray by the time it reaches the ground. Each layer of the forest is a world of its own, with distinctive populations of mammals, birds and insects. But nearly all of the life in the rainforest is concentrated in the canopy - one of the most inaccessible places known to man. Another important feature of TRF is that the soils are poor and barren. Some grow on almost pure white sand and, in fact, 90% of all the nutrients in rainforest ecosystems are held in the living vegetation.

Importance of Tropical Rainforests

1. Biodiversity Although they cover only 6% of the earth’s land area, rainforests contain over half of the world’s plant and animal species.(2) In one study hectare in Peru, scientists discovered 12,000 species of beetle.(3) It’s not just the huge number of species that’s important; every species plays a part in maintaining the forest’s intricate web of life. It is essential to preserve this biological diversity. Many rainforest species have great economic value to us. Others have great medicinal value e.g. the Rosy Periwinkle provides us with a drug that has increased the remission rate for childhood leukaemia to 99% (4). 2. Environmental Services Rainforests provide a number of environmental services too. They act as a sponge, soaking up rainfall before releasing it slowly and steadily into rivers. They also have a regulatory effect of climate - both regional and global.


3. 200 million Indigenous People Not only important in their own right, but also an invaluable source of knowledge about Tropical Rainforests, their plants and uses.

Reasons for Decline Deforestation is the main threat to Rainforests. settlement logging mining agriculture dams cattle ranching roads Current rates estimate in the last two years nearly 12 million acres of rainforest have been destroyed - that is equivalent to about 11 football fields a minute (5). We’ve already lost up to half of the world’s rainforests. At the present rate of destruction there will be none left by the year 2035 (6). Reasons for deforestation. People have always cut down trees for their own use but modern machinery makes the process very fast and efficient. Timber is often sold by absent landowners only interested in short-term profit. Governments use the sale of timber to help pay back their international debts or more often, just the interest on their debts. World Bank - the world’s biggest spender in development assistance itself has a bad reputation for being environmentally insensitive, providing funds for road-building projects etc. Mahogany – tropical Hardwoods like these take hundreds of years to mature, so they can’t be replaced or easily farmed. Every log extracted is estimated to cause the felling of 28 other rainforest trees (7). Britain imports over 52% of all the mahogany produced in Brazil (8). The timber trade wrecks rainforests, destroys the lives of Indians and does nothing to help the poor of Brazil. The only people benefiting are the logging companies and the British Government – which gains hundreds of pounds in V.A.T on every cubic metre of Mahogany sold in this country. 1. Agriculture Following hot on the heels of the tropical loggers, along the tracks bulldozed through the forest, come literally millions of homeless people looking for land, food, wood and a new start to life. But with little knowledge of the forest they are often unsuccessful. Slash and burn cultivation is still a way of life for these people. In this ancient form of agriculture, the smaller trees and underbrush are first cut before being set alight and burned. Seeds are planted among the small mounds of grey ash which help nourish the growing crops for a season, perhaps two, until the soil becomes infertile. Traditionally, the plot is then left to regenerate and rebuild its fertility for 20 or 30 years or more before being used again, but in many areas today population pressure has led to competition for dwindling forest land. Inevitably the cultivators return too soon and the thin forest soils are quickly worked to exhaustion. Measured simply in terms of square kilometres cleared, those forest farmers –


or slash and burn cultivators – are the single greatest threat to the rainforests. 2. Cattle Ranching There is a huge international market for cheap beef and much of this has traditionally come from South America. Rainforest is cut down and burnt to provide grazing land for cattle – the soil is infertile so each cow needs a large area and after a few years the land becomes exhausted, so the ranchers must burn another area. It has been estimated that for every quarter pound hamburger made from rainforest cattle, 5 sq m of rainforest is cleared (9) .Brazil's growing success as an exporter of beef and non-genetically modified (GM) soybeans may be the single greatest factor in the doubling of average annual deforestation over the last several years compared to the previous decade. The number of cattle in the Amazon has more than doubled--from 26 million in 1990 to 57 million in 2002 (10). 3. Mining To mine minerals such as bauxite (aluminium ore) and copper, trees and topsoil must be ripped off. Although the law states that any damaged areas be reforested most companies don’t bother. The destruction of rainforest will not only wipe out many different species and native tribes there, it will also change the earth’s climate – a disaster for us all. What measures can the countries involved take to conserve their rainforests?

Conserving Tropical Rainforests

1. Create Protected Areas/Reserves Some countries, such as Costa Rica, have established extensive areas of totally protected forests as National Parks or wildlife reserves. However, whilst these nations continue to suffer enormous economic difficulties, protected areas often remain a luxury, which they largely cannot afford. In many cases, the forest will only survive if they can be made to pay their way through the generation of economic wealth and employment for expanding populations. 2. Sustainable Harvesting Use natural forests for sustainable timber. However, even in the few cases where logging claims to be conducted on a ‘sustainable’ basis, it may still involve massive modification of the ecosystem and the depletion of other, non-timber resources. We need to make greater use of other non-destructively extracted, non-timber forest products and it wouldn’t hurt to take some lessons from the indigenous people who have been living there for thousands of years and know everything about the plants and animals there. They take only what they need, so species are not lost and interactions not stopped. In one study hectare, Amazon Indians were found to be using 82% of the 91 species present for medicines, building etc (11). There are many things that we can use the standing forest for – tropical rainforests yield far more than just wood. Research is going on to find out exactly which species can be viably extracted. Berries, nuts, oils, spices, fish, and game are already being harvested without destroying the forests.


3. Organic forest honey This is gathered from wild bees by ancient tribes, which specialise in the art of bee keeping. These beekeepers are living in harmony with their environment. Every jar of honey sold helps to support these people so that they may continue to guard the forest and protect their livelihood. The value of such non-timber rainforest products to the world is high – it is possible to get more income per hectare of living rainforest than by cattle ranching or logging. As well as income, extractive reserves provide continued employment for the rural people, and leave the forest intact. The future of tropical rainforests may lie in these extractive reserves, and the Brazilian government has already set some up. 4. Ecotourism Not only does ecotourism provide native people with employment but also preserves the intact rainforest. People will pay a lot to see intact rainforest – not a cattle ranch. However, unless ecotourism projects are environmentally sensitive they may destroy the very attraction they are encouraging people to see. So there are ways of using intact tropical rainforests. So why is an area of tropical rainforest almost the size of Britain being destroyed every year? (12). For a start tropical rainforests are, almost exclusively, located in developing countries. We can’t honestly expect them to put environmental issues at the top of the agenda. However, developed nations can’t escape from the fact that rainforest destruction is their problem too. It is a global problem and only a massive international effort can hope to reverse what is currently happening.

International Action

1. Global Initiatives The International Tropical Timber Trade Organisation was set up to encourage a trade in timber grown sustainably. Consumer pressure is also having an effect, but we must ensure that all our tropical timber imports come from ‘sustainable’ sources as soon as possible CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species) came into force in 1975. It aims to regulate and monitor the international trade in over 40, 000 animals and plants whose survival is jeopardised by such activities. Over 169 countries are party to CITES. (13) It is hoped that CITES may be used to regulate the trade in a number of rainforest tree species. However, following a secret ballot held at the last CITES meeting (Nov. 1994) Brazilian Mahogany, one of the world’s most exploited trees (14) – did not achieve the 66% vote needed for it to be placed on appendix 2. Trade will continue unregulated. 2. Direct Funding for Conservation Projects The GEF (Global Environment Facility) , the World Bank , and the conservation organization WWF have joined the Brazilian


government in supporting a new program that will triple the amount of the Amazon rainforest under federal protection, thus assuring the conservation of an area twice as big as the United Kingdom, amounting to 12% of the total forest area. The long-term target is estimated to cost US$ 395 million over the next 10 years. (15)

3. ‘Conditional’ Development Loans All aid programmes must help develop sustainable use for the forest. In the past this has not happened e.g. The World Bank – the world’s biggest spender in development assistance has itself a bad reputation for being environmentally insensitive, providing funding for road building projects etc.

4. Writing off Debts Some countries e.g. Costa Rica and Bolivia have already had some of their debt written off in exchange for establishing reserves. Even though the solutions are there, there are bound to be problems as a result of the conflicts of interest between groups of people - the governments, the landless poor, the tribal peoples and not least the conservationists. Even our needs may come into play. Eco-tourism is a growing concern in tropical rainforests. You are potential tourists. What would you expect from a holiday in the rainforest? Adequate roads, runways, accommodation, paths or cable cars? Local people are often strongly opposed to the construction involved in setting up tourism ventures.

We are not going to be able to save rainforests overnight and if we want to save the already endangered species that inhabit rainforests we may have to take more direct action.

1. Breeding and reintroduction Marwell has been involved in the reintroduction of the Golden Lion Tamarin to a protected reserve in the Brazilian rainforest. The only reason that this conservation programme got off the ground at all was because the Smithsonian Institute provided a huge amount of funding (16). Money is often a stumbling block for conservation work and this provides us with another way in which we can support rainforest conservation. 2. Fund-raising Marwell itself donates a considerable amount of money to rainforest projects - to conserve the natural habitat of some of our rainforest species.

3. Education We need to stimulate concern for rainforests. If people understand the importance of rainforests they may be encouraged to do something to help. Once they have decided to help, we need to tell them what they can do. We can’t possibly talk to everyone that comes to Marwell, but hopefully all visitors will go into the Tropical House and this is the best place to learn about rainforests.


The African Elephant Case Study

During the mid 1980’s there was a serious decline in numbers of the African elephant. This was due mainly to the ivory trade – which fuelled the poaching of millions of animals. Since then conservation measures (i.e. not allowing ivory to be traded), have meant that elephant populations have recovered so much so that, in some countries, they have reached pestilent proportions. Is this a conservation success story or is something wrong with the way we manage wildlife? One of the problems facing conservationists today is how to relieve this problem; and their main dilemma is that to protect the elephants and their environment - the best solution may be to reopen the ivory trade! The History In 1800 there were about 70 million African elephants; by 1900 there were only 10 million; and by 1985 elephant numbers were relatively stable at about half a million. The main factors that have contributed to their decline are:

• Loss of habitat – growth in human population has resulted in loss of water holes and migratory routes resulting in conflict between elephants and humans.

• Big game hunting – decimated populations. • Ivory trade boom – big threat in the 70’s. By 1989 the figure had fallen to just over

600,000. Half Africa’s elephant population had been wiped out to fuel the ivory trade (1).

As elephant numbers started to decline, the value of ivory shot up, and people started to invest in it. Due to economic growth in some countries ivory became more important as a status symbol. As the ivory trade became more profitable more money, and arms, were invested into it. This meant that it was easier to kill elephants and so poaching increased. During the 70’s and 80’s 300 elephants were being killed a day, and in some national parks 95% of elephants were lost in 15 years (Uganda). Most of the animals poached were the big males, and females, because they had the largest tusks. However, as the numbers of large animals declined the poachers started to kill the younger animals. As the young elephants’ tusks were not as large it meant that the poachers had to kill more animals to obtain a comparable weight of ivory. This caused the rate of loss to become exponential.


The African Elephant was in danger of becoming extinct. Tusks on today’s market are on average less than half the size they were a century ago. Killing animals with larger tusks may over time alter the gene pool in favour of animals with smaller tusks (2). Measures Taken to Protect the African Elephant To try to save the African Elephant several measures, both nationally and internationally, were implemented. At national level individual countries set up anti-poaching patrols. However, these ran into difficulties due to huge areas of land they had to patrol and there was little funding for the patrols. Individual countries also implemented trade bans, however, the poachers overcame these by simply taking the ivory to another country to sell it. It therefore became obvious that only an international solution would prove to be effective. In 1972, CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora) was implemented. The text for the convention was agreed on 3rd March 1973 and on 1st July 1975, CITES entered into force (3). The convention involves conservationists, governments and traders, and aims to monitor and control the trade in endangered species. CITES classifies animals into either Appendix I or Appendix II or Appendix III. Species listed on Appendix I are threatened with extinction and are, or may be, affected by the trade. So as not to endanger them further, no permits are issued for international trade on these species unless under exceptional circumstances. Species listed on Appendix II may become endangered if trade in them is not controlled or monitored. To prevent threatened species from being traded under the guise of non-threatened species similar in appearance, some non-threatened species are included in this Appendix. International trade in Appendix II species is permitted with proper documentation from the exporting country (4)). In 1986 the status of the African elephant was reviewed and it was decided to place it in Appendix II. However this didn’t prevent the slaughter, as where there is legal trade there is illegal trade. So some countries took further steps; and in 1989 the Kenyan Wildlife Service put lots of money into anti-poaching patrols, gave them paramilitary training and enforced a shoot to kill policy. In July 1989 they also burnt 12 tonnes of ivory, which received worldwide publicity. This prompted CITES to once again review the African elephant’s status, and later that year they were placed onto Appendix I with an overwhelming vote (5). This had significant effect on trade; when rhino’s went onto Appendix I the price of horn rocketed, but with elephants the price plummeted. Virtually overnight the price of ivory fell from about US$200/kg to US$5/kg. However, there was still trade as:

• Not all countries are signatories to the CITES Agreement. • Some countries had reservations and so delayed implementing the ban e.g.

Britain delayed for 6 months as it had 500 tonnes of ivory stockpiled. • Stockpiled ivory was still being traded. • Some illegal poaching and smuggling was taking place.

Two years after the ban was imposed elephant numbers started to increase, (the gestation period of an elephant is 22 months) due to the births of the next generation (1).Due to the increased numbers of elephants, some countries said that trade needed to be reopened.


There were two different perspectives to the problem – one in southern Africa and one in east Africa. South African national parks are fenced fortresses, which are not wilderness areas; they also have considerable money and resources available to them. The park managers have also calculated how many animals are needed to sustain a healthy environment. If there are too many animals their numbers are reduced by translocation, birth control or sport hunting/culling. East African national parks are not fenced and their policy is to leave nature to sort it all out. For example, in Tsavo National Park, Kenya, in the 1950’s there were 45 thousand elephants. The national park couldn’t cope with this number and the elephants’ were devastating the park’s vegetation. However there was a drought and 9 thousand elephants starved and another 6 thousand were lost through poaching. The vegetation restored itself and the elephant numbers again expanded. Elephants play a destructive, but vital, role in their ecosystem. By destroying trees and other vegetation they open up the area, which encourages other species to move in, thus increasing the biodiversity of the habitat. For example, African elephants provide food for the bushbuck by breaking and consuming different plant species and permitting coppice regrowth (6). As the number of elephants increase, the destruction of the vegetation increases. Opinions differ as to why elephants damage vegetation, with some thinking the pushing over of trees to be merely a social display (7) and others stating that it is part of a feeding strategy employed by elephants in order to increase food availability during the dry season (8). A point will be reached when the vegetation will not be able to support the elephants and so their population will crash. Due to low elephant numbers the vegetation can have a chance to recover, and so there is a natural cycle of boom and bust for both the elephants and the vegetation. However these cycles last 200 years - no good if you are a farmer in the middle of it all. Within one evening a couple of elephants can easily destroy a field of crops; they will eat some and trample the rest. Therefore, in east Africa there are growing conflicts between humans and elephants. Due to the active management of elephants in South Africa and the human/elephant conflicts, all areas are now calling to ‘utilise wildlife’.

Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE)

CAMPFIRE was established in 1989 and is about empowerment; entitling communities access to a sustainable land use option in the interests of both the conservation of environmental resources and the relief of human poverty. CAMPFIRE generates income through:

• Leasing Trophy Hunting Concessions. (Over 90% of Campfire revenues).


• Hunters are considered the “ultimate Eco-tourists” in Zimbabwe as they pay much higher fees and need less infrastructure than other tourists; they have a lower impact on the environment than other tourists; and their presence in remote areas acts as an anti-poaching deterrent.

• Nature Tourism. • Harvesting Natural Resources. Communities harvest and sell natural products

such as crocodile eggs, timber, river sand, and caterpillars. • Live Animal Sales. From communities where wildlife populations are high to

commercial game reserves or national parks. • Meat Cropping. Cropping Impala and other abundant wildlife species for their

meat and selling their skins.

The money generated by CAMPFIRE is then used to fund rural development. In abundant years, monies generated are generally used for community development projects such as installing wells, building schools and health clinics, building solar-powered fences around villages and arable land, and building and improving roads and dams. In drought years, most of the profits are used for individual household incomes. Before CAMPFIRE elephants were regarded as foes, now, through Campfire, these same wild animals are now vital to rural development, and are regarded as friends. CAMPFIRE has also contributed to conservation in Zimbabwe.

“The poaching and illegal hunting has stopped completely, because everyone in

the community is a policeman now.”

Jacomes Nare – National Vice Chair of CAMPFIRE

In the immediate period before the introduction of CAMPFIRE, protected areas were in danger of becoming ecological islands, threatening the maintenance of genetic and species diversity. CAMPFIRE has reopened traditional migration routes of animals within the country, thus making a contribution to the preservation of biodiversity and the natural environment. Should International Trade in Elephant Products be Re-opened? CITES met in Zimbabwe in July 1997 to discuss this question. They considered both points of view. In southern Africa they thought that wildlife would only survive if people benefit too. International trade in elephant products would generate large amounts of money, some of which could fund wildlife conservation. In east Africa they thought that if the international trade were reopened, poaching would once again escalate. If this were to happen, anti-poaching costs would far outweigh profits from wildlife trade. CITES decided to approve the ‘experimental one-off‘ trade of up to 60 tonnes of ivory to Japan; to down-list certain African Elephant populations of Botswana, Namibia and Zimbabwe from Appendix I to Appendix II. The populations of the 34 other African range countries remained on Appendix I (as did the Asian Elephant).


However, there were conditions. As from 18/9/97 Namibia, Botswana and Zimbabwe could export hunting trophies for non-commercial purposes. Only Zimbabwe may export elephant hides, leather goods and ivory carvings for non-commercial purposes. A limited resumption in the trade of raw ivory was also agreed, again with agreed quotas and specific criteria. As from 18/3/99 Namibia, Botswana and Zimbabwe could export raw ivory of certifiable origin that has been marked and registered in accordance with CITES procedures. This ivory may only be exported to Japan, which cannot re-export. The sale is restricted to a single government controlled centre in each country, in a single annual shipment through the most direct route possible to Japan. All net revenues from this sale will be directed back into elephant conservation. A CITES standing committee must ensure all of the conditions have been met, and establish a mechanism whereby trade in ivory can be halted and the African Elephant populations of all 3 countries returned to Appendix I in the event of non-compliance.

“In April 2000, CITES met in Nairobi, Kenya. Before the 151 countries that are party to the convention were four proposals seeking further trade in ivory. Between them, S.Africa, Namibia, Botswana and Zimbabwe sort permission to sell another 54 tonnes of ivory, again, to Japan.” ‘Stop the Clock’ Report 4th April 2000

In January 2005 legislation was put into place so that trade in the elephant populations in Botswana, Namibia and South Africa was exclusively allowed for only the following:

• Trade in hunting trophies for non-commercial purposes • Trade in live animals for in situ conservation programmes; • Trade in hides; • Trade in leather goods: for non commercial purposes for Botswana; • For commercial or non-commercial purposes for Namibia and South Africa; • Trade in registered raw ivory (for Botswana and Namibia, whole tusks and pieces; • For South Africa, whole tusks and cut pieces of ivory that are both 20 cm or more

in length and 1 kg or more in weight)

Will This Resumption in Trade Lead to an Increase in Poaching? Some poaching has continued since the 1989 ban. This may have increased due to a number of factors:

• reduction in funding for anti-poaching measures. • reduction in number of personnel in the field. • speculative poaching by people who think the trade may be reopened in the

future. An international monitoring system will be established to track the illegal trade in ivory and the illegal killing of elephants.


This will also monitor:

• Effort and resources applied to protection and detection in the field. • Civil strife. • Flow of illegal arms and ammunition. • Drought. • Loss of habitat.

Information from CITES from the year 2000 and beyond Exports from Botswana, Namibia and Zimbabwe took place mid-1999. Since then ivory stocks have accumulated from the death of elephants due to natural causes, animal control and from seized illegal goods. At the 11th meeting of CITES (Apr 2000), Botswana, Namibia and Zimbabwe put forward proposals to export further stock but following discussion withdrew the proposals. However, it was decided to move the elephant population of South Africa from Appendix 1 to Appendix 2 subject to strict conditions. These conditions are detailed on the CITES website www.wcmc.org.uk/CITES.

Status following 12th meeting of CITES Botswana, Namibia and South Africa are to be allowed to make sales of 20, 10 and 30 tonnes respectively. Zambia and Zimbabwe were refused sales of 17 and 10 tonnes. Sales must be supervised by CITES and will occur after May 2004, to allow data to be obtained on population and poaching levels and to verify existing ivory stock levels. The CITES secretariat will also look at countries receiving the ivory to check that they can adequately monitor the trade to ensure no illegal ivory comes in. The report “Monitoring of Illegal Hunting in Elephant Range States” is published by a programme of the CITES secretariat. It regulates the international trade in endangered species. In 2004 it stated that the impact is particularly bad in Central Africa, where the elephant populations are threatened by poaching. “More than 4000 elephants are being killed a year to meet the demand for ivory from Africa and Asia”, according to the report on work partly funded by WWF. Since the 10th meeting of CITES, two long-term systems monitoring the illegal hunting and trade in elephant specimens have been designed. These are as follows: A new system, Monitoring Illegal Killings of Elephants (MIKE), is operating. The overall goal of MIKE is to provide information needed for elephant range States to make the most appropriate management and enforcement decisions. More specifically, this will include measuring levels and trends in the illegal hunting of elephants; determining changes in these trends over time and determining the factors causing or associated with these changes (9). When fully functional this system will conduct population surveys at least once every 2 years at 45 sites in Africa and 15 sites in Asia. It will also look at the levels of enforcement in these areas (10). The Elephant Trade Information System (ETIS) is a tracking system to look at the illegal trade, collating data on product seizure, corruption, domestic ivory markets and general background economic variables. ETIS shares the same objectives as MIKE with


the main difference being that its aim is to record and analyse levels and trends in illegal trade, rather than the illegal killing of elephants. The central component of ETIS is a database of seizures of elephant specimens that have occurred anywhere in the world since 1989 (11). They will be trying to ascertain if the illegal trade is affected by CITES actions. In December 2003, a major data collection exercise was launched to update ETIS, from the annual meeting that followed, it became clear that ETIS has become a well-established and effective tool for monitoring illegal trade in elephant products under CITES. Together with MIKE, there is now a very promising basis for assessing decision – making for elephant conservation. Current Status following 13th meeting of CITES (10/04 – Thailand) Prior to the meeting, TRAFFIC (the wildlife trade monitoring network) produced a report stating the findings of a new study which claimed that ivory markets in Africa and Asia continue to drive an increasing trend in illegal trade in elephant ivory. This report was based on the statistical analysis of over 9400 elephant product seizure records held in ETIS and formed a formal agenda item for discussion at the meeting (12). At the meeting, Namibia proposed an annual export quota of 2,000 kg of raw ivory (accumulated from natural and management-related mortalities), trade in worked ivory products for commercial purposes and trade in elephant leather and hair goods for commercial purposes. This proposal was rejected (13.) In addition, all African elephant range states will strengthen their legislation and enforcement efforts under a crackdown on unregulated domestic markets in elephant ivory. Kenya’s proposal for new ivory stockpile sales to be put on hold for six years was also rejected (13).


Conclusion Individual Measures – From Consumer to Conserver

People in the UK and USA consume several times more of the world’s resources than a typical African person. Thus, if the real concern of Europeans is to make the world more sustainable, the greatest change required is not to reduce birth rates in the Third World, nor reduce family size in the Developed World, but rather to reduce the consumption pattern which prevails at present in the Developed World.

From ‘Sustainability – The Southern Context’ (GLADE Learning Materials for Change)

If people in the Developed World make changes to the way they live their lives then we can go a long way to not only conserve endangered species, but also to relieve poverty and suffering of people in developing countries.

What Can We Do?

Rethink, Refuse, Reduce, Recycle and Repair!

1. Reduce the amount of waste we produce • Recycle bottles, jars, cans, newspapers, magazines, envelopes, etc. • Reuse shopping bags, etc. • Start a compost heap with organic matter to reduce the amount of waste we put into a dustbin. • Repairing things instead of throwing them away. • Reduce the amount of packaging with products by refusing the plastic bag, etc. • At present only about 6% of household waste is recycled.

2. Buy recycled goods Purchasing recycled content products and materials helps to close the loop, creating a demand for materials recovered from recycling collection schemes. Recycling success is not determined solely by the amount of materials collected but also on the amount processed and reused in new products and materials. Without considering this part of the equation, recycling does not work in the long term. 3. Save Energy and Natural Resources

• Switch off lights when not in the room. • Buy energy saving light bulbs. • Reduce water consumption by: - installing a water saving device into the toilet cistern.


• making use of a water butt in the garden. • Not leaving the tap running e.g. when you clean your teeth.

• Switch off electrical equipment when not using them. • Switch off electrical equipment from the source and not with a remote control. • Topping up loft insulation to 15-20cm (6-8”) could save you £70/year.

4. Travel Sensibly • Walk or cycle for short journeys. • Use public transport more (even if it’s just once a week it will make a difference!). • Car share to college/work. • Drive for fuel efficiency – at 50mph where practical.

5. Prevent Pollution • Do not dump waste but reuse it or dispose of it correctly – e.g. engine oil. • Do not dispose of sanitary protection or other products down the toilet, but ‘bag it

and bin it’ instead. • Regularly service your vehicle to reduce emissions – this will also give you more

miles to the gallon thus saving you money.

6. Care for your Local Environment • Litter pick in your area. • Support local environmental or community initiatives. • Create areas of your garden (at home or college) for native wildlife.

Here at Marwell we have implemented a purchasing policy – this may be a good idea for other companies / organisations to develop as a long term objective.

Marwell Zoological Park Purchasing Policy

Our policy is aimed at reducing the impact of goods and services purchased by Marwell Zoological Park, whilst maintaining their effectiveness. Our policy is based on the following principles and actions:

• Seek to reduce consumption of materials by reusing rather than disposing of materials, whenever possible, promoting recycling and the use of recycled materials and repairing existing products.

• Use of the least environmentally damaging products should be promoted. • When new products are obtained, every effort should be made to purchase

products made of recycled and recyclable materials. • Products at the end of their useful life should be recycled wherever possible, and

as a last resort should be disposed of in the most environmentally responsible manner possible.

• Market products that are safe to use, make efficient use of resources and which can be reused, recycled, or disposed of safely.


• Work with our suppliers to minimise the impact of their operations on the environment.

• Monitor progress and publish an environmental performance report on an annual basis.

• Develop staff awareness of the environmental issues directing procurement through the provision of appropriate information and training.

• Integrate environmental factors into our buying decisions, including taking account of environmental costs and benefits as part of total life cost assessment.


References

Introduction to Wildlife Conservation

1) IUCN Global Species Assessment

2) Environment News Service (2004) Nearly 12 Million Acres of Amazon Rainforest Lost in Two Years. (online) Available from: http://www.oneworld.net/article/view/86757/1 Accessed 25/08/05

3) Liberal Democrats (2005) 30 Billion Litres of raw sewage dumped into Thames in a

year. (online) Available from: http://www.glalibdems.org.uk/news/345.html Accessed

15/12/05

4) Sludge Watch (2004) 243,439,000 litres of sewage into the Thames UK. (online)

Available from: http://list.web.net/archives/sludgewatch-l/2004-December/000833.html Accessed 15/12/05

An Introduction to Marwell Zoological Park

1) WAZA (2005) WAZA Conservation Strategy. (online) Available from: www.waza.org/conservation/wzacs.php Accessed 15/12/05

2) Marwell Zoological Park (2005) Conservation. (online) Available from:

www.marwell.org.uk/pages/conservation Accessed 15/12/05

Case Study: Tropical Rainforests

1) Raintree (2000) Rainforest Facts. (online) Available from: http://www.rain-tree.com/facts.htm Accessed 24/08/05 2) Raintree Rainforest Facts. (online) Available from: http://www.rain-tree.com/facts.htm Accessed 24/08/05

3) UNESCO Courier. (1991) An Ecological Eldorado: Peru's Manu National Park . (online) Available from:


http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1310/is_1991_August- Sept/ai_11323340 Accessed 25/08/05

4) Swiss Info (April 2003) Madagascar attracts western drugs giants. (online) Available from:

http://www.swissinfo.org/sen/swissinfo.html?siteSect=105&sid=1749279 Accessed 25/08/05

5) Environment News Service (2004) Nearly 12 Million Acres of Amazon Rainforest Lost in Two Years. (online) Available from: http://www.oneworld.net/article/view/86757/1 Accessed 25/08/05

6) Young People's Trust for the Environment (2001) Rainforest. (online) Available

from: http://www.yptenc.org.uk/docs/factsheets/env_facts/rainforest.html Accessed 25/08/05

7) Greenpeace (July 1996) Brazil: Rainforest under siege. (online) Available from: http://archive.greenpeace.org/comms/cbio/brazil.html Accessed 25/08/05 8) CUSU Green. (1993) The case against mahogany. (online) Available from: http://www-green.cusu.cam.ac.uk/archive/earthfirst/case.html Accessed 25/08/05 9) BBC Online. (2005) Global eco top ten forests. (online) Available from:

http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/environment/conservationnow/global/forests/page2.shtml Accessed 25/08/05

10) Common Dream News Center (2004) Hamburger Consumption Spurs Amazon Deforestation. (online) Available from: http://www.commondreams.org/headlines04/0409-05.htm Accessed 25/08/05

11) Raintree (2000) Rainforest Facts. (online) Available from http://www.raintree- health.co.uk/cgi-bin/getpage.pl?/data/biodiversity.html Accessed 25/08/05 12) The National Youth Agency (2005) Environment World Issues. (online) Available from: http://www.youthinformation.com/infopage.asp?snID=488 Accessed 25/08/05

13) CITES (2005) List of Contracting Parties. (online) Available from: http://www.cites.org/eng/disc/parties/chronolo.shtml Accessed 25/08/05


14) Traffic (2000) Mahogany Swietenia macrophylla. (online) Available from: http://www.traffic.org/dispatches/archives/june2000/samerica5.html Accessed 25/08/05

15) Wildlife News (2002) Brazil to triple amount of protected Amazon rainforest over 10 years. (online) Available from:

http://www.naturalworldtours.co.uk/articles2002/september/sept0702n.htm Accessed 26/08/05

16) Smithsonian National Zoological Park (2005) Golden Lion Tamarin Conservation Program. (online) Available from: http://nationalzoo.si.edu/ConservationAndScience/EndangeredSpecies/GLTProgram/

Accessed 26/08/05 17) Madagascar Fauna Group (2005) Conservation in Madagascar. [online] Available

from: http://www.madagascarfaunagroup.org/lemurs-madagascar-1.htm Accessed 24/08/05

Case Study: African Elephants 1) Shoshani, J. (1992). Elephants. United States. Checkmark Books. ISBN: 0-8160-

4294-2 2) Biz/ed. (2005). The Ivory Market 2: Poaching’s Terrible Toll. (online) Available from:

http://:www.bized.ac.uk/virtual/dc/wildlife/luangwe/issue5.htm. Accessed 31/08/05 3) CITES. (2005). How CITES works. (online)] Available from:

http://www.cites.org/eng/disc/how.shtml Accessed 24/08/05 4) CITES. (2005). Monitoring the Illegal Killing of Elephants (MIKE) (online) Available

from: http://www.cites.org/eng/prog/MIKE/intro/index.shtml. Accessed 02/06/05 5) Kenya Wildlife Service. (2005). Elephant Programme. (online) Available from:

http://www.kws.org/elephant.html. Accessed 24/08/05

6) Milewski, A.V. (2002) Elephants and fynbos. Veld and Flora 88(1):28

7) Guy, P.R.(1976) Diurnal activity patterns of Elephants in the Sengwa area, Rhodesia. E. Africa Wildlife 14:285-295

8) Jachmann, H. (1985) Estimating age in African Elephants. African J. Ecology 23 (3):199-202


9) CITES. (2005). The Elephant Trade Information System (ETIS) (online) Available from: www.cites.org/eng/prog/ETIS/index.shtml. Accessed 02/06/05

10) Traffic International. (2003).Monitoring Illegal Killing of Elephants and the Elephant Trade Information System (online) Available from:

http://www.traffic.org/cop11/briefingroom/monitoringillegalkilling.html. Accessed 31/08/05

11) CITES. (2005). Thirteenth meeting of the Conference of the Parties (online) Available from: http://www.cites.org/eng/cop/13/prop/index.shtml. Accessed 30/08/05

12) Traffic International. (2003) Illicit trade in ivory continues upward trend (online) Available from: www.traffic.org/news/press-releases/illicit_trade.html Accessed 02/06/05 13) BBC Wildlife (December 2004). News of the earth. 22:12

Recommended Reading CITES: http://www.cites.org Born Free Foundation: http://www.bornfree.org.uk World Wide Fund for Nature: http://www.wwf.org.uk TRAFFIC: http://www.traffic.org Kenya Wildlife Service: http://www.kws.org International Fund for Animal Welfare: http://www.ifaw.org United Nations Environment Programme – World Conservation Monitoring Centre:

http://www.unep-wcmc.org The World Conservation Union: http://www.iucn.org BBC Wildlife Magazine: http://www.bbcwildlifemagazine.com


The Zoo Debate Against For

Zoos breed animals to attract visitors - not for conservation.

Zoos seek – as a duty – to have, at the very least, self-sustaining populations. Yes - young animals do attract visitors. However births from certain individuals may be discouraged within some breeding programmes (e.g. Marwell’s tigers), and responsible zoos give top priority to the needs of the breeding programme.

Zoos jumped on the conservation bandwagon simply because keeping animals for entertainment lost its public appeal.

Zoo people were amongst the first to realise, and be concerned about, the rarity of many species in the wild. Many also realised that they were in a position to do something positive about the problem. The international breeding programmes, of which zoos like Marwell are a part, were set up to save species from extinction.

Zoos are only interested in making a profit.

Marwell, belongs to Marwell Preservation Trust, which is a registered charity with conservation as its stated aim. Any profit made belongs to the Trust, rather than any individual, and is used to further enhance the aims of the organisation.

Zoos only breed a fraction of the world’s 15,589 threatened species. Set against this figure, the potential for zoos to contribute towards conservation through captive breeding is insignificant.

Agreed – We would like to do more if we had the resources.

-Many species have such specific and local needs - Marwell is proud to be playing a part in saving some species from extinction. It is better to save one species than to save Zoos, by raising the profile/conservation needs of one species and its habitat, can help save that habitat and all the other species contained in it.

The majority of animals in zoos are not threatened with extinction.

Marwell currently has 201 species of which 83 are threatened. Zoos contain animals that are not threatened with extinction for two main reasons:

1) These particular species may be very popular, and therefore increase visitor numbers, which is desirable as 93% of Marwell’s income is derived either directly, or indirectly, from its visitors. 2) It is far better to be trained, and to train, in husbandry techniques with species that are not endangered than with species that are.


Very few species that are bred in zoos are returned to the wild.

Secure, suitable reserves, where animals stand a good chance of survival are not easy to find. The problems which are causing animals to become endangered in the first place are increasing rather than decreasing; we cannot put animals back to areas where these human activities still continue. In addition huge commitment by the government and people of the country concerned is essential, even with funds from outside. Marwell is involved with re-introduction schemes these include; scimitar-horned Oryx - Tunisia, Przewalski’s horse - Hungary, golden lion tamarin – Brazil and sand lizard - Britain.

Captive bred animals pose a threat to wild populations by introducing new infections to which they have no immunity.

Health monitoring is an accepted normal part of captive breeding, and the people concerned with actual or potential re-introductions are fully aware of the health planning implications, and include necessary health screening procedures such as quarantine.

It would be far better to save animals in their own natural habitats, rather than in zoos situated in other countries, different to the one where the animal is found.

Agreed - but there are several reasons why this cannot happen e.g. the tiger. A huge amount of field research has been done by international conservation organisations on the state of wild tiger populations. All concerned agree that tigers face extinction in the wild in the near future, largely due to the trade in wild tiger products. Protective legislation is not working and it is difficult, if not impossible, to enforce. The findings have been gathered together into a Global Animal Survival Plan (GASP) for tigers. This plan is in no doubt that captive breeding programmes, carried out cooperatively by zoos, are essential if tigers are not to become extinct.

The money spent keeping zoos open would be better used to save animals in their natural habitats.

93% of the income that Marwell receives is either directly, or indirectly, from our visitors. If all of our visitors decided not to come to Marwell, would they have sent that money to a habitat conservation project instead?

Zoos make little contribution to funding conservation.

Most institutional zoos have little, if any, surplus resources after funding their mission. Marwell is able to contribute, although it would like to do more. It has off-exhibit areas for the propagation of native fauna, and a number of staff members are involved in a broad range of conservation work.

In 2004, £213,811 was spent on direct funding of overseas conservation projects, however this figure needs to be looked at in relation to Marwell’s annual budget. - Marwell’s income = £6,528,531 - Marwell’s operating costs = £4,367,416 - Marwell’s donation to in-situ conservation =£213,811


Zoos are animal prisons, where the animals are kept in enclosures that are inadequate.

Marwell acknowledges that some of its animal enclosures could be improved, and this is being done as funds allow. Animal behaviour studies are being carried out and appropriate changes are being made to enrich the animals’ environment where necessary. Zoos in this country depend almost entirely on their gate-money for their income. More visitors = more money = more work done on the enclosures.

Animals suffer in zoos - pacing up and down the confines of their cages, prohibited from their natural behaviour can never be justified.

Marwell takes pride in the health and well-being of its animals. We recognise that for many reasons there are institutions that fall short of acceptable standards.

- Where these are due to greed and lack of concern, Marwell condemns them. - Where lack of resources is the problem, help and not

Watching zoo animals is not educational - gazing at zoo animals is unlikely to give zoo visitors a true understanding of wildlife. Animals displayed in captivity are frequently in circumstances not remotely similar to their natural habitat; and often their natural group structure is ignored because of the limitations of zoo enclosures. Because of the stress of captivity, zoo animals also display abnormal patterns of behaviour such as stereotypic movements, apathy or even self-mutilation.

Seeing a real animal in three dimensional, living, breathing reality is, for many people, the moment that conveys its true wonder. Supported by other public information, zoos can convey the reality of life on our planet today and the pressures being placed upon it by the human species.

The designs of the enclosures at Marwell (and other zoos) are aimed at simulating the animals natural habitat. The animals themselves are kept in groups, that reflect the natural group structure, that would be seen in their natural habitat. Behavioural enrichment studies are constantly being carried out to take account of the Animals’ physiological and psychological needs. The aims of these studies are to design and implement programmes to eliminate abnormal behaviour patterns. Alongside the animal experience, education departments, such as that at Marwell, stress the importance of habitat conservation to tens of thousands of children and adults each year.

Zoos capture animals from the wild. This can be disastrous for the species as well as for the individual animal captured.

Almost every animal seen in a zoo like Marwell will have been born in that zoo, or in another. Exceptions are: 1) Very old animals. 2) The occasional individual brought in to

strengthen the genetic base. 3) Rescued animals from doomed populations. 4) Unwanted pets (parrots/snakes/terrapins)

donated to the zoo.


Zoos destroy animals for reasons other than ill health.

There are occasions when animals have to be euthanased for non-veterinary reasons. These are usually males of herd animals where only one adult male, in a group, is the social norm. If there are no possibilities for the establishment of

bachelor groups (or relocation) and the individual has no breeding future, because of kinship with other herd members, then that animal may be euthanased in a way which is less stressful to it.

NB: Figures are quoted from Marwell’s 2004 Annual Report.


The Conservation Education Centre

Marwell’s newest educational resource We intend to use this long awaited building with its environmentally friendly features and techniques to encourage visitors to make similar choices in their own homes. It’s not perfect, but we’ve compromised. But most people have to so perhaps it makes our building a more realistic example. The main features and materials which we want to point out to our visitors are as follows: ENERGY EFFICENCY

• Walls are high insulation block work (Theromlite) plus added insulation. • Windows are low emissivity double glazing. • Lighting is all low energy and is auto turn-off in all places. • Heating is by gas (which produces smaller amounts of greenhouse gases and other

pollutants per unit of heat than any other fuels). We also have a comprehensive control system, so that the rooms are not heated unnecessarily.

• Renewable Energy is produced by the photo-voltaic cells roofing our ‘Solar’ demonstration solar unit. The pollution free power it generates is fed into the electrical supply for the building.

MATERIALS

• Wood - NO tropical hardwoods have been used. E.g. the plywood is birch faced. The double-glazed windows are in softwood. The stairs are ash. The exterior cladding is treated softwood. The roof is of cedar shingles.

• Paints – the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) used in most paints are damaging to the environment. We have used low VOC and VOC free paints. E.g. exterior painting, doors, skirting boards etc are painted with the Valttri range of paints. Interior walls are painted with Keim mineral paints. (You may have noticed that the building doesn’t smell of paint!)

• Flooring – NO vinyl (PVC) flooring has been used. (In fact we have tried to avoid all use of PVC products, since their production and disposal involve the production of pollutants such as asbestos, mercury, dioxin and PCB). The environmentally friendly alternative made with linseed oil and jute, is linoleum (also called marmoleum). It is attractive, versatile and hard wearing, so this was not a hard choice!

LANDSCAPING


• Native species will be used throughout, and together with the adjacent woodland, which we hope to manage, will be used as a resource to raise awareness of the needs of the British woodland wildlife.

WATER SAVING

• Taps in public places are auto-turn off to avoid wasting water. MARWELL EDUCATION DEPARTMENT Our departmental Aims: Marwell’s Education Department exists to increase awareness of the natural world and encourage an informed reaction to conservation issues. We aim to reach all our zoo visitors, whether in formal groups or on a family day out; a massive task! We would like them to go away with: • renewed admiration and respect for the animal kingdom, • a greater understanding of the effects we humans are having on other species, • a clearer picture of how zoos fit into the effort to save endangered species, • And a desire to take action themselves.

How do we achieve this? THE HANDS ON APPROACH. We believe that personal contact with the animals is important, so all participants in sessions or courses will have the opportunity to meet one or more of the selection of small animals – furry, slimy, scaly and spiky!- which are all housed in the Education centre. Besides touching live animals, children and adults will also be able to examine a selection of skins, tusks and other animal products. These have been confiscated by H.M. customs and Excise under the regulations governing trade in rare species. They are on loan to Marwell. Formal Education FOR SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES: Marwell’s Education staff provide 40 minute sessions in the Education Centre for all age groups on a range of topics designed to help groups get more out of their day at Marwell. Teaching methods are varied to suit the group or class concerned, but the emphasis is always on fun, participation and first-hand experience. A guided walk may form part of this service. We also run day courses for students in further education. Subjects at this level include Animal behaviour, Evolution, Wildlife Conservation, Conservation and Development, and Leisure and Tourism at Marwell. FOR ADULTS: Teachers’ courses – We run a range of day-time and twilight courses for both in-service and trainee teachers. Adult education courses – We run popular ‘Behind the Scenes’ day courses for the general public every year. Informal Education FOR THE GENERAL VISITOR: Informal educational activities - Volunteers are specially trained to assist us in the running and manning various activities for the public. Activities include the ‘Creature Close-up’ sessions, which are run during the school holidays and at the weekends from February to September. These 45 minute hands-on sessions for the public aim to give information on the conservation role of Marwell and tell visitors how they can help by reducing problems such as pollution. Staff and volunteers also provide guided tours, touch tables, input to special event days and other activities. Informative graphics – Identification boards and larger interpretive graphics, interactive where possible, are vitally important; these are used by school parties and general visitors, and are designed by the Education Department. Written resources – The Education Department produces a wide range of written resources to meet the needs of children and adults, schools, individuals and general visitors.

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