LEARNING OBJECTIVES POSTED AS ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS

What are the distinguishing features of constructivist theories?

How is learning explained by constructivist theory?

What is schema? How does it describe knowledge and learning?

How do cognitive and social constructivist strands compare?

How can constructivist learning theory be applied in the learning

environment?

9 CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORIES

THEORIES OF LEARNING

EDS-103

Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 2

Module 9: Constructivist Theories EDS 103 – Theories of Learning

Module 9. Constructivist Theories

Source: Santrock, 2011, p. 219

Introduction

Besides the behavioral approach and other theories of learning, there are four major

cognitive approaches—social cognitive, information-processing, and the constructivist

approach which in turn is distinguished in two sub-types, cognitive and social (Figure 1). In

this module, we focus our attention on the cognitive and social constructivist theories.

Figure 1. Main approaches to learning (Santrock, 2011, p. 219).

CONSTRUCTIVISM VERSUS INFORMATION PROCESSING

Unlike information processing theories that focus on

how information is recorded into long term memory,

constructivists focus on the ways that learners

construct knowledge in the working memory through

their experiences and reflections on those experiences

Such distinctions are important to note because

approaches to teaching and learning vary according to

the theoretical assumptions that underlie the practice.

EDS 103 - THEORIES OF LEARNING

asymptotia.co

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Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 3

Module 9: Constructivist Theories EDS 103 – Theories of Learning

CONSTRUCTIVISM VERSUS DIRECT INSTRUCTION

The constructivist approach is often distinguished from

direct instruction. The former is learner-centered;

teachers facilitate and guide learning; learning is an active

construction of knowledge by the learners. In contrast,

direct instruction is a highly structured teacher-centered

approach; the teacher directs and controls most of the

learning activities, which are laid out in a clear scope-and

sequence program to maximize time utilization (Santrock,

2011).

COGNITIVE CONSTRUCTIVISM AND SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM

There are two major strands in constructivist theory: cognitive constructivism and social

constructivism. The two share common fundamental assumptions—that people construct their

own understanding and knowledge of the world, hence teachers facilitate and guide (rather

than direct and mold) learning.

(Chen, n.d.; Eggen & Kauchak, n.d.; Mayer, in Reigeluth,

http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Invariant_Tasks:_Principles_for_Learning; Santrock, 2011).

However, cognitive and social strands differ in their emphasis (Halford in Santrock, 2011,

p.218), specifically:

The cognitive constructivist approaches, grounded primarily on Piaget’s work,

emphasize learners’ cognitive construction of knowledge and understanding).

Piaget's theory of cognitive development “describes how learners develop

cognitive abilities [and] proposes that humans cannot be given information,

in which they immediately understand and use. Instead, learners must

construct their own knowledge. They build their knowledge through

experience. Experiences enable them to create schemas — mental models of

the world. These schemas are changed, enlarged, and made more

sophisticated through two complimentary processes: assimilation and

accommodation.”

Source: The Performance Juxtaposition Site,

http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/history/constructivism.html

The social constructivist approaches, grounded on Vygotsky’s

work, emphasize collaboration in the production of knowledge and

understanding.

We discuss these two strands in more detail in the sections that

follow.

Think about how you learn. When you hear, read, or see something new, does it help to talk about it and reflect on it to better understand the new information?

From http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/ concept2class/constructivism/w1_think1.html

The acquisition of knowledge and skills is a process of gradual progression that is characterized by the construction of knowledge rather than recording information.

Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 4

Module 9: Constructivist Theories EDS 103 – Theories of Learning

A. Piaget: Cognitive Constructivism

Jean Piaget proposed a comprehensive stage theory regarding human development.

However, in this module, we focus on the aspect of his works that served as a major

foundation for cognitive constructivism. He posits that information as initially perceived by man

is not in a form that is immediately understood and usable. Instead, he capitalizes on prior

experiences to create mental models—schemas. These mental models or schemas are

gradually changed and modified, enlarged and made more sophisticated, as the individual

acquires more experience. Learners “construct knowledge by transforming, organizing, and

reorganizing previous knowledge and information” (Santrock, 2011, p. 334).

SCHEMA

Schemas refer to actions or mental representations of conceptually organized systems / networks of information. Infants have mostly behavioral schemas (physical activities like sucking, looking, and grasping), while mental schemas (cognitive activities like strategies and plans for solving problems) develop later in childhood and become enormously diverse in adulthood. They are mental frameworks, abstract mental structures that represent our understanding of the world—“psychological representations to perceive and understand reality”. They allow new perceptions to be quickly organized (added into pre-existing beliefs and ideas) and enable action without much effort.

Organization refers to the systemic grouping of (seemingly) disjointed bits of information in order to make sense of them.

A schema of “egg” (Davis, 1991). Acquired from http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/literacy/implementaliteracyprogram/schematheoryoflearning.htm

Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 5

Module 9: Constructivist Theories EDS 103 – Theories of Learning

EXERCISE: What Schema?

What could be this toddler’s schema of “blow your nose” be?

Characteristics of schemata

Schemata are always organized meaningfully, can be added to, and, as an individual

gains experience, develop to include more variables and more specificity.

Each schema is embedded in other schemata and itself contains subschema.

Schemata change moment by moment as information is received.

They may also be reorganized when incoming data reveals a need to restructure the

concept.

The mental representations used during perception and comprehension, and which

evolve as a result of these processes, combine to form a whole which is greater than the

sum of its parts.

Anderson (1977). http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/literacy/implementaliteracyprogram/SchemaTheoryOfLearning.htm

Assumptions supported by the schema theory of learning

It is important to present all the necessary lower-level facts before proceeding to teach at

higher levels of the knowledge hierarchy.

People can reason with higher-level concepts if they have learned all of the prerequisite

lower-level information.

It is important to use teaching steps which correspond to the internal sequence in which

the brain processes information.

Spaeth & Walter. http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/literacy/implementaliteracyprogram/InformationProcessingTheoryOfL.htm

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Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 6

Module 9: Constructivist Theories EDS 103 – Theories of Learning

colourbox.com

Piaget's Theory of Constructivism

A QUICK OVERVIEW

Piaget's Theory of Constructivism

Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Theory by McLeod

KEY CONCEPTS ON LEARNING

In addition to schema, which we have discussed in the previous section, the key concepts behind Piaget’s theory that apply to learning include assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration.

Schema (Schemata) Schema is a concept that describes “knowledge as an

elaborate network of abstract mental structures which

represent one's understanding of the world”

(http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/literacy/implementaliteracyprogr

am/schematheoryoflearning.htm).

Assimilation Assimilation refers to the incorporation of information into existing knowledge structures, without the necessity of making changes to old ones—i.e., merely “adding”.

Accommodation Accommodation describes the construction of new knowledge that requires a restructuring (adjustment, slight alteration) of old concepts so that new ones fit in.

Equilibration When an experience disrupts an individual's equilibrium (disequilibrium), cognitive constructivists believe that the individual reconstructs understanding that reestablishes equilibrium (i.e., resolve the conflict and reach a balance).

THINK

1. Contrast assimilation and accommodation. Cite examples to clarify the distinctions.

2. When/ How is equilibrium attained? How does disequilibrium contribute to learning?

PIAGET'S CONSTRUCTIVISM ON VIDEO

An alternative way of learning about assimilation, accommodation,

equilibration and schemas.

kitomarketing.com

psas.pdx.edu

Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 7

Module 9: Constructivist Theories EDS 103 – Theories of Learning

Can you distinguish the SCHEMA and INFORMATION-PROCESSING THEORY components in the following paragraph?

[Besides information-processing,] the other major kind of cognitive theory is schema

theory. It proposes that, when new knowledge is encoded, it is organized into

schemas, which are networks of related pieces of knowledge. For example, an

invariant task can be encoded as a new schema, complete with such contextual

factors as conditions for its use, in which case it will be at least loosely related to

other schemata, or more typically it can be assimilated into an existing schema. But

more importantly for instructional purposes, specific elements of the invariant task

can often be learned--or more accurately, retrieved--more easily by relating them to

certain carefully selected prior knowledge, especially meaningful knowledge. For

example, it is easier to remember the colors of the rainbow and their order (red,

orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet) by associating them with the name, "Roy

G. Biv." http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Invariant_Tasks:_Principles_for_Learning

SCHEMA THEORY OF LEARNING: Some Optional Readings

Schema Theory: An Introduction

Schema Theory

Cognitive Schema Theory in the Constructive Debate

Piaget’s Constructivism, Papert’s Constructionism: What’s The Difference?

AN INTEGRATION: SCHEMA THEORY AND MYERS BRIGGS

A brief overview with visual simulations of schema according to the Myers-Briggs

psychological functions (S, N, T and F)—a fun way to integrate schema theory and

personality.

TWO KEY PIAGETIAN PRINCIPLES:

Learning is an active rather than passive process. Experience, including the errors made

therein, enables the construction of new knowledge, which involves two complementary

processes: assimilation and accommodation, described above. In cognitive constructivist

theory, information is valued as tools for problem solving rather than as plain facts isolated

from real contexts. The Piagetian concept about knowing argues that knowledge cannot be

“told”, “spoon-fed”, “given” or “poured”. Rather, teachers ought to provide opportunities for

students to develop understanding through exploration and co-construction of knowledge.

Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 8

Module 9: Constructivist Theories EDS 103 – Theories of Learning

Learning, to be effective, should be whole, authentic, and "real". In connection to the first

principle, learning must be meaningful. Meaning is

constructed by way of mindful interactions and

engagement with the world; the construction of

meaning requires the learner to be actively

involved with his environment. There is great

emphasis on whole (integrated across disciplines)

and authentic (real-world) activities in contrast to

“skills through drills” methods that tend to be

confined to specific subject areas.

http://viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/et-it/cognitiv.htm http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/history/constructivism.html

Santrock (2011), p. 334.

CHILDREN ENGAGED IN A REAL-WORLD TASK: Can thinking be “visible”?

Here, children are designing a parachute in order to explore the

effect of shape, size, and weight on the rate of descent.

In a traditional setting, the teacher "teaches" these facts in the

classroom. However, a real-world design problem allows children to

discover the interaction between these variables. Through trial and

error and collaborative learning, children attempt to figure out which

combination of conditions will enable a parachute to descend. http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivism/demonstration.html#2

(Four young kids sitting on grass outside.)

Girl in Yellow: If I do it different next time and me and Jill are buddies, we would probably make (pause) a

circle or something?

Jill: Yeah (very softly).

Girl in Yellow: A circle. Cause the real people use their, and they, they come down really safely so maybe

the circle would be better than a tri . . . than a rectangle.

Boy in Black: Maybe it's the weight. Maybe it's, you . . . maybe you need a certain weight for the shape to

work.

Girl in Yellow: Yeah, maybe the weight on the person . . .

Jill: . . . brings it down nice and slowly. (softly)

Girl in Yellow: Well, if this person was thin and they was on a real parachute probably go down smooth,

but if this person was heavy (group laughs) it would probably go down a little crookeder.

Excerpted from Just Think: Problem Solving through Inquiry. A production of the New York State Department of Education. Commissioner of

Education: Richard P. Mills, Ed.D. Principal Investigator: Edward Lalor., Senior Producers: Bob Reilly and Susan Burns; Co-produced by

Thirteen/WNET New York. Producer: Jill Peters. Executive Producer: Sandra Sheppard. © 1996 New York State Department of Education. All

rights reserved. http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivism/w2_trans7.html

Can you tell how their schemata evolves or takes shape?

PLAN AN AUTHENTIC TASKS

Consider a specific grade-level topic (or a current lesson you are teaching). What authentic task(s) can

you prepare on this subject if you were the teacher? (Search the web for some bright ideas!)

SITUATED COGNITION

Thinking and knowledge cannot be separated from the social and physical contexts in which they occur. Hence, authentic (real-world) tasks make one of the best learning situations.

Santrock, 2011, p. 335

Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 9

Module 9: Constructivist Theories EDS 103 – Theories of Learning

B. Vygotsky: Social Constructivism

“Social Development Theory was originated by Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1896-

1934), who lived during Russian Revolution. Vygotsky’s work was largely unkown to the West

until it was published in 1962… [The theory] argues that social interaction precedes

development; consciousness and cognition are the end-products of socialization and social

behavior.” (In contrast, Piaget argues that development precedes learning.) (source: http://www.learning-theories.com/vygotskys-social-learning-theory.html)

Social constructivism emphasizes that knowledge is first

constructed in a social environment and is then

appropriated by individuals. According to social

constructivists, knowledge grows directly out of the

interaction. Social interactions and involvement with

others are very important aspects in the process of

knowledge building and construction. In particular,

exposure to the thoughts of others provides opportunities

to evaluate and refine their own. In the process, the

participants develop not only personal knowledge but

shared understandings as well. If Piaget focused on individual cognition, Vygotsky focused on

the “child embedded in a sociocultural context”, which values collaboration, social interaction,

and sociocultural activity. In addition, culture defines what the society values and considers

important. Thus, culture—including the language, beliefs, and skills of that culture—strongly

shapes the nature of the knowledge and understandings created by the learners (Santrock,

2011, pp. 333-334; McLeod, 2007).

A QUICK OVERVIEW

Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory by McLeod

Vygotsky's Theory on Constructivism

MAJOR THEMES

1. Social interaction plays a fundamental role in the process of cognitive

development. In contrast to Jean Piaget’s understanding of child development (in

which development necessarily precedes learning), Vygotsky felt social learning

precedes development. He states: “Every function in the child’s cultural

development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual

level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child

(intrapsychological)” (Vygotsky, 1978).

2. The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO). The MKO refers to anyone who has a

better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a

particular task, process, or concept. The MKO is normally thought of as being a

teacher, coach, or older adult, but the MKO could also be peers, a younger

person, or even computers.

Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 10

Module 9: Constructivist Theories EDS 103 – Theories of Learning

3. The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). The ZPD is the distance between a

student’s ability to perform a task under adult guidance and/or with peer

collaboration and the student’s ability solving the problem independently.

According to Vygotsky, learning occurred in this zone.

Although the implication is that the MKO is a teacher or an older adult, this is not

necessarily the case. Many times, a child's peers or an adult's children may be the

individuals with more knowledge or experience. For example, who is more likely to

know more about the newest teen-age music groups, how to win at the most recent

PlayStation game, or how to correctly perform the newest dance craze - a child or

their parents?

In fact, the MKO need not be a person at all. Some companies, to support

employees in their learning process, are now using electronic performance support

systems. Electronic tutors have also been used in educational settings to facilitate

and guide students through the learning process. The key to MKOs is that they must

have (or be programmed with) more knowledge about the topic being learned than

the learner does.

Source: http://www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html

Vygotsky (1978) sees the Zone of Proximal Development as the area where the most

sensitive instruction or guidance should be given - allowing the child to develop

skills they will then use on their own - developing higher mental functions.

Vygotsky also views interaction with peers as an effective way of developing skills

and strategies. He suggests that teachers use cooperative learning exercises where

less competent children develop with help from more skillful peers - within the zone

of proximal development.

[ZPD versus Discovery learning]

Freund (1990) conducted a study in which children had to decide which items of

furniture should be placed in particular houses of a dolls house. Some children

were allowed to play with their mother in a similar situation before they attempted

it alone (zone of proximal development) whilst others were allowed to work on this

by themselves (Piaget's discovery learning).

Freund found that those who had previously worked with their mother (ZPD)

showed greatest improvement compared with their first attempt at the task. The

conclusion being that guided learning within the ZPD led to greater

understanding/performance than working alone (discovery learning).

Source: http://www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html

Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 11

Module 9: Constructivist Theories EDS 103 – Theories of Learning

innovativelearning.com

allies-in-elearning.blogspot.com

Vygotsky focused on the connections between people and the sociocultural context

in which they act and interact in shared experiences (Crawford, 1996). According to

Vygotsky, humans use tools that develop from a culture, such as speech and writing,

to mediate their social environments. Initially children develop these tools to serve

solely as social functions, ways to communicate needs. Vygotsky believed that the

internalization of these tools led to higher thinking skills.

APPLICATIONS OF THE VYGOTSKY’S SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY

Many schools have traditionally held a transmissionist or instructionist model in

which a teacher or lecturer ‘transmits’ information to students. In contrast,

Vygotsky’s theory promotes learning contexts in which students play an active role in

learning. Roles of the teacher and student are therefore shifted, as a teacher should

collaborate with his or her students in order to help facilitate meaning construction in

students. Learning therefore becomes a reciprocal experience for the students and

teacher. Source: http://www.learning-theories.com/vygotskys-social-learning-theory.html

Zone of Proximal Development Zone of proximal development (ZPD) refers to the range of

potentials that a person has for learning, which can reach

actualization when someone with greater expertise provides

the necessary facilitation. Social interactions, particularly

with more knowledgeable others (MKO), is crucial for

abilities in the zone of proximal development to become

reality. In the ZPD, people learn to use the “psychological

tools” available in order to achieve cognitive growth.

http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/zone-proximal-development.png

Scaffolding Scaffolding, a concept closely linked with zone of proximal development, refers to the guidance provided by a more knowledgeable other that is adjusted to fit the current skill level of the learner. Scaffolds facilitate the movement of the individual to higher levels. Scaffolding is provided according to the needs and is gradually removed as the learner acquires competence. Note that scaffolding involves providing suitable assistance and in no way suggests doing the task for the learner (e.g., giving away answers or solutions).

Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 12

Module 9: Constructivist Theories EDS 103 – Theories of Learning

SCAFFOLDING ON VIDEO

Watch this video that demonstrates scaffolding:

Scaffolding Self-Directed Learning In The Primary Grades ( Davidson Films)

Then reflect on how you were assisted in your learning when you were a much

younger student. Identify situations that exemplified scaffolding as a very young

learner, and also in your more recent experiences as a young adult.

Cite personally observed or experienced instances of inappropriate assistance.

Using learning theory, why do you consider such events “inappropriate”?

Tutoring

Tutoring takes place when a more skilled person (a teacher, a more knowledgeable peer,

classroom aide, or even a volunteer) assists someone who is less skilled and needs more

individual help to cope with a task or lesson to be learned.

INVESTIGATE: SCAFFOLDING IN TUTORIAL SESSIONS?

Observe how some tutors try to help students learn.

> Do they utilize the concept of scaffolding as a technique to facilitate learning?

> What other theoretical concepts or principles provide sound basis for their

strategies?

> Considering social (and cognitive) constructivist theories, what “unsound”

practices were you able to observe?

Psychological tools Psychological tools mediate our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, such as language, counting

systems, symbol systems, art, writings, maps, technology, etc. Among these, Vygotsky

specifically highlights the value of language as the most important, which Nicholl concisely

explains:

It is through language that we construct reality. With words we define, shape, and experience.

Without the words to think, communicate, experience, or understand our lives would be very

different from what they are. Words expand our consciousness but also limit us as we can only

fully experience those things that we have the words for. Language provides the framework

through which we perceive, experience, and act.

Trish Nicholl http://www.massey.ac.nz/~alock/virtual/trishvyg.htm

kitomarketing.com

Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 13

Module 9: Constructivist Theories EDS 103 – Theories of Learning

Effects of Culture: - Tools of intellectual adaptation

Like Piaget, Vygotsky claimed that infants are born with the basic materials/abilities for

intellectual development - Piaget focuses on motor reflexes and sensory abilities.

Lev Vygotsky refers to Elementary Mental Functions –

> Attention

> Sensation

> Perception

> Memory

Eventually, through interaction within the socio-cultural environment, these are developed into

more sophisticated and effective mental processes/strategies which he refers to as Higher

Mental Functions.

For example, memory in young children this is limited by biological factors. However, culture

determines the type of memory strategy we develop. E.g., in our culture we learn note-taking to

aid memory, but in pre-literate societies other strategies must be developed, such as tying knots

in string to remember, or carrying pebbles, or repetition of the names of ancestors until large

numbers can be repeated.

Vygotsky refers to tools of intellectual adaptation - these allow children to use the basic mental

functions more effectively/adaptively, and these are culturally determined (e.g. memory

mnemonics, mind maps).

Vygotsky therefore sees cognitive functions, even those carried out alone, as affected by the

beliefs, values and tools of intellectual adaptation of the culture in which a person develops and

therefore socio-culturally determined. The tools of intellectual adaptation therefore vary from

culture to culture - as in the memory example.

Vygotsky and Language

According to Vygotsky (1962) language plays 2 critical roles in cognitive development:

1: It is the main means by which adults transmit info to children.

2: Language itself becomes a very powerful tool of intellectual adaptation.

Vygotsky sees "private speech" as a means for children to plan activities and strategies and

therefore aid their development. Language is therefore an accelerator to thinking/understanding

(Bruner also views language in this way).

Vygotsky believed that language develops from social interactions, for communication purposes.

Later language ability becomes internalized as thought and “inner speech”. Thought is the result

of language. Source: McLeod, 2007. http://www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html

THINK

How do counting words, particularly in the patterns of naming quantities in

English, Filipino, Chinese, and Japanese compare? How would Vygotsky

connect these differing patterns with learning embedded in cultural contexts?

Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 14

Module 9: Constructivist Theories EDS 103 – Theories of Learning

WANT TO EXPLORE WWW SOME MORE?

Constructivism as a Paradigm for Teaching and Learning

What is constructivism?

How does this theory differ from traditional ideas about teaching and learning?

What does constructivism have to do with my classroom?

Expert interview

What is the history of constructivism, and how has it changed over time?

What are some critical perspectives?

What are the benefits of constructivism?

Comparing Vygotsky’s and Piaget’s Theories

Santrock, 2011, p. 56

THINK ABOUT IT.

Both cognitive constructivism and social constructivism emphasize the importance of

social interaction in learning. They differ, however, in describing the function it

performs. Describe this difference.

lonelyreload.com

Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 15

Module 9: Constructivist Theories EDS 103 – Theories of Learning

MORE VYGOTSKY – PIAGET COMPARISONS

http://www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html.

Piaget & Vygotsky in 90 seconds. Compares the developmental learning

theories of Piaget and Vygotsky.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=yY-

SXM8f0gU

Comparing Theories.pdf (available on the course site)

Constructivism in the Classroom

At the heart of constructivist theory is the principle that

learners construct, rather than record, knowledge. It

highlights the importance of prior knowledge, social

interaction, and the authentic tasks towards the

construction of knowledge and understanding.

Eggen & Kauchak http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_eggen_education_7/49/12581/3220913.cw/index.html

CHARACTERISITICS OF (SOCIAL AND COGNITIVE) CONSTRUCTIVIST LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS

1. Constructivist learning environments (CLEs) provide multiple representations of

reality.

2. Multiple representations avoid oversimplification and represent the complexity of the real world.

3. CLEs emphasize knowledge construction inserted of knowledge reproduction.

4. CLEs emphasize authentic tasks in a meaningful context rather than abstract instruction out of context.

5. CLEs provide learning environments such as real-world settings or case-based learning instead of predetermined sequences of instruction.

6. CLEs encourage thoughtful reflection on experience.

7. CLEs "enable context- and content- dependent knowledge construction."

8. CLEs support "collaborative construction of knowledge through social negotiation, not

competition among learners for recognition."

Jonassesn (1994) http://viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/et-it/constr.htm Jonassen (1999). www.personal.psu.edu/wxh139/Jonassen.htm

Constructivist Learning Environments (CLE). www.accesswave.ca/~hgunn/special/.../cle.htm

Is the student building theories? Is the student the one who has to put together ideas based upon evidence and information at hand?

Jacqueline Grennon Brooks. http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/co

nstructivism/w2_transq9.html

Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 16

Module 9: Constructivist Theories EDS 103 – Theories of Learning

GUIDING PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTIVISM

Jacqueline Grennon Brooks and Martin G. Brooks offer five key principles of constructivist learning theory. You can use them to guide curriculum structure and lesson planning.

. Pose problems of emerging relevance to students.

. Structure learning around primary concepts.

. Seek and value students' points of view.

. Adapt instruction to address student suppositions.

. Assess student learning in the context of teaching.

http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivism/implementation.html

SUGGESTIONS IN DESCRIPTIONS OF LEARNING ACTIVITIES.

Instruction based on constructivism emphasizes high quality examples and representations of content, student interaction, and content connected to the real world.

Teachers who ground their instruction in constructivism realize that lecturing and explaining often fail to promote deep understanding in learners.

Basing instruction on constructivist learning theory requires teachers to use ongoing assessment as an integral part of the teaching–learning process.

Instruction that applies constructivism in classrooms emphasizes both students' answers and how students arrived at those answers. Effective instruction makes students' thinking open and visible.

Eggen & Kauchak http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_eggen_education_7/49/12581/3220913.cw/index.html

CONSTRUCTIVIST PRINCIPLES IN ACTION INSIDE THE CLASSROOM.

Constructivism has important implications for teaching, but its interpretation sometimes leads to

misconceptions. People sometimes confuse learning theory and instructional theory, tacitly believing that

teachers should avoid setting clear goals, guiding instruction, or correcting student misconceptions.

Constructivism supports none of these practices.

Instruction based on constructivism emphasizes high-quality examples and representations of content,

high levels of student interaction, and content connected to the real world. Teachers who ground their

instruction in constructivism realize that lecturing and explaining often fail to promote deep understanding

in learners.

Instruction that most effectively applies constructivism in classrooms emphasizes both students’ answers

and how students arrived at those answers. Effective instruction makes students’ thinking open and visible.

Guided discovery, inquiry, discussion, and cooperative learning, when well done, can each involve

students in knowledge construction and make their thinking visible.

Teachers using guided discovery present students with information and guide them to find patterns in the

data. Inquiry begins with a problem, follows with hypotheses that offer tentative solutions to the problem,

and ends with data gathering to test the solutions. Discussions involve students in activities in which their

interpersonal skills are developed and reconstruction of understanding can

occur. Cooperative learning involves students in groups of two to five in

tasks that require the efforts of each to succeed.

Eggen & Kauchak http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_eggen_education_6/13/3459/885610.cw/index.html

CONCEPT LEARNING AND MISCONCEPTIONS

Supplementary module (optional reading available on the course site). chrismaddencartoons.wordpress.com

Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 17

Module 9: Constructivist Theories EDS 103 – Theories of Learning

CONSTRUCTIVIST CONDITIONS FOR LEARNING

Embedding learning in complex, realistic and relevant environments

Providing for social negotiation

Supporting multiple perspectives and the use of multiple modes of representation

Encouraging ownership in learning

Nurturing self awareness of the knowledge construction process

Driscoll (2005, p. 393) In Reigeluth. http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Invariant_Tasks:_Principles_for_Learning

SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM AND INSTRUCTION

Emphasis on sociocultural theory, communities of learners, cognitive apprenticeships, and situated cognition are all outcomes of the influence of social constructivism on instruction.

Social Influences on Cognitive Development Like Piaget, Vygotsky believes that young children are curious and actively involved in their

own learning and the discovery and development of new

understandings/schema. However, Vygotsky placed more emphasis on social contributions to

the process of development, whereas Piaget emphasized self-initiated discovery.

According to Vygotsky (1978), much important learning by the child occurs through social

interaction with a skillful tutor. The tutor may model behaviors and/or provide verbal

instructions for the child. Vygotsky refers to this as co-operative or collaborative dialogue.

The child seeks to understand the actions or instructions provided by the tutor (often the parent

or teacher) then internalizes the information, using it to guide or regulate their own performance.

Shaffer (1996) gives the example of a young girl who is given her first jigsaw. Alone, she

performs poorly in attempting to solve the puzzle. The father then sits with her and describes or

demonstrates some basic strategies, such as finding all the comer/edge pieces and provides a

couple of pieces for the child to put together herself and offers encouragement when she does

so. As the child becomes more competent, the father allows the child to work more

independently. According to Vygotsky, this type of social interaction involving co-operative or

collaborative dialogue promotes cognitive development.

Source: McLeod, 2007. http://www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html

Vygotskian Practices in Children’s Education 1. Determination of the child’s ZPD is the emphasis of assessments.

2. Teaching is based on the child’s ZPD.

3. The support and guidance of more-skilled peers is utilized.

4. Private speech is encouraged to facilitate internalizing and self-regulation.

5. Materials for learning are always placed in meaningful contexts.

6. Classroom includes Vygotskian elements—“Tools of the Mind”—cultural tools and developing self-regulation, the ZPD, scaffolding, private speech, shared activity, and play.

Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 18

Module 9: Constructivist Theories EDS 103 – Theories of Learning

COOPERATIVE AND COLLABORATIVE LEARNING

Working in small groups has been found to effectively improve deep learning and

achievement outcomes across grade levels or variety of tasks, including problem-

solving.

COOPERATIVE AND COLLABORATIVE LEARNING: Read to find out more.

Visit http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/coopcollab/index.html.

This site addresses the following questions:

What are cooperative and collaborative learning?

How do cooperative and collaborative learning differ from the traditional approach?

How have cooperative and collaborative learning developed since they became popular?

What are the benefits of cooperative and collaborative learning?

What are some critical perspectives?

How can I use cooperative and collaborative learning in conjunction with other educational

techniques?

Essential conditions for effective cooperative learning:

Group reward or recognition – generates the sense that helping each other is

beneficial to individual members.

Individual accountability – is essential to prevent some individuals from having others

do the work for them (social loafing or free-riding) and from finding some members left

out of the group because they are perceived incapable of making any significant

contribution anyway. Source: Slavin (in Santrock, p. 241)

Positive peer interactions and the positive affect

generated by ownership of decision-making when

students work in cooperative groups have been

found to enhance motivation. Students willingly

stay on task longer, set more intrinsic goals, and

achieve better.

Do you have more anecdotes to describe other benefits that might be experienced from

learning in cooperative groups.

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Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 19

Module 9: Constructivist Theories EDS 103 – Theories of Learning

DISCUSSION STRATEGY

Discussion is a strategy designed to stimulate thinking, help learners reconstruct

understanding by challenging attitudes and beliefs, and develop interpersonal skills. These

skills include:

Learning to listen to others

Developing tolerance for dissenting views

Learning democratic processes

As with all learning, these skills are developed with practice, and in discussions social

interaction is the mechanism that provides that practice. During discussions students are

involved in negotiation, co-construction of meaning, and collaborative elaboration, all social

constructivist processes. One technique for discussion to be effective, teachers intervene only

when necessary. This technique has been found rather difficult, because teachers have a

tendency to dominate discussions and maintain an information-giving roles in lectures. The

purpose of discussions is to engage students with the topic and with one another, not with the

teacher. The teacher’s role is to facilitate or moderate, rather than participate (Cazden;

Cuban; Dillon; Keefer, Zeitz, & Resnick; Meter & Stevens, all in Eggen & Kauchak).

Eggen & Kauchak http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_eggen_education_7/49/12581/3220913.cw/index.html

An actual discussion

(Four high school students sitting together in class.)

Male student 1: Stress should be placed on the word management cause total

annihilation should not be any part of this issue at all. I think controlled hunting seasons will help as a form of protection for the wolf.

Male student 2: If my kid was out playing in the yard, I don't want no wolf coming

along and snatching up my kid. You know what I mean.

Female student: And then plus yeah they put them 30 miles away. Wolves run up to

25 miles per hour and they can run up to 9 hours! What, like they're not gonna come

back if you put them 30 miles away from the farm? They're gonna come back and eat everything again.

Teacher: Besides enabling students to appreciate somebody else's perspective it

gives them a chance to listen to and to evaluate ideas and the logic or lack of logic of

ideas that they - that are presented to them.

Excerpted from Peaceful Solutions, a production of Thirteen/WNET New York. Producer: Jill Peters. Executive Producer: Sandra Sheppard. Executive in Charge: Ruth Ann Burns. (c) 1997 Thirteen/WNET New York, all rights reserved. http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivism/w2_trans2.html

REFLECTING ON “MY OPEN THREAD DISCUSSIONS”

To what extent have you intentionally engaged in discussions with your peers to learn

your lessons (rather than comply with the tasks) in the course?

Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 20

Module 9: Constructivist Theories EDS 103 – Theories of Learning

MORE EXAMPLES OF CONSTRUCTIVISM IN THE CLASSROOM

Personalizing Content in an Urban Environment Janet Williams is a sixth grade world history teacher at Matthew Gilbert Middle School,

an urban middle school in a large city in the southeast. The class was discussing the events

leading up to World War I. The students struggled to understand abstract concepts that were

described in their textbooks (such as nationalism) and their motivation was low.

In an attempt to make the content more meaningful to the students Janet created a

series of examples more personally relevant to the students. The examples are as follows.

(While you are reading, note that Eugene Butler is another urban middle school in the same

general vicinity of the city, and Mandarin Middle and DuPont are suburban middle schools in

the same city.)

The students at Matthew Gilbert love their school. "We don't want someone coming in

here and changing our school," they say. "We understand each other when we talk. The rest of

them are different than we are. They play funny music, and they don't do the things we do after

school or on the weekends."

"We're Gilbertites," they say. "We don't want to be anybody else, and we don't want

anybody telling us what to do."

Students at Eugene Butler feel the same way about their school. "We don't want

someone coming in here and changing our school," they say. "We understand each other

when we talk. The rest of them are different than we are. They play funny music, and they

don't do the things we do after school or on the weekends."

"We're Butlerans and we don't want to be anything else."

Students at Mandarin Middle School have some similar thoughts. "I don't like the way

they talk at Gilbert," some of them have been overheard saying. "They want to hang around

with each other after school, and we want to go to the Mall. I don't want anybody from there to

tell us how to think.

"We're Mandariners, and we want to stay that way."

The students at Gilbert and Butler got worried about some of the other schools, so they

decided to get together to protect themselves from being "taken over."

"If we get together," they agreed, "these other schools won't be able to tell us what to do,

and, we'll be able to share some things with each other."

The Gilbert and Butler students all agreed that this idea was a good one, and they even

wrote it down and signed the agreement.

When the students at Mandarin Middle School found out that Gilbert and Butler had

made an agreement, they got worried.

"Maybe we need a friend too," they thought. So, they talked to some students from

DuPont Middle School, and these two groups also signed a pact to protect each other.

Then, one day, an unfortunate thing happened. A group of kids from DuPont saw one of

the kids from Gilbert downtown, and they started pushing him around. Before they were

finished, they actually pushed him off the sidewalk and knocked him down.

Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 21

Module 9: Constructivist Theories EDS 103 – Theories of Learning

Janet presented the first three vignettes as examples of the concept nationalism and had

the students make observations and comparisons of the examples as part of a guided-

discovery procedure. The students were very involved in the discussion, and a number of their

comments were quite animated.

She then presented the third and fourth vignettes as examples of alliances and again had

the students discuss them. Finally, she presented the last vignette as a metaphor for the

assassination of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand in 1914, which is commonly cited at the

event that precipitated the First World War.

One of the most interesting aspects of the lesson was the fact that the students, instead

of responding to the vignettes as analogies or metaphors for the concepts ofnationalism and

alliance, took the examples literally. They believed that students from Mandarin and DuPont

literally were plotting against them, and they also believed that students from DuPont really did

push a student from Matthew Gilbert off the sidewalk, The teacher had a great deal of difficulty

in trying to convince the students that the examples were not meant literally, and it is likely that

some of the students remained unconvinced.

The most striking feature of the process was the difference in students' level of

motivation and involvement when the teacher used the personalized examples to deliver the

content instead of presenting the concepts in a traditional way (Eggen, 1998).

Eggen & Kauchak http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_eggen_education_7/49/12581/3220913.cw/index.html

Self-Assessment

Answer the following to assess how well you have learned the unit. You need not post your answers, but you may want to raise questions or engage in discussion for clarification.

Identify causes for cognitive development from the Piagetian perspective.

Define and explain how egocentrism, conservation, false belief principle and theory

of mind influence early childhood thinking.

Provide an example of how the information processing approach can be added to the

Pagetian theory of cognitive development.

Provide a practical example of how development of metacognitive skills can assist a

child.

Explain how expertise may influence cognitive development. Source: http://wps.ablongman.com/ab_childdev_studysite_1/149/38360/9820271.cw/-/9820402/index.html

When learners conclude that a word is an adverb only if it ends in “-ly”, or that a

word is a verb because it ends in “-ing”, what concept from Piaget's theory are they

most likely demonstrating? Explain.

Identify two similarities between information processing and constructivism. Identify

one important difference.

How do you synthesize (blend) constructivist theory after having considered the

separate views of Piaget and Vygotsky?

Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 22

Module 9: Constructivist Theories EDS 103 – Theories of Learning

CRACK THE CASE: “UNDEFINED”

In the middle of a class discussion, Natalie, one of Sandy Clark's math students, raises her hand and

says, "I don't get this 'division by zero is undefined.' I just don't understand what they mean by

'undefined'."

"Yeah," Jeremy adds. "Division is division. You divide, you get an answer. Everybody knows that. So,

'undefined' is . . . I don't get it."

Sandy thinks for a moment, writes the number 12 on the chalkboard and assigns the students

successively smaller numbers to divide into 12. (The 12 is arbitrary. Any number would work as well.)

As the students report their answers, Sandy makes a table on the chalkboard (see inset):

"So, let's look at the patterns we have here," Sandy

directs. "What do you notice about the left column? . . .

Terry?"

"The numbers are getting smaller and smaller."

"Good. So imagine now that we kept going with

those numbers. Eventually we would be approaching

what? . . . Leah?"

". . . I'm not . . . quite . . . following you."

"Imagine that we have several more numbers in the left column," Sandy prompts, "and they continue

to get smaller and smaller. Eventually, they would be nearly what?"

". . . Zero?"

"Yes, exactly. Good," she smiles at Terry.

"Now look at the right column. What pattern do you see there? . . . Rene?"

"They're getting bigger and bigger."

"Now imagine that the numbers in the left column get incredibly small; so small that we can hardly

imagine. What would happen to the numbers on the right?"

". . . They would be huge," Brent volunteers.

"And ultimately if we actually GOT to zero, what would happen to those on the right? . . . They would

sort of what?" Sandy shrugs.

". . . They would sort of blow up?" Dennis responds uncertainly.

". . . Sensible idea," Sandy nods. "So what do you mean, 'blow up'? Anyone, what does that term

mean?"

". . . It sort of means 'get huge all of a sudden,' I think," Veronica offers.

"It doesn't mean anything really," Cal puts in. "I sort-of know what you mean, but we can't really say

'gets huge all of a sudden.' "

"So, what do you think?" Sandy probes. "What does it mean?"

". . . That must be what 'undefined' is," Troy offers after thinking about it for several seconds.

"Good," Sandy nods. "Good thinking everyone. That indeed is what we mean by 'undefined'."

Review the student comments such as, "I don't get this 'division by zero is undefined.' I just don't

understand what they mean by 'undefined'," and "Division is division. You divide, you get an

answer. Everybody knows that. So, 'undefined' is … I don't get it." Of the following choices,

these comments suggest that students are struggling with which of the following characteristics

of constructivism?

a. Learners construct knowledge that makes sense to them.

b. New learning depends on current understanding.

c. Social interaction facilitates learning.

Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 23

Module 9: Constructivist Theories EDS 103 – Theories of Learning

d. The most meaningful learning occurs in real-world tasks.

Of the following choices, which principle for using constructivism as a guide for instruction is

best illustrated by the table Sandy created on the chalkboard?

a. Provide learners with a variety of examples and representations of content.

b. Connect content to the real world.

c. Treat verbal explanations skeptically.

d. Promote high levels of interaction.

e. Make assessment an integral part of the teaching-learning process.

Look at the dialogue between Sandy and the students after the table on the chalkboard was

completed. Of the following choices, which instructional principle for using constructivism as a

guide for instruction is best illustrated by this dialogue?

a. Provide learners with a variety of examples and representations of content.

b. Connect content to the real world.

c. Treat verbal explanations skeptically.

d. Promote high levels of interaction.

e. Make assessment an integral part of the teaching-learning process.

> Provide an assessment of the extent to which Sandy applied, in her lesson, the

principles for using constructivism as a guide for instruction.

> Which of the principles for using constructivism as a guide for instruction was least

illustrated in the case study?

Open Thread Discussions

The forum is open for any related discussion and must not be limited to the following suggestion/s.

1. Piaget

a) Define and give illustrative examples

a. assimilation

b. accommodation

c. equilibration

b) What happens to a learner’s schema during assimilation? In contrast, what happens

during accommodation?

c) When is equilibrium attained? Is it more important for a teacher to stimulate equilibrium

or disequilibrium? Why?

2. Vygotsky

a) Following Vygotskian (ZPD, scaffolding, etc) principles what are some common teaching

practices would be considered inappropriate and how can these be modified?

b) How can we improve teaching by taking into account various psychological tools

(language, counting systems, symbol systems, art, writings, maps, etc., excluding

technology)?

3. Contrasts. Cite specific strategies/ approaches/ activities to show the differences among

constructivist teaching, behaviorist approach and direct instruction (typical of information-

processing)

Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 24

Module 9: Constructivist Theories EDS 103 – Theories of Learning

Guide for your e-Journal

For your e-journal entries, you may use the following as guides,

but feel free to express other thoughts (and feelings) about

learning as they have been stimulated by the topics in this

chapter. Keep in mind that learning is very personal and your e -

Journal should be reflective of those personal learning events.

APPLYING CONSTRUCTIVISM TO MY OWN TEACHING-LEARNING

(Identify constructivist principles that can contribute to effective teaching-learning.)

How did you fail to learn / teach well in the past because constructivist principles were

not activated? How you will now want to approach the ways you teach and/or learn.

Primary Readings

Bransford, J., Brown, A, & Cocking, R. 2000. How People Learn. Washington: NAP. pp 8-13

Constructivism http://www.learning-theories.com/constructivism.html Provides a quick overview of constructivist theory.

What Is a Schema? By Kendra Cherry In About.com. http://psychology.about.com/od/sindex/g/def_schema.htm

Schema Theory. http://www.csus.edu/indiv/g/gipej/teaparty.pdf

Constructivism as a Paradigm for Teaching and Learning. In Concept to Classroom site. http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivism/index.html This page contains an index to the sections intended to develop good understanding of the CONCEPT of constructivism, including demonstrations and n techniques for class room application.

Constructivism . In An Electronic Textbook on Instructional Technology. by Chen, I. http://viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/et-it/constr.htm This site contains several sections that discuss both social and cognitive strands of constructivism.

Contructivist Teaching and Learning. By Gray, A. SSTA Research Centre Report #97-07 http://www.saskschoolboards.ca/research/instruction/97-07.htm#What is Constructivism?

Videos

Fish is Fish by Leo Leonni http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YbnsHX8e2OY

Building knowledge: constructivism in learning. John Abbott. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F00R3pOXzuk

The Cognitive Revolution. Steven Pinker. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AeoyzqmyWug&feature=relmfu

Eddie Obeng: Smart failure for a fast-changing world. A TED-Talk Video. http://www.ted.com/talks/eddie_obeng_smart_failure_for_a_fast_changing_world.html

Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 25

Module 9: Constructivist Theories EDS 103 – Theories of Learning

Web Destinations

Constructivism as a Paradigm for Teaching and Learning. by Educational Broadcasting Corporation (2004). Theoretical Concepts and History: http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivism/index.html Classroom Application: http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivism/exploration.html Principles and Models: http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivism/implementation.html Constructivism in Action (Demonstrations) http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivism/demonstration.html

Constructivism. by Ryder, M. http://carbon.ucdenver.edu/~mryder/itc_data/constructivism.html This site contains links to definitions and readings on constructivism

Constructivism Learning Theory. In Teachnology.

http://www.teach-nology.com/currenttrends/constructivism/

Examples of Social Constructivist Classroom Activities

http://viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/et-it/cognitiv.htm

Student-Centered Interactive e-Portfolios by Helen Barrett http://www.slideshare.net/eportfolios/google-appsiste2012workshop See also http://electronicportfolios.org/

Constructivist Foundations http://www.univie.ac.at/constructivism/journal/ Constructivist Foundations (CF) is an international peer-reviewed academic e-journal dedicated to constructivist issues raised by philosophy as well as the natural, human, and applied sciences.

Constructivism. by Clark, D. R. (2010). In The Performance Juxtaposition Site.

http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/history/constructivism.html

A very short overview.

Invariant Tasks: Principles for Learning. Reigeluth. http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Invariant_Tasks:_Principles_for_Learning

What Is Schema Theory and Myer Briggs? http://www.teamtechnology.co.uk/schema-simulator/home.html

SEDL

Is It Constructivism? by Mimi Mayer. Published in SEDL Letter Volume IX, Number 3, August 1996, Constructivism http://www.sedl.org/pubs/sedletter/v09n03/construct.html

The Practice Implications of Constructivism. Wesley A. Hoover. Published in SEDL Letter Volume IX, Number 3, August 1996, Constructivism http://www.sedl.org/pubs/sedletter/v09n03/practice.html

Resources for Constructivism http://www.sedl.org/pubs/sedletter/v09n03/resources.html

Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 26

Module 9: Constructivist Theories EDS 103 – Theories of Learning

References

Anderson, Richard C. 1977. "The notion of schemata and the educational enterprise: General discussion of the conference." In Anderson, R. C., Spiro, and Montague 1984. http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/literacy/implementaliteracyprogram/SchemaTheoryOfLearning.htm

Davis, Patricia M. 1991.Cognition and learning: A review of the literature with reference to ethnolinguistic minorities. Dallas, TX: Summer Institute of Linguistics.

Derry, S.J. (1996). Cognitive Schema Theory in the Constructive Debate. Educational Psychologist, 31(3/4), 163-174. http://www.tlu.ee/~kpata/haridustehnoloogiaTLU/schematheory.pdf

Eggen, P. & Kauchak, D. ().Educational Psychology: Windows on Classrooms (6th ed.).

Ernst von Glasersfeld. (1982). An Interpretation of Piaget’s Constructivism. Revue Internationale de Philosophie, 36 (4), 612–635, . http://elearnmap.ipgkti.edu.my/resource/dpli_r/index_htm_files/InterpretationPiagetConstructivism.pdf

Schunk, D.H.. (2012). Chapter 6 Constructivism, pp. 228 - 276. In Learning theories: An educational perspective (6th ed.). MA: Pearson.

Piaget

Ackerman, E. (n.d.). Piaget’s Constructivism, Papert’s Constructionism: What’s The Difference? http://learning.media.mit.edu/content/publications/EA.Piaget _ Papert.pdf

Bhattacharya, K. & Han, S. (2012). Piaget and Cognitive Development. http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/index.php?title=Piaget%27s_Constructivism

McLeod, S. A. (2009). Jean Piaget | Cognitive Theory. http://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html

Ozer,O. (2004). Constructivism in Piaget and Vygotsky. In The Fountain Magazine, Issue 48. http://www.fountainmagazine.com/Issue/detail/CONSTRUCTIVISM-in-Piaget-and-Vygotsky

Piaget's Theory of Constructivism. http://www.teach-nology.com/currenttrends/constructivism/piaget/

Vygotsky

Cole, M. & Wertsch, J. V. (n.d.). Beyond the Individual-Social Antimony in Discussions of Piaget and Vygotsky. http://www.massey.ac.nz/~alock/virtual/colevyg.htm

Dixon-Krauss, L. A Mediation Model For Dynamic Literacy Instruction. http://psych.hanover.edu/vygotsky/krauss.html

Learning Theories Knowledgebase (2012, October). at Learning-Theories.com. http://www.learning-theories.com/vygotskys-social-learning-theory.html

McLeod, S. A. (2007). Vygotsky - Social Development Theory. http://www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html

Nicholl, T. (n.d.). Vygotsky. http://www.massey.ac.nz/~alock/virtual/trishvyg.htm This site provides an introduction to some of the basic concepts of Vygotskyean theory.

Schaffer, R (1996). Social Development. Oxford: Blackwell.

Shotter, J. Talk of Saying, Showing, Gesturing, and Feeling. In Wittgenstein and Vygotsky. http://www.massey.ac.nz/~alock/virtual/wittvyg.htm

Vygotsky's Theory on Constructivism http://www.teach-nology.com/currenttrends/constructivism/vygotsky/

Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 27

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Vygotsky, L.S. (1962). Thought and Language. Cambridge MA: MIT Press.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.