Early Smoking Pipes: In Africa, Europe, and America

Early Smoking Pipes: In Africa, Europe, and AmericaAuthor(s): Thurstan ShawSource: The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, Vol.90, No. 2 (Jul. - Dec., 1960), pp. 272-305Published by: Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and IrelandStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2844348 .

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Early Smoking Pipes: in Africa, Europe, and America

THURSTAN SHAW

IN THE COURSE OF AN EXCAVATION in Ghana (Shaw I96I ) I unearthed a number of clay smoking pipes which form the subject of discussion in this paper. The excavation con- sisted of a trench four feet wide sunk through a mound twenty-five feet high, situated at Dawu, Akwapim, about twenty-five miles inland from Accra (Plate I). I am satis- fied that the mound represents a midden, the accumulated rubbish swept up from compounds and dumped in one spot over a period of four or five hundred years, from about the fourteenth century to the early nineteenth. The period represented by the mound therefore straddles the beginning of contact with Europe on the Coast. Fig. I shows the distribution in the mound of European trade beads, the lower limit of which probably represents a date towards the end of the fifteenth century. Fig. 2 shows the distribution of the smoking pipes, the lower limit of which gives a horizon about three feet higher in the mound, approximately nine and a half feet below the surface; this probably represents a date at the end of the sixteenth or the beginning of the seventeenth century. This lower limit of the pipes was called 'Horizon B'; an arbitrary distance of five feet above it was called 'Horizon A'.

TYPES OF POTTERY SMOKING PIPES EXCAVATED IN GHANA

There was no complete specimen of a smoking pipe recovered, but some ninety-six pieces and fragments. All but the smallest of these can be seen in Plates II-VI. They are all locally made of clay, usually with a smooth exterior surface, ranging in colour from light reddish brown to grey. These pipes belong to the 'two-piece' type, in which the stem is provided by a hollow reed or tube of wood inserted into a socket protruding from the base of the bowl.

All the pieces of pipe were laid out according to their provenance on a large-scale drawing of the stratigraphy of the mound, to see if any chronological sequence of types could be observed. No such classification or development was immediately apparent. However, the pipes do appear to fall into eight categories when classified on typology alone, and these are as follows:

Type IBowls fairly thin (thinner than in Types II and III); sides slightly but definitely convex; rounded, or narrow flat, rim; no bases present; angle between bowl and stem-socket about 800; undecorated, except for three parallel incised lines around top of bowl in one specimen (Plate II and Fig. 3).

Type II Fairly short, thick-sided bowl; straight sides (with the slightest tendency to concavity); rim flat; base rounded; angle between bowl and stem-socket about 800; stem-socket of comparatively small diameter. Decoration of incised, trans- verse, and herring-bone lines between parallel grooves (Plate III, no. I, and Fig. 3).

272



EARLY SMOKING PIPES: IN AFRICA, EUROPE, AND AMERICA 273

Type III Bowl longer than in Type II, of similar thickness; sides slightly but definitely concave, usually with a thickening of the wall near the rim; flat rim; base rounded or flattened; angle between bowl and stem-socket about 6o0; stem- socket of rather larger diameter than in Type II. Decoration consists of dots, parallel grooves, and small concentric circles, sometimes filled with white inlay.

This is the commonest type; it could have developed out of Type II. Type IIIe has a distinctly 'metal look' about it, as of a clay copy of a metal pipe (Plate III, nos. 2-IO, and Fig. 3).

Type IV Bowl thin, sides straight up to a wide rim-flange; base flat; angle between bowl and stem-socket appears to be about 600; there is a vertical hole through the rim-flange above the stem-socket, presumably for fastening the reed stem; slight parallel line decoration round bowl. This type could have developed out of Type III (Plate IV, no. I, and Fig. 3).

Type V Bowl fairly thin, sides slightly concave; no rim present; rounded base; angle between bowl and stem-socket about 50?; proximal end of stem-socket joined to bowl, with attachment hole between; roulette type of decoration (Plate IV, no.2, and Fig. 4).

Type VI Bowl thick, straight sides below a heavy collar; rim broken away; large flat base; angle between bowl and stem-socket about 500; it seems likely that there was an attachment hole for the stem, but it is not possible to tell for certain; profusely decorated with lines of roulette impressions (Plate IV, no. 3, and Fig. 4).

Type VII Bowl fairly thin with straight sides; flat rim; base appears to be rounded, with vertical shallow grooves across its shoulder; decorated below the rim with horizontal grooves, scored across at intervals with vertical grooves (Plate IV, no. 6, and Fig. 4).

Type VIII (a) Bowl thick, sides more convex than in any other type, giving a bulbous appearance; rim, base, and stem-socket not present; profusely decorated with incised vertical lines and chevrons.

It is not possible to be sure about the original form of this type, there being only one imperfect specimen. It probably had a stem-socket at an angle with the bowl, the stem-hole going into a sort of little 'sump' below the bowl proper (as in Fig. 4, middle row, centre); but the possibility must not be ruled out of a tubular form, with the axes of the bowl and stem in alignment as in Fig. 4, middle row, right (Plate IV, no. 5).

(b) Bowl similar to preceding; rim not present; decorated with three horizontal lines of incisions at base of bowl, but not completely encircling it on the side where the stem-socket projects.

There being only one specimen of this type, it is inot possible to be sure about the original form. It appears to have had an extremely short stem- socket, flaring to a wide rim, but as this is not present, one cannot be certain (Fig. 4, third row, middle, and right). An alternative reconstruction would make the usual kind of elbow pipe (as in Fig. 4, bottom left), but this seems unlikely to be correct, since it changes over the portion assumed to be the base



274 THURSTAN SHAW

of the bowl. The first reconstruction suggested has as bowl the part showing a certain amount of blackening, often typical of bowl rather than of stem-socket, whereas the second reconstruction has it the other way round (Plate IV, no. 4).

It appears that all the pipes have two characteristics in common: (i) All are designed to have a wood or reed stem; (2) in all cases where it is ascertainable, the angle between the axes of the bowl and the stem-socket is acute.

There are seven specimens in which the angle between bowl and stem-socket is ascertainable: with the specimens arranged in order upwards from Horizon B, these angles are as follows:

Vertical Depth Stem-socket Angle Below Surface

-2ft. 790

8-o 65? 6-I 60o 4-5 8o0 3-2 63? I1O 490

Surface 530

It may be that the oldest types had the least acute angle, the later types the most acute angle. The number of specimens in the series is not sufficient, however, to justify a firm conclusion.

Type I is the only one at all reminiscent of the English or Dutch 'clay'. The likeness is confined to the bowl, since in early English clays the bowl and the stem are made in one piece (without provision for the insertion of a wood or reed stem), and the angle between bowl and stem is obtuse. Of nine specimens attributable to Type I, six came from between Horizons A and B, three from above Horizon A.

Type II may be that nearest to some foreign prototype. It occurs just above Horizon B. Type III may have developed from it, and this perhaps into Type IV; the latter type introduces the attachment hole vertically through the rim, but the tendency to breakage which this would occasion may have led to the alternative arrangement of Type V, itself possibly suggested by the form of Type IV, with its narrow space between rim and stem. A further strengthening against breakage occurs in the collar of Type VI; there is a suggestion of such a strengthening collar, though lower down the bowl, in Type V. Out of nineteen specimens attributable to Type III, ten came from between Horizons A and B, two from Horizon A, and seven from above Horizon A. Type IV comes from between Horizons A and B, Type V from close to the surface, Type VI from the surface.

POSSIBLE PROTOTYPES AND AGENTS OF DIFFUSION

When a new habit is introduced into an area and reflected in its material culture, one seeks to find prototypes belonging to the introducing culture, since the new item of material culture nearly always reveals some indications of the culture of its origin. It is rare for techniques or ideas (e.g. 'smoking', 'pottery-making'), when taken over from another culture, to be expressed immediately in material objects peculiar in type to the




borrowing culture; to begin with at any rate, they usually show some affinities with models in the transmitting culture.

What, then, are the affinities of the pipes found at Dawu, in particular of Types I, II and III? Types IV, V, VI and possibly VII, in view of their stratigraphical positions, could be local developments peculiar to this part of West Africa, taking place some time later than the initial introduction of smoking. Specimens of Type VIII are too frag- mentary, and their reconstruction too conjectural, for one to be able to base anything secure upon them. We are therefore principally concerned with Types I, II, and III.

We can take it that Nlficotiana tabacum is an imported and not an indigenous plant in West Africa. The observations of early travellers, of tobacco 'growing wild' in West Africa (Wiener I920), are suspect. What certainty is there that the plant referred to really was Nlficotiana tabacum? If it was, what guarantee is there that it had not 'escaped' from cultivation, or was growing on an old cultivation plot which had been abandoned? The prevalence of the root ta in the vernacular names for tobacco is certainly suggestive of importation. These names are given (Irvine I930) as follows: Twi, Ashanti: taa, tawa; Twi, Fanti, Guan: awuaha; Guan: ataa; Krepi: taba, bolugudu; Krobo: taba; Ga: tawa; Ewe: bibi. 'There is not a tribe from the Niger to the Nile which has a native word of their own to.denote' tobacco (Sayce I933). It is now well established by botanical and historical evidence that both Nlficotiana rustica and Nlficotiana tabacum were natives of America, in spite of their wide diffusion in Africa (Laufer, Hambly & Linton I930, p. 3). In New Guinea and Melanesia also, tobacco is now regarded as an introduced plant, on botanical and ethnographical evidence, in spite of the earlier belief that it was an indigenous plant (Riesenfeld I952, p. 93).

The 'obvious' hypothesis is that smoking was introduced to the West Coast of Africa by European voyagers. In view of the known part played by these same voyagers in spreading the tobacco habit round the world during the later part of the sixteenth century and the earlier part of the seventeenth, this seems inherently more probable than to suppose an introduction from the north along one of the trans-Saharan caravan routes. In fact, it has been explicitly stated that its diffusion was the other way round- that smoking was introduced into Morocco by Negroes from south of the Sahara in I597 (Bovill I933, p.I 84, based on a statement of El Ufrani). We cannot be sure from which area 'south of the Sahara' this introduction took place, but it fits in with a date in the sixteenth century, rather than later, for the introduction of smoking into West Africa. Tobacco is recorded as appearing at the Cape of Good Hope in I6oI, as a result of the activity of European voyagers (Goodwin I939). The tobacco habit 'was taken by Portuguese sailors to the East, and had probably reached India before I6o5; the plant was being grown in Ceylon by I6I0.... The Portuguese had carried tobacco into Japan by about I6o5 and somewhere about I6I0 Korea received it from the latter country.... The Spaniards carried cigar-smoking in the sixteenth century from Mexico to the Philippines', and 'also took the cigarette to south-eastern Asia' (Sayce I933, pp- 206-7).

South America and the Portuguese The Portuguese reached the Gold Coast in I47I and built Elmina Castle eleven years later. The Spanish were not concerned with the West Coast of Africa after I480, when a



276 THURSTAN SHAW

treaty with Portugal secured the Canaries to Spain, but gave Portugal a monopoly of the Guinea trade. The discovery of the greater riches of America dispelled for the Spanish any remaining interest which they may have retained in this part of the world. The Portuguese protested successfully to Edward IV in I48I against the violation of their monopoly by a British expedition. William Hawkins the Elder, probably copying what the French were doing, organized three triangular voyages from I530 to I532 to the Guinea coast and thence to Brazil, but these probably did not go so far east as the modern Ghana (Blake I942, p. 299). It was not until I553 that Windham's voyage reopened British trading on the Guinea coast, which was thenceforward continuous. The other European nation trading on the Guinea coast in the early days was the French, who never accepted the Portuguese monopoly and from I 500 carried out attacks on Portu- guese trade. By I530 the importance of the Guinea trade had declined for the Portuguese and increased for the French. The first Dutch voyage did not take place until I595, but in the next forty years the Dutch established their supremacy over the Portuguese, who surrendered the great castle of Elmina to them in I637.

The Portuguese, then, are the first potential introducers of smoking into West Africa. I have therefore endeavoured to collect some information about early Portuguese smoking pipes. I have written to various Portuguese sources, but with no success. The only pipe I have come across for which a Portuguese origin has been suggested is that illustrated in Plate VIII. It is included in the pipes from West Africa in the Bragge Collection in the British Museum. The catalogue description reads: 'Pipe bowl. Black clay, polished. White metal mount. Bowl with foliage and a Coat of Arms incised- probably by a European hand. (Qy Portuguese).' I am indebted to Mr Peter Lasko, of the Department of British and Mediaeval Antiquities in the British Museum, for the following comment on this specimen:

'The coat of arms it bears on the front among stylized foliage patterns and surmounted by a crown surely is intended to represent the arms of Hungary which are properly blazoned: Barry of eight argent and gules for Hungary impaling azure, a patriarchal cross argent issuing from a ducal coronet or, placed on a mount of three ascents vert, also for Hungary. . The arms on the pipe differ in that it is a barry of seven instead of eight, and that some of the details of the sinister side are not represented, such as the ducal coronet (which may nevertheless be indicated by the little dots round the base of the cross). The pipe itself can certainly be attributed to the Austro-Hungarian Empire of the later nineteenth century without any great difficulty, and the small errors of the arms need not be surprising in a provincial context and in the rather poor workmanship of the whole pipe.'

So much for the only 'Portuguese' pipe I have been able to find! Smoking is said to have been common among Portuguese and Spanish sailors in

Spanish ports by I559 (Corti I93I, p. 54); but whether this was of cigars, cigarettes, or pipes is not clear. It has been suggested that the Portuguese only came to know the cigar (Laufer I924b, p. 2). There may have been some influence from Spain, but the Portu- guese themselves were in contact with the pipe-smokers of Brazil (Sayce I933, p. 204).

The first tobacco seeds arrived in France from Brazil in I556 (Corti I93I, p. 269), the plant was grown in Portugal in I558 (Sayce I933), and it was from there that in I559 Jean Nicot, French Ambassador in Portugal, sent seeds to the court in Paris (Corti I93 I).

But it must be remembered that the great interest shown there in the new plant was




for its alleged medicinal properties. McGuire (I897) quotes Gaffarel's claim that the Frenchman Theret introduced tobacco into France as early as I554 (Winsor i886, p. 31). On the other hand it is sometimes asserted that tobacco was first brought into Europe in I558 by Francisco Fernandez, a physician who had been sent by Philip II of Spain to investigate the products of Mexico. It has been stated that before this time practically all tobacco reaching Europe came through Spanish sources (Corti I93I, p. 32).

Who were the pipe-smokers in Brazil with whom the Portuguese came in contact? According to Corti (I 93 I, p. 32) smoking was spread to what is now Venezuela, Guiana, and Brazil, by migrations and conflicts like that between the Caribs and the inhabitants of the Antilles shortly before the coming of the Spaniards; elsewhere in South America smoking was unknown until the arrival of the Spanish. Dunhill (I 924, p. 75) says:

'the Tapuyas inhabit all the rest of Brazil, including the coastal belt, which was first discovered and settled by the Portuguese. These people are pipe-smokers, and the traveller Nieuhoff, who visited Brazil in I654, writes of them as follows: "The Brazilians smoke in pipes made of the shell of a nut, to wit, they cut a hole in one end of the shell, take out the kernel, and after they have polished them, put a wooden pipe or a piece of reed in the hole. The Tapuyas use very large pipes made of stone, wood, or clay, the holes of which are so big that they contain a handful of tobacco at a time." '

It is very easy in studying objects of material culture from different parts of the world to see resemblances and connexions which are fortuitous; and authenticated cases of independent invention are known. One must remember the apparently quite independent invention of the 'straw and walnut' pipe in England (Laufer I 924b, p. 35) . One therefore merely asks whether it is coincidence that some of the pipes of north western New Guinea are also made out of a hollowed-out nut with an inserted stem of hollowed-out climbing mountain bamboo (Haddon I947, Fig. I5). For it seems satisfactorily established now that smoking was introduced into New Guinea from the north-west, probably by Portuguese agency. Only when the idea of smoking had been introduced into the island was the typical smoke-container pipe of Papua produced, probably adapted from some existing instrument (Haddon I947). The first Dutchmen who came to Ternate in I599 found some poor quality tobacco there, the sucking of which was especially popular with the slaves (Papuas); sailors obtained tobacco from the east coast of Halmahera in I 6 I 6. One of the principal reasons why it has sometimes been believed that tobacco must have been known and grown before the advent of the Portu- guese, is the very rapidity with which it tended to spread once it had been introduced into an area. Haddon (I947, p. 240) quotes van Nouhys as unable to believe in a Portuguese introduction of tobacco into this area, since it was not an important article of trade for them in the sixteenth century and yet tobacco was already popularized before the end of the century. 'But he points out there are several sources, some of which are native, that show absolutely conclusively that until the end of the sixteenth century the smoking of tobacco and tobacco itself were completely unknown along the entire eastern border of Asia, Japan, and Java included, notwithstanding the fact that the Portuguese were in Goa in I498 and that they and the Spaniards had definite settlements since I5II on the coast of Malabar, at Malacca and in the Phillipines.... Smoking by Europeans in I 52 I in parts of the Phillipines caused great astonishment.'



278 THURSTAN SHAW

Maybe tobacco was not seen by the Portuguese at this early period to have much commercial significance; but it seems clear now that they were largely responsible for its diffusion in the later part of the sixteenth century. The fact that Toma Pires (I944) does not mention it as an article of trade in I5I2- I5 need not worry us, as this date is rather early for our purpose.

In all the controversy over smoking in New Guinea and all the botanical and philological argument (Riesenfeld I952), there seems to have been little consideration whether the form of the pipes could throw any light on the problem, by showing any resemblance to 'foreign' prototypes. Haddon (I947, p. 256) does say: 'In the neighbour- hood of the Arfak mountains of Vogelkop, the pipes, whether single or double, appear to be variations of the European type, which itself was a variant of the North American pipe.' Unfortunately this does not carry us very far, as it is an over-simplification of a very complex matter. Perhaps the reason why possible Portuguese or Dutch antecedents for New Guinea pipes were not considered, was because the pipes being dealt with were collected, not excavated, and it was reasonable to suppose that local variations and evolutions had obscured any morphological indications of early types. We cannot tell whether the nut pipes from the upper Ronffaer River are a local development of a later date or not, but at any rate the similarity to Tapuya pipes is worth noting -with the Portuguese, or Portuguese slaves, possibly providing the link. It is a far cry from the coast of Brazil to north-west New Guinea, but there have been stranger cases of diffusion. Riesenfeld and Haddon show not merely that so many of the terms for tobacco in the many different languages can be traced to the common form 'tabaco', the Spanish and Portuguese word for it, but also that the further one gets away from the centre of distribution in north-west New Guinea, the more the terms deviate from the original. What does not appear to have been remarked is that the pipes themselves point in the same direction, i.e. they resemble the 'European' tradition of bowl and stem in the north-west area only. One has to beware here, of course, of later influences, as is indicated in the description of the Hatam pipe from the Arfak mountains which 'has a very European appearance, except for the scroll work handle' (Haddon I947, Fig. 7) .

If, then, it was the Portuguese who introduced smoking into New Guinea, there would appear to be a considerable likelihood that it was they who did the same in West Africa. There seems little doubt that they came into contact with smoking in Brazil, which they accidentally discovered in I500. Here 'the natives were acquainted with the practice of smoking: the wizards or medicine men made a curious sort of pipe by insert- ing the hollow shaft of an arrow into a gourd cut to the shape of a human head; in this they burned the leaves of a certain plant.... On the other hand, in the rest of South America, which was only gradually explored, no trace of any such habit was found, and the tobacco plant was unknown' (Corti I 93 I, p. 48).

The elbow pipe is said to be the typical 'smoking implement in use in eastern and south-central South America, in eastern and southern Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, and northern Argentina. Pottery pipes of pre-Columbian times are frequently found in these regions, though probably then, as at present, the usual type was made of wood. The best of these pottery pipes come from the Calchaqui region of north-west Argentina. They somewhat resemble the modern "clay" pipe but are roughly made of coarse pottery with tubular stems of a large calibre. The bowls are generally large and conical with two short legs on which the pipe can be rested upright, and frequently rude relief ornament has




been applied to the bowls so that, in combination with the short supports, a grotesque animal form is suggested. Better pipes of polished black pottery with incised decorations are occasionally found' (Mason l924).

The Handbook of South American Indians (Cooper I949) states that

'archaeological finds of pipes, in some cases in seemingly pre-Columbian deposits, have been made in Eastern Brazil and in the La Plata region, suggesting that at least in these areas tobacco-smoking had been practised in pre-Contact days.... The pipe is of recent or post-Columbian introduction in the Guiana hinterland, downstream on the Amazon, and Patagonia. In early colonial times its presence is recorded for Eastern Brazil ("Tapuya", Tupinamba) and Chile (Mapuche-Huillache), and not elsewhere on the continent.'

Little is said in the foregoing about the form of these pipes from Eastern Brazil, but it has been stated by an authority that there are no pre-Columbian elbow-pipes in Brazil, but only tubular ones (Lane I956). This makes me regard with caution the statement of Dunhill (I924), p. I64) that after the discovery of Brazil, the Portuguese established plantations there, and frequently sailing thence to the west coast of Africa, introduced tobacco and Brazilian-type pipes to the Gulf of Guinea area early in the sixteenth century. This is no doubt what ought to have happened. But did it? When did 'Brazilian plantations' begin exporting tobacco? This statement should be compared with those of other authorities quoted above stressing the unimportance of tobacco in sixteenth-century Portuguese trade. Who is right? And what was the form of the pipes referred to? Dunhill does not illustrate any. Elsewhere (A.D. I954) he has stated that 'while the tobacco-pipe was thus evolving in North America apparently a two-piece pipe arose independently in South America. In the upper part of the southern continent true pipes were not used, though the Y-shaped tube ... was employed for inhaling snuff. Otherwise cigar-smoking was the ordinary form of indulgence in tobacco. But in South Brazil in I650 the travellerJan Nieuhoff found a great Indian tribe smoking pipes with bowls made of nut-shells and with stems of reed or hollowed wood. This kind of pipe with a small bowl was the prototype of the pipe of Turkey, Persia, and the Far East, since the Portuguese took it with them from Brazil along their trade-route in the Old World.' This latter statement, however, appears somewhat conjectural.

Portuguese contacts with Brazil do not, then, provide certain antecedents for any pipes excavated at Dawu, although they remain a possible influence.

Who Copiedfrom Whom? Before considering other possible prototypes for early pipes, one needs to give further consideration to the question of 'who copied from whom?' The question is bedevilled by the comparatively short time which elapsed between the adoption of smoking froni the New World into the Old on the one hand, and, on the other, the American continent receiving back pipes of European (and, perhaps, African) origin. 'Pipes are mentioned among the goods given to the Indians in some of the earliest English land-purchases (in North America), and they were regularly carried by the white traders with the Indians. An English pipe-maker, Robert Cotton, came to Virginia in I6o8. The earliest trade pipes were made of clay and seem to have been patterned after the small pipes used for



280 THURSTAN SHAW

personal smoking by the coast tribes. Those made in the various European countries showed minor differences, but were all of nearly the same form' (Linton I 924).

Professor Wiener (I920) built a philological house of cards to suggest that smoking and tobacco were carried to America some hundred years or so before Columbus. His argument seems to begin from passages quoted from a historian (Thacher I903) concerning Christopher Columbus's third voyage in I498.

'Certain principal inhabitants of the island of Santiago came to see them and they say that to the south-west of the island of Huego, which is one of the Cape Verdes distant twelve leagues from this, may be seen an island, and that King Don Juan was greatly inclined to send to make discoveries to the south-west, and that canoes had been found which start from the coast of Guinea and navigate to the west with merchandise.... He thought to investigate the report of the Indians of the Espafiola who said that there had come to Espaniola from the south and south-east, a black people who have the tops of their spears made of a metal which they call "guanin", of which he had sent samples to the Sovereigns to have them assayed, when it was found that of thirty-two parts, eighteen were of gold, six of silver and eight of copper.'

Says Wiener:

'There can be no question whatsoever as to the reality of the statement in regard to the presence in America of the African "pombeiros" previous to Columbus because "guani" is a Mandingo word, and the very alloy is of African origin.' No evidence is offered to show this African origin; the conclusion is based on fifteenth-century travellers' tales, in any case capable of different interpretation; and the question of how 'canoes ... navi- gated to the west with merchandise' across the open Atlantic simply is not faced. Un- deterred, Professor Wiener bases further argument on this flimsy conjecture as if it were established fact: 'Now that the presence of "pombeiros" in America before Columbus is made certain, we can see at once why tobacco should have been introduced by them before Columbus' (Wiener I 920, p. I I 9) .

It does not take very much breath to blow down this house of cards, and Haddon (I947, p. 244) has already turned back on the author the contempt the latter expresses for archaeologists.

More recently, M. D. W. Jeffreys (I953) has quoted the same passages (as from Jane I930) concerning Columbus's third voyage, as part of an attempt to demonstrate the pre-Columbian presence of negroes in America, which he accounts for by the slave- trade conducted by the Arabs and their skill in navigation. He grapples with the question of an Atlantic crossing, in the calm waters of equatorial latitudes, but he himself admits that his case is largely built on circumstantial evidence.

What in fact do the quoted passages amount to? (a) A report of canoes setting out westwards from the Guinea coast. (b) A tradition of the inhabitants of Haiti that they had come from the south and 'the direction of the black people of the south-east'. Now, (a) could mean almost anything; there is great vagueness as to the point of the Guinea coast from which it was said canoes departed westwards. Even if true, it does not necessarily mean they were making for America; they may have been in contact with some of the islands of the Atlantic off the African coast, which is where the report came from. (b) surely refers to northern Brazil, whence the Caribs are supposed to have come.

Although Jeffreys argues from the presence in America, soon after the Discovery, of



EARLY SMOKING PIPES: IN AFRICA, EUROPE, AND AMERICA 28I

yam and cocoyam, said to be of African origin, and similarly from the presence of maize and cassava (indigenous to America) in Guinea at the same date, he does not bring into his discussion the presence or absence of tobacco in West Africa. If his postulate of Arab slave-trading across the Atlantic before the time of Columbus is correct, one would expect tobacco to be introduced into West Africa and the Arab world in the process. But El Ufrani's account of the introduction of smoking into Morocco by Negroes from south of the Sahara in I597 is probably reliable (see p. 275), and at Dawu the occurrence of trade beads ante-dated the occurrence of pipes. I think we can be pretty confident in assigning these trade beads to a European agency, even if we cannot identify as yet precisely their European place of manufacture. It is admittedly a remarkable fact that at Dawu there were no other kinds of European import certainly recognizable as such (like European clay smoking pipes, such as occurred at Asebu (Nunoo I957), or gin bottles), but neither were there any clearly of Arab origin.

In spite of all this, one has to recognize not only that European traders in the New World were selling pipes of European manufacture at a date not so very long after the Discovery, as seen above, but that a second source of confusion may have arisen from the importation of African slaves into America from before the middle of the sixteenth century. Las Casas introduced the importation of negro slaves from Africa in I5I2 in order to check the cruel exploitation of native labour by the Spaniards (Ency. Brit. I 955, vol. 2I, p. I22). It seems a little far-fetched to suppose with du Chaillu (Dunhill I924, p. I64) that a slave 'made shift to carry the seeds of the plants that grew in his garden at home, and by such means were pipes and tobacco disseminated'. Possibly this idea derives from Benzoni of Milan (McGuire I897, p. 375) who as early as I54I-56 tells how slaves brought by the Spaniards 'from Ethiopia the leaves of a plant which grows in these new countries which was picked in its season, tied up in bundles, and suspended by them near the fire-places until very dry; to use them they take a leaf of their grain (maize), and, one of the other plant being put in it, they roll them tight together.' This suggests that in the earliest diffusion of tobacco, it may have been the 'lower orders' of society-slaves and seamen-who had more to do with it than the traders and those who knew the art of writing. 'At first it was received only by the lower ranks of the soldiery; the leaders and the priests frowned upon it' (Sayce I933, p. 203). England seems at first sight to have been different from other European countries of the Atlantic seaboard in that smoking quickly became fashionable among the upper classes (Laufer I924b, p. 34), but even here it may be that there was an earlier, less well recorded popularity of smoking among humbler folk (see below, pp. 293-5).

It seems likely that when slaves in America had the opportunity to make pipes for themselves, their form might be influenced by what they had been accustomed to in their African homeland. 'Specimens of black pottery bowls in the British Museum, which come from Para on the Amazon, greatly resemble those of West Africa, a fact which suggests that they were made and used by the Negro slaves and their descendants, who were introduced into the country in large numbers by the Portuguese plantation owners during the late sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. No one of the pipes of this part of America is unique in style, so that the suggestion that here the use of tobacco is sub- sequent to the Discovery appears to be well founded' (Dunhill I924, p. 72 and Fig. 58). The black pottery pipes referred to do not resemble any of the Dawu types.



282 THURSTAN SHAW

North America Having then considered Portuguese sources and their connexions with South America and failed to find any obvious antecedents of the Dawu pipes, one turns to the rest of the American continent and the other European nations trading on the west coast of Africa, the French and English, and later, the Dutch. The French and English were principally in contact with North, rather than South or Central America. The pipes of North America are therefore the next to be examined for resemblances to the Dawu pipes, particularly Types I, II, III, and IV, but especially Types I and III.

A perusal of North American pipes points to the south-eastern United States as likely to provide the closest parallels to Dawu Type III. 'In the south-eastern United States short clay pipes with reed or wooden stems seem to have been in common use. They were often rather elaborately decorated with modelled figures of birds, clay pellets, or incised designs. This form of pipe is still in use among the Catauba, although many of their pipes show the influence of European models' (Linton I924, p. I5). The Dawu specimens only resemble the plainer varieties, one of which is shown in Fig. 5, no. 8.

What appears to be a comprehensive corpus of North American smoking pipes has been published by the Public Museum of Milwaukee (West I934). The 257 plates are most valuable and useful, but the text is often too generalized and conjectural to be of real help. Of English 'clays' it is said, quoting Jewitt, quoting McGuire, that they were apparently made in the beginning of the seventeenth century, but possible American antecedents are not discussed at all. The most serious shortcoming, for the purpose of the present study, is that there is no clear distinction of those pipes established as pre- Columbian.

West recognizes over twenty different types of pipe in America, with some further ten sub-types. All the Dawu pipes (except, perhaps, the problematical fragments of Type VIII) most resemble West's category of 'Elbow Pipes', which are loosely described as 'of the rectangular type, so named because of its bowl being at right angles to the base. They are pipes supposed to have been individually or personally owned. This type is common throughout the United States and Canada and many of them are prehistoric' (West I934, p. I28). This statement has to be qualified by West's own demonstration that there were parts of the United States and Canada in which smoking was unknown in pre-Columbian times.

Fig. 5, nos. I-7, give the outlines of those pottery pipes shown by West which appear to have the closest resemblance to our Dawu specimens. Fig. 5, nos. i-6 may be regarded as having a general affinity with Dawu Types II-IV, although it will be observed that the angle between the axes of bowl and stem is in no case less than a right angle, and in most cases the angle is obtuse, whereas in the Dawu specimens it is acute. Fig. 5, no. 3, from Wisconsin, appears to resemble Dawu Type II, but this is perhaps partly fortuitous, as it seems to have a broken stem and not a true stem-socket. The remainder of this group (Fig. 5 nos. i, 2, 4-6) come from Tennessee or Georgia. Fig. 5, no. 7, with its affinities to Dawu Type I, comes from Wisconsin. The closest parallels to Dawu Types II and III from among the stone pipes illustrated by West are shown in Fig. 5, nos. 9-I I,

and come from Iowa and Wisconsin. No satisfactory indication of date is given. In some ways, McGuire's exhaustive paper (I897) is more useful for our purpose




than West, although it is so much older, and in some places suffers from confusion and occasional inconsistency (possibly because, as the author explains, some of his notes were mislaid during the preparation of the paper). Fig. 6, nos. I-4, show the outlines of those pipes illustrated by McGuire most nearly resembling Dawu pipes Types II and III. The pipe shown in Fig. 6, no. I, is described by McGuire as 'modern Pottery Mound Pipe, St John's River, Florida'; of it he says: 'A unique specimen of a pottery pipe is from StJohn's River, Florida, and was collected by Col. G. S. Taylor. It is only an inch high, with a like length, and was found in a mound, though there can be no doubt of its modern origin, as it yet retains the mold mark and stamp of a tobacco plant and the coat of arms of the pipe-makers' guild of London, though the type does not appear to be that of any of the many known ones turned out by the English pipe-makers, being the only specimen which has come to the writer's notice.'

It seemed important to check up on the information about this pipe, and I accordingly wrote to the Smithsonian Institution. I am indebted to Dr F. M. Setzler, Head Curator, Department of Anthropology, for the photograph reproduced in Plate IX and for the following information: 'The National Museum has no information about specimen No. 2420 beyond that contained in the Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution for I897, United States National Museum, Part I, page 534. The specimen bears no marks except that seen in Figure I48 of the above report, namely a tobacco leaf in low relief. We have been unable to ascertain whether or not this mark has any relation to the arms of the London pipe makers guild.... The opposite side of the pipe not shown in the photograph bears no marks whatever' (Setzler I956).

Authoritative information about the arms of the Pipe Makers' Guild is as follows: 'Arms were recorded at the College of Arms in the seventeenth century for the Tobacco Pipe Makers. The shield was gold with a three-branched tobacco plant growing upon a green mound. The Crest showed a Moor holding a pipe in one hand and some tobacco in the other' (De la Lanne-Mirrlees I956). It would thus seem that McGuire's description of the pipe as having 'the mold mark and stamp of a tobacco plant and the coat of arms of the pipe-makers' guild of London' is erroneous. All that is certain is that this pipe bears a representation of what is probably meant to be a tobacco plant; it appears to be a ten- or eleven-branched variety. How closely it can be connected with the pipe- makers' guild of London seems more problematical. The three-branched type of representation does appear on some early 'clays' (with stems) and has sometimes led to a French attribution on account of the resemblance to the fleur-de-lis.

Fig. 6, no. 4, from the Etowah Mound, Bartlow County, Georgia, appears to be the same specimen as Fig. 5, no. 6, shown by West. Fig. 6, nos. 2 and 3, come from Georgia and Tennessee respectively. No satisfactorily certain indication of date is given. Fig. 6, no. 5, from London County, Tennessee, would appear to have some resemblance to Dawu Type IV.

Porter (I948) has studied the pipes of Mexico and of neighbouring regions and has made a most useful attempt to fit the different types into a chronological framework. She suggests, because of its lack of antecedents or of a possible evolutionary sequence, that the elbow pipe was introduced into Mexico from the south-eastern area of the United States between A.D. 900 and I400. The closest parallels to our Dawu pipes (Type III) which Porter illustrates are shown in Fig. 7, coming from the Caddo



284 THURSTAN SHAW

archaeological area of the corners of Oklahoma, Texas, Arkansas, and Louisiana. The most striking resemblance is seen in Fig. 7, no. I4; no indication of date is given. After a discussion on pipes from the south-east area of the United States and the types which occur in Burial Mound I (A.D. 800-goo), Burial Mound II (A.D. 900-I200), Temple Mound I (A.D. I200-I550) and Temple Mound II (A.D. I550-I750), with pipes in all of them, all that is said is: 'Hay otras pipas de tipos distintos y muchas variantes de pipas angulares. En las laminas 25 y 26 se pueden ver pipas tipicas de osta region (Caddo). Estas Laminas som propriedad del Departmento de Antropologia de la Universitad de Texas, que el Sr Krieger tuvo la gentilesa de mandarme.'

It will have been observed that the closest typological parallels to our Dawu pipes Types II and III from America appear to come from the hinterland of the northern coast of the Gulf of Mexico, not that of the Atlantic seaboard nor from Central or South America. In view of what has been said about the comparative promptitude after the Discovery with which traders from the Old World began trading pipes back into the New; and also in view of the possibility of slaves from the African continent making pipes in America according to models they were accustomed to use in their homeland; one wonders whether one can account in this way for the resemblance observed. Since this would be impossible if it could be proved that the American pipes ante-dated the Discovery, their secure dating becomes a matter of some importance.

Unfortunately, as far as one can ascertain, such evidence on the dating as there is, indicates a period which lies right across the time of first contact with Europe, thus still allowing for both the possibilities that the American pipes influenced the form of the African and that it was the other way round.

In speaking of the Fort Walton Period (dated to A.D. I450-I650, centred near the coast of Florida about 850 W.), Griffin refers to strong influences from the Mississippi area and says:

'Stone celts are fairly common, as are fragments of clay pipes of an equal-arm type. [See Fig. 6, no. 6; note resemblance to Dawu Type III.] Since this is almost certainly the culture which de Soto found in the region I539-40, we may be certain that it was based on a rather intensive maize agriculture, as indicated in the narratives of that expedition' (I952, pp. 325-6). 'One of the best archaeological records of the movement of a people in the south-east is that of the Pee Dee culture. It moved into the upper Pee Dee valley with household and baggage about the middle of the sixteenth century ... after less than five generations they left the region to return to the coast.... Clay pipes were carefully made, but like the pottery, conformed strictly to the stereotype. The usual form had a short stem with a right angle bowl' (Griffin I952, p. 308-9). [See Fig. 6, nos. 7 and 8.]

Pipes of the Fulton Aspect can be seen in Fig. 6, nos. 9 and Io. The concept of the Fulton Aspect (Late Mississippi Stage) as developed by Krieger closely agrees with my own deductions arrived at independently. He has set up seven foci as follows: (i) a Texakana Focus located on the Red River in north-eastern Texas and south-western Louisiana; (2) a closely related McCurtain Focus located north of Texakana in south- eastern Oklahoma; (3) a Belcher Focus on the Red River in north-western Louisiana and south-western Arkansas; (4) Titus Focus on a tributary of the Red River in northern Texas; (5) Bossier Focus occupying the hills above tributaries of the Sabine and Neches rivers in east-central Texas; (6) Frankston Focus occupying the upper reaches of the Sabine and Neches rivers in the south-western part of the Caddoan area; (7)




Glendora Focus, a series of widely scattered sites in south-western Arkansas, north- eastern and central western Louisiana, and one site in north-eastern Texas. An addi- tional unit, the 'Mid-Ouachita' Focus defined by Hodges for the Ouachita River in south-western Arkansas, should be added. (Griffin I952).

Glendora and Frankston are associated with European trade material and definitely represent the latest period in the area. Frankston is thought to be the culture of the Hasinai Caddo; the Glendora culture was found at Natchitoches village in west-central Louisiana and in the vicinity of Kadohadacho in south-western Arkansas; and mid- Ouachita is thought to represent the Cahinnio Caddo encountered by De Soto on the upper Ouachita. Glendora is always a top-layer unit, and presumably latest in the area, while Frankston is considered to have depth of development, perhaps into the prehistoric (pre- I 540) period. (Griffin I 952).

Lack of European trade goods may not in itself be accepted as meaning pre-De Soto (I54I) or even pre-La Salle (I682). It will be noted that sites with trade materials are on the eastern, southern and south-western extensions of the Caddoan area where they would have easiest access to French trading posts in the Lower Mississippi Valley or Spanish trading centres in the Southwest. Even in these cases trade materials are relatively scarce in Glendora and Frankston sites. It is entirely possible that Fulton Aspect units in remote areas of the Caddoan region, as the Fort Coffee Focus on the north-western fringe, and the Texakana and McCurtain foci in the west-central area, may have received only driblets of white goods or none at all until a late period. They could have existed well past La Salle's time without evidence of trade materials at the sites. (Griffin I952).

One of the traits given as distinguishing the Fulton from the (preceding) Gibson is 'pottery elbow or stone L-shaped pipes and absence of T-pipes or effigy pipes' (Griffin I952, p. 252). 'The problem of providing dates for the Fulton Aspect thus has as its major problem the starting point of Early Fulton. Glendora dates in the late i6oo's and I700'S at which time French trading goods were becoming plentiful in the Lower Mississippi Valley. Kreiger believes that Frankston was encountered by Moscoso, De Soto's lieu- tenant, in I54I, and this seems highly plausible' (Griffin I952, p. 252-3).

A pipe from the Dallas Culture (Fig. 6, no. I I) bears some resemblance to Dawu pipes Type III; this culture appears to be dated to the period A.D. I540-I68o, as also does the Mouse Creek Culture, the source of the pipe shown in Fig. 6, no. I 2, which has some resemblance to Dawu Type IV.

The French The area in which the greatest resemblance in America to the Dawu pipes of Types II and III has been found, then, was an area of early French enterprise, and although the French were not unchallenged by other European nations in this area, especially by the Spanish, one wonders whether it was the French who provided the link between the pipes of similar form on the American and African continents. We have seen that the French were the people who were next most active after the Portuguese in trading along the Guinea coast.

In considering the 'Southern Mound Pipes' of Carolina, Tennessee, and Georgia (elbow pipes having some resemblance to Dawu Type III), McGuire suggests a post- Columbian date for them, not on archaeological evidence but largely as the result of

T R.A.I.J.



286 THURSTAN SHAW

preconceived notions on the artistic inability of the indigenous population (I897), p. 6I2). He goes on to say:

'The resemblance surviving among French and Dutch pipes of the present day would appear to indicate French origin rather than Dutch, especially when the treatment of the Cayiga clay pipes having bird beaks is compared with the Southern specimens. If this surmise be correct, then these pipes would appear to be contemporaneous with the early French settlements in the Carolinas. The French family names of the Carolinas attest the nationality of its settlers in the colonial period. Twenty years prior to the advent of Raleigh, Laudonniere, in I562, was sent by Admiral Coligny, under a patent of Charles IX, to make a settlement in America, Ribault having planted a colony of French at Port Royal Bay. These people were all massacred by the Spanish in I 565.'

SirJohn Hawkins is also quoted as saying that the Floridians in I564

'used in travelling a dried herb, which, with a cane and an earthen cup in the end, they "with fire and the dry herbs put together do suck through the cane the smoke thereof, which smoke satisfyeth their hunger and therewith they live four or five days without meat or drink, and these all the Frenchmen used for this purpose" (Hakluyt's Voyages, p. 54I, folio ed.). This reference precedes by twenty years the voyage of Ralph Lane who is said first to have carried tobacco to England, and is the earliest reference which the writer has found in which the bowl is spoken of as distinct from the pipe-stem' (McGuire I897, p. 4I I)-

It is interesting that one of the earliest representations of an American pipe, an illustra- tion of de Bry (McGuire I897, Fig. 45), shows the stem separate from the bowl. 'The woman is represented as furnishing the man with leaves from a bowl or basket of the period of Laudonniere's visit to that part of the territory then called Florida, which covered an indefinite geographical area' (McGuire I897, p. 4I5). It is interesting to note also that the stem of the pipe shown is about two and a half feet long, since it is a long stem which tends to produce an acute angle between stem and bowl.

There are, then, several pointers towards the French being concerned with the spreading of the kind of pipes we are considering. To sound American archaeological opinion on this possibility and obtain the most recent information on the dating of the Frankston Focus of the Caddoan archaeological area, whose pipes appear to provide the closest parallels of all to Dawu Type III, I sought the opinion of Professor A. D. Krieger, Archaeologist of the Department of Anthropology in the University of Texas. He said that since examining new collections in I948, his opinion that the Frankston Focus was both late prehistoric and early historic, had had to be revised. A new focus, the Allen, was established for the early contact horizon in the same area, and the Frankston Focus was considered to be entirely pre-European contact. The date suggested for the Frankston Focus was pre-i6oo, roughly from A.D. I200-I500. The Allen Focus must have dated from approximately i6oo to I838. It was possible that the historic horizon should have begun in I542, when the first Europeans, survivors of the de Soto expedition, passed through the area. But they were not by this time in a position to barter, and are unlikely to have left behind European objects. The Caddo did, however, have a flourishing trade with New Mexico by I 542, and so it is possible that the Spanish colonization of New Mexico at the end of the sixteenth century may have resulted in the appearance of Spanish objects in the Caddo, long before the French colonization of Louisiana.




Professor Krieger pointed out that the pipes I had referred to in Miss Porter's paper belonged to the Frankston Focus, but that the form of the elbow pipes of the Allen Focus was essentially the same, although their detail differed, chiefly in a lesser degree of decoration. The Allen Focus could therefore provide the prototypes of the Dawu pipes as easily as the Frankston. Furthermore all the Caddoan Foci, which covered large areas of Texas, Louisiana, Arkansas, and eastern Oklahoma, had similar elbow pipes in the late prehistoric and early historic periods; so the range of European nationalities which could have conveyed such pipes to Africa was large. Professor Krieger agreed that on first sight the Caddoan groups provided the closest parallel to the Dawu pipes in the eastern United States, but suggested that French explorers might have seen similar pipes in the Mississippi valley early in the historic period.

Taking all this evidence together, then, can we reach any conclusion on whether America first influenced Africa, or whether Africa influenced America? It seems to me that the question still lies open, until there is even tighter and more certain dating of pipes of such American cultures as the Frankston Focus, and until we can be more sure of the actual date represented by the first appearance of pipes in West Africa. Neverthe- less, although the possibilities of African influence in America from the middle of the sixteenth century is obvious, I am inclined to favour the view that it was the form of the American pipes north of the Gulf of Mexico which influenced the form of those first used at Dawu. If it was the other way round, if smoking as an idea was introduced into the Gold Coast from the New World and the African natives independently developed pipes of Dawu Types II and III, and then some of their number, as slaves in America, reproduced them there, to be copied again by American Indians by the date American archaeologists now assign, it all happened in an incredibly short space of time.

One difficulty remains. If the French were the 'connecting link' in the story, one might have expected to find some French pipes of early date belonging to the Dawu Type III-Frankston Focus family. So far I have been unable to do so, and my search included the Musee d'Interet National du Tabac at Bergerac. McGuire's reference to some of the 'Southern Mound Pipes' having a closer resemblance to modern French pipes rather than Dutch, has been given above, but he does not illustrate the French pipes he has in mind. Most other French pipes of which I have seen illustrations clearly belong to the family of the English-Dutch 'clay', with convex-sided bowl set at an obtuse angle to the stem, which is made all in one piece with the bowl. The 'fleur-de-lis' markings on some old pipes, which often cause them to be called French, may in fact not be so, but merely conventionalized representations of the tobacco plant.' The only French pipe rather different in form that has come to my notice is that illustrated by Dunhill (I924, Fig. 2I4) in the form of a 'besom', but which rather resembles the 'bent- up' tube type of pipe found in certain cultures in America. (See Fig. 6, no. I 3.) But pipe- smoking was not fashionable in France as it was in England. 'Snuff remained the only mode of taking tobacco on the part of gentlemen until the nineteenth century' (Laufer I924b, p. 54). Only then do we hear of such people as Marshal Oudinot and the Duc de Richelieu having collections of pipes (Herment I 954, p. 6). In spite of this, and although stem-socket pipes are not recorded from France, one must still not rule out the possibility that the use of this type of pipe was introduced into West Africa by French seamen who had adopted its use from their contacts with the area to the north of the Gulf of Mexico.



288 THURSTAN SHAW

The English The next nation we have to consider, of those trading in early times along the Guinea coast and on the other side of the Atlantic, is the English. Windham's voyage took place in I553 and frequent English voyages followed, although the Portuguese tried to main- tain their monopoly by a treaty of I576 by which the English were excluded from Guinea in return for being admitted to Madeira and the Azores. The English built their fort at Kormantine in I63I and James Fort at Accra in I673 (Ward I948).

We have already noted above (p. 27) that it was the Englishman SirJohn Hawkins who in I564 described smoking by Floridians using a pipe in which the pottery bowl is distinguished from the reed stem. We have also seen (p. 283) that a pipe-bowl from a mound at St John's River, Florida (shown in Fig. 6, no. i, and in Plate IX) made to take a reed stem, is said to bear the arms of the pipe-makers' guild of London. Do the English provide a possible line of connexion here with Dawu pipes Types II and III? Although such pipes do not seem to have been found in England, were they made for 'the export trade' to 'suit native taste'?

For the most part, however, the English were in contact with the eastern American seaboard north of Florida. It is accordingly often stated that the earliest English clay pipes are derived from those used by the Indians with whom they came in contact in Virginia. Seldom, however, is there any examination of what the form of such pipes was. In a broadcast on Sir Walter Raleigh, for example, Mr. A. L. Rowse referred to 'the fashion he set of smoking tobacco from the kind of pipe the Roanoke Indians used' (Rowse I955), but enquiry of Mr Rowse on the basis for this statement elicited no description of Roanoke pipes.

Dunhill says: 'The pipes taken from the burial mounds of the Muskogees, who inhabit the south-east of the United States, were of patterns of the type we suppose to have evolved from the bent-up tube-pipe. It was from the Indians of this region that most Europeans learnt the art of smoking, and hence these are the prototypes of Euro- pean pipes referred to later' (Dunhill I924, p. 5I). ('Most Europeans' seems rather an exaggeration in the light of the contact with smoking in Central and South America which Europeans from the Iberian peninsula had; perhaps Dunhill really means 'pipe- smoking'.) Fig. 8, nos. i and 2 show Muskogee pipes of the kind referred to. Dunhill asserts (on what evidence is not clear) that the older pipes were made with the bowl and stem all in one piece; those with separate bowls designed for the insertion of a wooden stem are said to be later (shown in Fig. 8, nos. 3 and 4). Dunhill does not make it clear here whether he is speaking of stone or pottery pipes, although elsewhere (I 924, p. 2 I I) he says: 'Carl Clusius, a Dutch botanist, who republished Monardes History of Medicine in I605, expressly states (quoting Heriot) that the English saw clay pipes in use among the Virginians and brought some home for their own use in I 586, after which a manufacture of similar clay pipes on a large scale was begun.'

McGuire (I897, p. 6o8), speaking of 'Atlantic Coast Pipes', says: 'A most interesting type of pipe is found in the shell heaps south of the Hudson, certainly as far as Maryland, and perhaps yet farther, which appear related to certain types found in North Carolina, Georgia, and Tennessee, through a territory which at first advent of the whites appears to have been inhabited by Algonquin, Siouan, and Iroquoian tribes, a more critical study of which will possibly connect them with pipes of the St Lawrence regions,




especially those pipes with flaring bowls resembling brass hunting horns.' These pipes are 'bent-up tubes', mostly of stone, but some of pottery. (See Fig. 8, nos. 5-7.) McGuire implies that they are post-Columbian, imitating European models, and says also: 'Whether the original trade pipe is a copy of an earlier stone pipe or not may be open to question, the writer being of the impression that it is a modification of the primitive tube' (McGuire I 897, p. 458). That there were pottery pipes, however, is certain.

'Archaeological finds on the Atlantic coast prove that the Indians of that region also used small clay pipes, although the early visitors only mention large pipes with excessively long stems. It seems probable that the large forms were semi-ceremonial, like the warrior's and chief's pipes of the Chippewa, while the small pipes were used for individual smoking. Many of these small pipes resemble rather closely the early European trade pipes, and modern clay pipes and straight briars, but the type is unquestionably pre-European. It was probably the prototype from which modern European pipes were developed. Some of the ancient pipes were made in one piece, while others were evidently provided with scparate stems, probably reeds. Identical forms were made in stone in this region' (Linton I924).

The tobacco habit may have been adopted in England as early as I 56o (Corti I93I, p. 269). The agency and date of the introduction have been considered in detail elsewhere (Laufer 1924b, pp. 3-I I), and whether it was due to Hawkins from Florida in I565, to importation from Spain, or to returning Virginia colonists somewhat later. (See below pp. 293-5ff.)

The early English pipes have fortunately been carefully studied and fairly closely dated (Oswald I95I; Oswald & James I955), and the earliest forms can be seen in Fig. 8, nos. 8-I4. Dawu Type I appears to be that nearest to the English or Dutch 'clay', but the resemblance is not very close. Fig. 9 shows the outlines of those pipes illustrated by West (I 934) which appear to resemble early English clays most closely. Perhaps the best 'potential prototype' of the English clay is what is described as a Red Indian pipe from Virginia figured by de Bry in I 590 and called the earliest drawing of a pipe by Dunhill (I924, Fig. 202). See Fig. 8, no. I5.

It has already been mentioned that it is difficult to be sure over these resemblances whether the English are modelled on the American or vice-versa. Those which show a 'spur' (Fig. 9, nos. 9, II, 13, I4, I8), although they may be rudimentary or vestigial projections belonging to the apparently indigenous American family of 'handle pipes', suggest copying in America from imported trade pipes, since the spur was not present in the earliest English clay pipes, but only developed out of the early types.

It is possible that in looking to the Virginia area and the region of the eastern United States in general, we are looking in the wrong place for the prototype of the English clay pipe. Although it has been stated that tobacco began to be grown in England as early as I565 (Corti I93I, p. 68), another authority states: 'Smoking was practised in England by I573 and was general by I586. Tobacco was at first obtained from Spain and the Spanish colonies, and was sold for its weight in silver.' (Sayce I933, p. 204). Is it not likely, if tobacco was at first obtained from Spanish sources, that there should have been a strong Spanish influence on the early pipes also? What was the form of these early Spanish pipes? The Spanish came most into contact with the cigar and cigarette-smokers of Central America and the Caribbean; so that when one hears of early Spanish smoking, it does not follow that pipes are involved. 'The regions in which



290 THURSTAN SHAW

the cigar and cigarette were the customary forms of taking tobacco were settled almost exclusively by the Spanish who, naturally, adopted the customs of the natives so that at present these are the favourite methods of Spanish speaking countries, among whom the pipe finds little favour' (Mason I924, p. 6). 'As late as I73I John Cockburn says that throughout New Spain there was no such thing as a tobacco pipe, but poor awkward tools used by negroes and Indians' (McGuire I 897, p. 404).

Central America and the Spanish For the only information I have been able to obtain about early Spanish pipes I am indebted to the Director of the Escuela Superior de Bellas Artes de SanJorge, Barcelona, who supplied me with the photograph reproduced in Plate VII. Extremely interesting as these pipes are, unfortunately they serve to increase rather than diminish our diffi- culties. Of those shown in Plate VII, nos. 2, 4, and 5 are said to be Roman, of the first century B.C., as they come from excavations in Catalonia where they are associated with Roman objects; they are all of pink clay. It is stated that 'some Roman pipes were made all in one piece, but most of them, like old Catalonian pipes, have a mouthpiece of cane or bone added on' (Mares I 955) Plate VII, no. 7 is grey and is also said to be 'Roman'; nos. i and 6 are thought to be Arab; no. i is grey with -fired decoration; no. 6 is covered with a coat of green varnish with faint traces of decoration in relief. No. 3 'is also of clay and is pink and is in the shape of a well modelled head. It is thought to be the most modern of this group'.

One would like to feel happier about the reliability of these ascriptions. We used to hear about 'Roman' pipes in England. They were equally confidently dated because found in association with Roman pottery and other objects. This can so easily happen on built-over sites, where the archaeological levels get disturbed. One therefore regards the Roman ascription of these pipes 'for smoking aromatic herbs' with a good deal of reserve.

The interesting thing is that all the pipes shown in Plate VII, except no. 4, so clearly belong to the same general 'family' as Dawu pipes Types II and III, having in common the characteristics of a bowl designed for the insertion of a reed stem, the stem-socket set at an acute angle to the bowl, and a tendency towards a thickening of the rim of the stem-socket. Was it the Spanish, after all, in spite of their apparent lack of interest in the Guinea coast, who introduced smoking there? (Did unnamed survivors of de Soto's expedition provide the link? or did the neighbouring Portuguese in fact have similar pipes?) Another possibility is that all the pipes shown in Plate VII (except perhaps nos. 3 and 4) are in actuality of Moorish derivation-in other words, that the resemblances are due to influence moving from Africa into Spain and not in the other direction. Accurate and detailed archaeological work in Spain and North Africa is needed to answer the question. Plate VII, no. 4, although at first sight appearing to have some resemblance to the Central European pipe (cf. Dunhill I924, Figs. 223 and 224), in actuality has more of an African look about it (cf. Dunhill I 924, Figs. I 74-179) .

If tobacco was first obtained in England from Spanish sources and this influenced the form of the early English pipes, one is also interested in whether there were any smoking pipes in use in the area of the New World with which the Spanish came into contact, even though it has been categorically stated that 'the Spaniards never took to



EARLY SMOKING PIPES: IN AFRICA, EUROPE, AND AMERICA 29I

the pipe, but in accordance with the practice of the aborigines of the Antilles and Mexico adopted the cigar and cigarette. Monardes describes the tubular pipes of Mexico, but these were used in the Spain of his time only for the purpose of obtaining relief from asthma' (Laufer I 924b, p. 56). The interesting thing is that, in spite of the already noted wide-spread absence of pipes in this area, not only do pipes occur in part of it but also bear certain striking likenesses to early English clays.

These pipes come from the valley of Mexico, and the outlines of two of them can be seen in Fig. 9, nos. I 5, and I 6. In appealing for information on the subject (Shaw I 954), I mentioned the possible connexion between these pipes and English clay pipes, and subsequently, in studying the Broseley pipes, Oswald & James (I 955) suggested that the typical form 'may well derive from the Aztec pipe' but without going in any greater detail into how this may have happened. The characteristics which these pipes have in common with the early English clays are that the bowl is somewhat 'swelled' in the middle, it is set at an obtuse angle to a long stem, the base is flat and in the same plane as the bottom edge of the stem, and there is (in most cases) an angle between the base and the outer wall of the bowl, but without foot or spur. McGuire illustrated two pipes of this class (Fig. IO, nos. I and 2), and noted the resemblance to early English trade pipes. He felt that these pipes were of Spanish origin, since he was convinced that tube pipes were the primitive indigenous form (McGuire I897, p. 364).

More recent investigation reverses this view:

'Although all the Mexican Indians were predominantly cigarette-smokers, ancient clay pipes of elbow type have been found in the valley of Mexico. They are not mentioned by any of the early Spanish writers, but the specimens found are unquestionably of native workmanship, and are probably prehistoric. The commonest form has a bulb-shaped bowl and a rather thick stem flattened on the bottom, so that the pipe will stand upright. The occurrence of elbow pipes in a limited area, far from any other in which they are known, is difficult to account for. Some of these pipes resemble forms in use in the south- eastern United States and lower Mississippi valley' (Linton I924, p. 20). [See Fig. O, no. 3.]

Further evidence shows that these pipes are in fact prehistoric.

'Many pipes coming from various places such as Azcapotzalco, Otipa, Churubusco, and Los Remedios have been found in the valley of Mexico, all of them being of the angular type. We can call these pipes Aztec pipes because they possibly correspond to the last period before Cortes. As a proof of this we have the information from the archaeological excavations made at Churubusco where thirty-seven pipes were found which resembled the pottery of the fourth period of Aztec rule. These pipes represent the two most common types found in the Valley of Mexico:

(i) The first type (Fig. Io, no. 4) is straight, smooth, painted all in one colour which is either red, black, or coffee-coloured. It has a straight mouth-piece and bowl, its edges spread out slightly and the mouth-piece always acts as a flat base which forms an angle with the bowl. The latter is sometimes of the same dimensions as the mouth-piece. Seventeen of the pipes found at Churubusco belong to this group. (2) The second type (Fig. Io, nos. 5 and 6) has an egg-shaped bowl and a mouth-piece similar to those of the first group. These also are either black, red, or a burnished coffee colour. It is common to find a cross-hatched decoration which consists of two concentric circles on each side of the bowl and at times it appears also on the upper part of the mouth-piece. Very occasionally there is a protuberance at the top of this or on both sides of it' (Porter I948, trans. from the Spanish).



29 2 THURSTAN SHAW

It is satisfactory to know that in this case, if there is any connexion between these pipes from the valley of Mexico and the early English clays, the influence travelled from west to east and not the other way. Perhaps, rather, the resemblance is to be accounted for by the common ancestry in the south-eastern area of the United States, since, as noted above, it is suggested that it was from this region that the elbow pipe was introduced into Mexico some time during the five hundred years before the Discovery.

The Dutch The last European nation trading to West Africa which we have to consider is the Dutch, although it is possible that they did not come on the scene until after smoking had already been established there, since their first voyage did not take place until I 595. In the next forty years, however, they established their supremacy over the Portuguese and conducted a great part of the trade between Europe and the West Coast of Africa. The tobacco plant is said to have been introduced into Holland from France in I56o (Corti I93I, p. 269), but the Dutch pipe-makers were not incorporated until i66o (Laufer I924b, pp. 35, 36). Dutch pipes appear to have a general resemblance to English clays, and are probably derived from them (Dunhill I924, p. 228), although it may be that the later Dutch pipes developed a tendeency towards longer, slenderer bowls than their English counterparts (Dunhill I924, p. 222 and Figs. 2I7-I 9). McGuire however (I897, p. 456 and Fig. 82), illustrates a 'modern Dutch pipe' which is interesting in having no clay stem, but only a stem-socket, with expanded end, for the insertion of a wood or reed stem. It is the only example of a pipe of this kind produced in north- western Europe which I have been able to discover. It is said to be 'made of the usual white clay; it illustrates the survival of primitive forms. The ornamentation is indicative of a close relationship to a class of pipes from Georgia herein referred to, and from this and other specimens the deduction is quite natural that European traders in pipes usually catered in type and ornamentation to prevailing Indian forms, the ornamentation, with few exceptions, being due to European ideas. Pipes of this type were evidently intended to be smoked with hollow stems, probably made of reed' (See Fig. I o, no. 7).

DISCUSSION

Here, then, we must leave our search for the antecedents of the Dawu pipes. Further light will be thrown on the problem only as more sites are excavated in Africa, closer dating achieved in America, and more detailed and more reliable sequences of pipe types established in a number of European countries. 0. G. S. Crawford wrote, with reference to pipes found at Abu Geili:

'The history of smoking in Africa is a subject which should be closely investigated. These clay pipe-bowls are destined to become valuable type-fossils when the ancient sites of Africa are methodically excavated; they have all the requisites of such, being indestruc- tible, variable, and of convenient size. They also have one characteristic of supreme value -they must all belong to a known period that cannot be earlier than the introduction of smoking-which seems, as already shown, to have taken place in the Blue Nile region during the second half of the sixteenth century. During the excavation of the main site several ornamented clay bowls of pipes were found. No complete and undamaged specimen was recovered, but, although the pipes vary in detail and decoration, it is clear that they all had the same general shape. [See Fig. Io, no. 8.] It will be seen that the mouth-




piece-or the socket to hold the stem-is inclined to the bowl at an acute angle, and no exceptions to this rule occurred. The actual stem was probably a long hollow reed, which was tightly wedged into the socket. The bowls were sometimes decorated with an incised design, but it is apparent that, if an ornamental pipe were required, the pipe-maker lavished his art on the stem-holder rather than the bowl. Unfortunately, not one of the pipes was found with any provenance that would enable it to be dated. Certain negative facts, however, can be stated with confidence: no pipe-bowl was found below the floor of any of the houses, nor in any grave, nor in the stratum below the Fung surface covering the graveyard. There is therefore strong presumptive evidence that they are of late date. That of course agrees with the known facts about the history of smoking, which was first introduced into Europe in I 559. The spread of a new habit is often very rapid, and there is good reason to suppose that it may have reached Sennar not many years later' (Craw- ford & Addison I 95 I, pp. 95-8). It would be interesting to know by what route this occurred, and what, or who,

influenced the form of the pipes. The Dawu type to which they appear to have most resemblance is Type I; they clearly belong to that same 'family' of pipes with stem- sockets, often with expanded rims, set at an acute angle to the bowl (seen also in the specimens from Spain, Plate VII).

What conclusion have we reached as the result of our discussion of the Dawu pipes and their affinities? The answer is, that we realize we are dealing with a very tricky archaeological problem about which it would be rash in the present state of knowledge to dogmatize. Perhaps the dating is too close to be soluble by archaeological methods; but if the problems are soluble, perhaps this discussion will serve to direct the attention of future excavators and investigators on both sides of the Atlantic to those pieces of evidence they may unearth which can throw light on the question and bring the answer one stage nearer.

Meanwhile, what is put forward as a tentative hypothesis is that pipe-smoking was first introduced to Englishmen by Sir John Hawkins from Florida, the instrument being a bowl without a full-length pottery or clay stem but with a stem-socket for the insertion of a wood or reed stem. Shortly afterwards, the second introduction took place from Virginia, the instrument being a pipe with a bowl and stem all in one piece; smoking now became fashionable among the upper classes, and it was this kind of pipe which the English pipe-makers began turning out in large numbers. In the meantime, however, Hawkins and his crew, trading in slaves on the West African coast (and perhaps other English sea-farers as well), had introduced there the first kind of pipe (with stem-socket). This was copied in their own idiom by the African natives and was sufficiently established by the time of the arrival of the English 'clay' not to be ousted by it.

Although no English or Dutch 'clays' were found at Dawu, specimens were found together with locally made pipes in the same seventeenth and eighteenth-century con- texts nearer the coast about a hundred miles south-west of Dawu, at Asebu (Nunoo I957). Here, at Site A (described as a village site) 'sixteen fragments of bowls and fifty- nine fragments of stems' of tobacco pipes of European origin 'came from the first and second layers' (i.e. the uppermost, most recent, layers), 'and three stems from layer 9 [i.e. between a depth of four feet and four feet six inches] at Site B [a midden mound fourteen feet high]. Two of the bowls from the top layer are larger than the rest and recent, but the remainder range in age from early to late seventeenth century.' (In- sufficient details are given to judge of this ascription.) The pipes of local manufacture



294 THURSTAN SHAW

come from 'the first and second layers of Site A'. 'They are elaborately decorated, and can be classified according to the shape of the bowl. On this basis the pipes from the excavation plus surface finds can be divided into four types, namely those with bowls which are spherical, beaker-shaped, V-shaped without facets, and V-shaped with facets.' One example illustrated (presumably 'V-shaped without facets') appears to belong to Dawu Type III.

It may be that the stem-socket pipe spread overland from West Africa to the Sudan and Morocco, whence specimens entered Spain, and perhaps even spread eastwards across North Africa to Egypt, Turkey, and Persia. This is a possible alternative to regarding the Portuguese as the disseminators of this kind of pipe to these regions. (See above,p.279.)

It will be noted that if this is what happened, smoking in stem-socket pipes began to be practised in West Africa before smoking became general in England. This need not surprise us, since the first record of Europeans smoking in the Philippines seems to ante- date the earliest introduction into Europe itself by more than thirty years. (See above, p. 277.) Such an early date also allows more time for the habit to spread, thus lending support to El Ufrani's account (referred to above, p. 275) of the introduction of smoking into Morocco from south of the Sahara in A.D. I 597. It seems likely that, once introduced on the Guinea coast, smoking spread rapidly into other parts of Africa, ahead of the advance of Europeans (as also seems to have occurred in New Guinea). One cannot help but be struck by the prevalence of 'stem-socket' pipes illustrated in Dunhill's two chapters on 'The Myriad Pipes of Africa' (I924, chaps. X and XI), and notice how many fall into this 'family' (until one meets the influence of the Dutch 'clay' in South Africa).

The pipe shown in Plate IX and in Fig. 6, no. i, may be a piece of evidence for this theory. It suggests that the early English pipe-makers were familiar with the stem- socket pipe, even if later they abandoned it in favour of the Virginian type. This particular pipe can hardly be earlier than I 6 I 9 if it really is the arms of the pipe-makers guild which it bears, since the guild was not incorporated until that date (Laufer 1924b, p. 36). The emblem may have been in use, however, before the actual incorporation, and only then adopted as an official mark. It seems significant too, that this pipe was found in just that area of Florida where Hawkins had gone to the help of Laudonniere and where English traders, if they eluded the Spanish, might be expected to trade back the type that was known to be favoured there.

The tradition that it was Hawkins who introduced tobacco to England also supports this idea. The tradition has been discussed, and supported, by Laufer:

'Edmund Howes, in his continuation ofJohn Stow's Annales, or Generale Chronicle ofEngland (i63 i), states: "Tobacco was first brought and made known in England by Sir John Hawkins, about the yeare I 565, but not used by Englishmen in many yeeres after, though at this day commonly used by most men, and many women." Hawkins returned from his second voyage to the West Indies on the 20th of September, I565, and had become familiar with tobacco and smoking in Florida. John Sparke the Younger, who wrote the account of this voyage (published by Hakluyt in I589), writes that Hawkins, ranging along the coast of Florida for fresh water in July, I565, came upon the French settlement there under Laudonniere.' The account continues with the description of Floridians smoking given in the quotation above on p. 286 Laufer goes on: 'This is the earliest




English notice of tobacco. It would be amazing if Hawkins and his companions should not have imitated this custom, and Hawkins may therefore have taken specimens of Nicotiana rustica and its seeds from Florida to England in I565. It was from Florida, as will be seen, that the plant was also introduced into Portugal and from Portugal into France' (Laufer I924b, pp. 4, 5).

After examining the literary evidence critically, Laufer concludes

'I am under the impression that Howes honestly reproduced a tradition which was current in the latter part of the sixteenth century and had come down to his own time. It is far less this tradition itself, however, than the total of the circumstantial evidence which compels us to pin our faith in Hawkins as the introducer of Nicotiana rustica; for this species was grown in England in the latter part of the sixteenth century, so that its presence in English soil must be accounted for in a reasonable manner.'

What may have happened, then, is summarized in the sketch map in Fig. I i.

SUMMARY

I. Pieces of locally-made clay smoking pipes were dug out from a stratified midden mound in Ghana; in the excavation they were antedated a little by the first introduction of European trade beads. All are stem-socket pipes, with an acute angle between the axes of bowl and stem-socket.

2. A search was made for possible prototypes of these pipes, among the areas of the New World with which the Portuguese, Spanish, French, English, and Dutch were in contact.

3. The closest parallels seemed to come from the hinterland of the northern coast of the Gulf of Mexico.

4. The hypothesis was put forward that the agency in introducing the stem-socket pipe into West Africa was Sir John Hawkins's seamen, after they had been in contact with the Florida area.

NOTE

1 [This supposition is confirmed by the occurrence of 'fleur-de-lis' markings on seventeenth-century pipes made by local makers, found in Salisbury (Wiltshire).-EDITOR.]

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

In addition to those mentioned in the text, I am grateful to the following for information and help in the preparation of this paper: Dr G. H. S. Bushnell, Curator, Archaeology and Ethnology Museum, Cam- bridge University; Mr Adrian Digby, Keeper, Department of Ethnography, British Museum; Mr William Fagg, Department of Ethnography, British Museum; Dr I. W. Cornwall, Institute of Archaeo- logy, University of London; M. Henri Leman, Charge du Departement d'Amerique, Musee de L'Homme, Paris; Dr Gordon F. Eckholm, Department of Anthropology, American Museum of Natural History, New York; Miss D. H. Woodforde, Editor, Archaeological News Letter; Mrs J. B. Black; Miss Margaret Clark; and my wife.

I am also indebted to all the authors and publishers concerned for pertnission to reproduce the illustrations in Plates VII-IX and Figs. 5-10.



296 THURSTAN SHAW

REFERENCES

A. D. [Dunhill, A.} 1954. Art. Pipe Smoking. Ency. Brit. London. BLAKE. J. W. 1942. Europeans in West Africa. London. BOVILL, E. W. 1933. Caravans of the Old Sahara. Oxford. BRY, DE 159 1. Brevis Narratio, II. Frankfurt. COOPER, .J. M. 1949. Stimulants and Narcotics. Smithsonian Inst. Bureau Amer. Eth., Butl. I43. Handbook of

South American Indians, 5, pp. 525-58. CORTI, COUNT 193 1. A History of Smoking, P. England (trans.). London. CRAWFORD, 0. G. S. & ADDISON, F. 195 I. Abu Geili. Wellcome Excavations in the Sudan, vol. III. Oxford. DUNHILL, A. 1924. The Pipe Book. London. ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA 1955. Ency. Brit., 22, p. I 22. GOODWIN, A.J. H. 1939. The Origin of Certain African Food Plants. S. Afr. j. Sci., 36. GRIFFIN,J. B. 1952. The Archaeology of the Eastern United States. Chicago. HADDON, A. C. 1947. Smoking and Tobacco Pipes in New Guinea. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., Series B, 232. HERMENT, G. 1954. The Pipe. (Trans. by A. L. Howard of Trait! de la pipe. Paris.) London. IRVINE, F. R. 1930. Plants of the Gold Coast. Oxford. JANE, C. 1930. Voyages of Columbus, vol. II. London. JEFFREYS, M. D. W. 1953. Negres Precolombiens en Amerique. Scientia, July-August 1953. KRIEGER, A. D. 1956. Letter to the author. LANE, FREDERICK 1956. Verbal reply to enquiry, conveyed by Dr G. H. S. Bushnell. Museo Paulista.

Sao Paulo. LANNE-MIRRLEES, ROBIN DE LA 1956. Letter to the author from Rouge Dragon Poursuivant of Arms. LAUFER, B. I 924a. Tobacco and Its Use in Asia. Field Museum Anthropology Leaflet, I 8. LAUFER, B. I 924b. The Introduction of Tobacco into Europe. Field Museum Anthropology Leaflet, I 9. LAUFER, B., HAMBLY, W. D. & LINTON, R. 1930. Tobacco and Its Use in Africa. Field Museum Anthro-

pology Leaflet, 29. LINTON, R. 1924. The Use of Tobacco among North American Indians. Field Museum Anthropology,

Leaflet, 15. McGuIRE, J. D. I 897. Pipes and Smoking Customs of the American Aborigines. Report of the U.S. National

Museum, Smithsonian Institution. Year ending 30June, I897, pp. 35 I-646. MARES, FEDERICO 1955. Letter to the author. MASON, J. A. 1924. The Use of Tobacco in Mexico and South America. Field Museum Anthropology Leaflet

I6. NUNOO, R. B. 1957. Excavations at Asebu in the Gold Coast. J. West. Afr. Sci. Assoc. 3, I, pp. 12-44. OSWALD, A. 195 1. English Clay Tobacco Pipes. Arch. News Letter, 3, 1 0. OSWALD, A. & JAMES, R. E. 1955. Tobacco Pipes of Brosely, Shropshire. Arch. News Letter, 5, 1 0. PIRES, ToMA 1944. Suma Oriental. London. PORTER, MURIEL N. 1948. Pipas Precortesianas. Acta Anthrofologica, 3, 2. RIESENFELD, A. 1952. Tobacco in New Guinea and Other Areas of Melanesia. J. R. ANTHROP. INST., 82,

pp. 69-io2. ROWSE, A. L. 1955. Sir Walter Raleigh: Last of the Elizabethans. Listener, 7 July, 1955, pp. 17-I8. SAYCE, R. U. I933. Primitive Arts and Crafts. Cambridge. SETZLER, F. M. 1956. Letter to the author. SHAW, THURSTAN 1954. Gold Coast Pottery Smoking Pipes: Information Wanted. Arch. News Letter, 5,

4. SHAW, THURSTAN I 96 I. Excavation at Dawu. Edinburgh. THACHER, J. B. 1903. Christopher Columbus, vol. II. New York. WARD, W. E. F. 1948. A History of the Gold Coast. London. WEST, G. A. 1934. Tobacco Pipes of the North American Indians. Milwaukee. WIENER, L. I 920. Africa and the Discovery of America. Philadelphia. WINSOR, J. I 886. Narrative and Critical History of America, vol. IV. London.




FIGURE i. Dawu Midden: Distribution of European Trade Beads, showing Horizons B and C.

Scale: Ci"=o'

S~~

< ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~ 6@'

B

FIGURE .2. Dawu Midden: Distribution of Smoking Pipes, showing Horizons A and B.

Scale: C"= io'



I II. I

,~~~~~~~~~~~ ,

a 1

III~~~~~~~~~~~I

e FIGURE 3. Pipes excavated at Dawu: Types I-IV

'VI VII

/ a - L ??e ?ii \ -/~~~~~ ~ ~~~~~~~~ IR 'E t

viii a

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FIGURE 4. Pipes excavrated at Dawu: Types V-VIII




_ 2 3 4

1~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~1

8 ~~~~~10 11

FIGURE 5. Outlines of American Pipes. Not to scale or to a uniform scale

Nos. i-8 Pottery: Nos. 9-I I Stone. Nos. 1-7 and 9-I I based on West, G. A. 'Tobacco Pipes of the North American Indians'. No. 8 based on Linton, 'The Use of Tobacco among the North American Indians'.

No. i Tennessee (West P1. 55 No. 2) No. 2 Georgia (West P1. io6 No. 2) No. 3 Wisconsin (West P1. 220 No. i) No. 4 Georgia (West P1. 223 No. 3) No. 5 Georgia (West P1. 223 No. 6) No. 6 Georgia (West P1. 223 No. io)

No. 7 Wisconsin (West P1. 248 No. 3) No. 8 Catauba (Linton P1. IV No. 4) No. 9 Iowa (West P1. 37 No. 7) No. io Wisconsin (West P1. 192 No. 7) No. i i Wisconsin (West P1. I95 No. Io)



300 THURSTAN SHAW

~~~ 4j(~~~~~~~

3 2

10

IJ 12 13

FIGURE 6. Outlines of American Pipes (except No. I 3) Not to scale or to a uniform scale

All of pottery. Nos. I-5 based on McGuire, J. D. 'Pipes and Smoking Customs of the American Abori- gines'. Nos. 6-I 2 based on Griffin, J. W. 'Archaeology of the Eastern United States'. No. I3 based on

Dunhill, A. 'The Pipe Book'.

No. I 'Modern', Florida (McGuire Fig. I48) No.!2 Etowah Mound, Georgia (McGuire Fig. 227) No. 3 Tennessee (McGuire Fig. 228) No. 4 Etowah Mound, Georgia (McGuire Fig. 230) No. 5 Tennessee (McGuire Fig. 229) No. 6 Fort Walton Period, Florida (Griffin Fig. i 8 i G) No. 7 Pee Dee Culture, Carolina (Griffin Fig. I65S)

No. 8 Pee Dee Culture, Carolina (Griffin Fig. I65T) No. 9 Fulton Aspect, Eastern Texas (Griffin Fig. I 37P) No. io Fulton Aspect, Eastern Texas (Griffin Fig. I 37Q) No. i i Dallas Culture, N.W. Georgia (Griffin Fig. io9T) No. 12 Mouse Greek Culture, Tennessee (Griffin Fig. I I oI) No. I 3 French 'Besom Pipe' (Dunhill Fig. 2 I 4)




4 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~1

17~

12 1 1

FIGURB 7. Pipes of the Caddo archaeological area of the U.S.A. Some variations in Elbow Pipes in Foci of the Fulton Aspect. All of pottery. Reproduction of Lamina 25 of Porter, Muriel N. 'Pipas Precortesianas',

Acta Anthropologica III.- 2, June I1948. Nos. i, 2. Glendora Focus Nos. 3-6: Texarkana Focus Nos. 7-1I2: Titus and Belcher Foci Nos. /3-I8: Frankston Focus

(Laminas propriedad del Departmento de Antropologia, Universitas de Texas, Austin, Texas.)

U R.A.I.J.



2) 4

7 \ - <9

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~11

8

/~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~12

9

13

10

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~4

FIGURE 8. Outlines of Pipes from America having affinities with English Clay Pipes; and early English Clay Pipes. Not to scale or to a uniform scale.

Nos. I, 2 Muskogee Pipes (based on Dunhill Fig. 42) Nos. 3, 4 Mound Pipes for use with stem (Dunhill Fig. 45) Nos. 5, 6 Atlantic Coast Pipes (North Carolina): Pottery (McGuire Figs. 2 I4 and 2 I 5) No. 7 Atlantic Coast Pipe (North Carolina): Chlorite (McGuire Fig. 2 I8) Nos. 8-I4 Early English Clay Pipes from London (after Oswald Figs. I-4)

No. 8: I580-I630 No. 9: I580-I620 No. I0: I600-I640 No. ii: I620-I650

No. I2: I620-I640 No. I3: I630-I670 No. I4: I640-I670

No. 15 Red Indian Pipe Figured by De Bry, I590 (Dunhill Fig. 202)



5~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

8~~~~~71

FIGURE 9. Outlines of Pipes from America having affinities with English Clay Pipes. Not to scale or to a uniform scale

Based on West, G. A. 'Tobacco Pipes of the North American Indians'

No. i Pottery; McClaughtry Mound Group, Marquette Co, Wisconsin. (West P1. 35 No. 2)

No. 2 Steatite; Sullivan Go, Tennessee. (West P1. 38 No. 2)

No. 3 Steatite; Wentworth Co, Ontario, Canada. (West P1. 12I No. 7)

No. 4 Steatite; near Lake Medad, Ontario, Canada. (West P1. 12 I No. 5)

No. 5 Cattinite; Wisconsin. (West P1. I97 No. I7) No. 6 Serpentine; Wash. (West P1. 204 No. i) No. 7 Steatite; Randolph Go, Mo. (West P1. 204 No. 7)

No. 8 Steatite; Wisconsin. (West P1. 205 No. 4) No. 9 Steatite; Wisconsin. (West P1. 205 No. 5) No. io Pottery; Winnebago Co, Wisconsin. (West P1. 218

No. i) No. i i Pottery; Georgia. (West P1. 222 No. 2) No. 12 Steatite; Georgia. (West P1. 223 No. 4) No. 13, 14 Pottery; Arkansas. (West P1. 226 Nos. 2 and 3) Nos. i5, i6 Pottery; Mexico. (West P1. 228 Nos. 8 and 9) Nos. 17, i8 Pottery; Panama. (West P1. 238 Nos. I5 and

I6)



4

I~~~~

FIGURE io. Outlines of Pipes from Mexico, Holland and the Sudan Not to scale or to a uniform scale

Nos. i,!2 Mexican Pottery Pipes (McGuire Figs. 42 an(d 43) No. 3 Mexican Pottery Pipe (Linton PI. IV No. 5) Nos. 4-6 Mexican Pottery Pipes (Porter Lamn I9h, I 8a andf) No. 7 Modern- Clay Pipe from Holland (McGuire Fig. 82) Nos. 8, 9 Clay Pipes from Abu Geili, Sudan (Crawford Figs. I 8 and I 9)



THURSTAN SHAW Early Smoking Pilpes PLATE I

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.

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complete and th hrigrmo-d



THURSTAN SHAW Early Smoking Pipes PLATES II-III

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PLATE I I

Pipes excavated at Dawu Type I

1 2 3~~~~~~~~1

; ? '' t *.; * > . ..... ..... ,f e7' ' ............ ..,....... .- - ~ ~~~~~~ R cm

PLATE III

Pipes excavated at Dawu: Type II (No. i) and Type III (Nos. 2-IO)



THURSTAN SHAW Early Smoking Pipes PLATES IV-V

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.z ..........

Ii!:;;.; 3K~~~~~~~~~~....... .: __ .:. _~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~... .. . ...2.

PLATE IV Pipes excavated at Dawu: Type IV (No. I), Type V (No. 2), Type VI (No. 3),

Type VII (No. 6), Type VIIIa (No- 5), Type VIIIb (No. 4)

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._ . . . . . . . : . . ... : : ::: - . . . ..~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ........ ...

PLATE V

Pipes excavated at Dawu: Portions of Bowls



THURSTAN SHAW Early Smoking Pipes PLATES VI-VII

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.

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PLATE VI

Pipes excavated at Dawu: Broken-off stems

l | l l | i | I | |PLATE VII |~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~nin Smkn Pie fro Spain lS

(B kn pemsso of Feerc Maes Diecor EsculaSpro de1 Belas AresdeSan Joge Bace;a



THURSTAN SHAW Early Smoking Pipes PLATES VIII-IX

PLA'TE VIII Pipe from the Bragge Collection

(By kind Permission of the Trustees of the British Museu(m)

|~~~~~~ ~ ~~~~~ ..:S . ....... ..: ......

PLATE IX

(Scale: Actual size) Pipe from St John's River, Florida.

United States National Museum Specimen No. 2420. (Photograph from the Smithsonian Institution).




90 W 400W 10?E

0 ew~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~8 N N

~~~~ <~~~~~~~~~~ I~~~~~~

F9PsiW 40oW Dr s aE

FIGURE I I. Possible Diffiusion Routes of Different Types of Tobacco Pipe



Documents

Early Smoking Pipes: In Africa, Europe, and America