e­conservationthe online magazine No. 19, April 2011

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Public awareness and the romantic view of restoration

Imagine that the next time when you open your morning newspaper you find a full page articleabout the heroic effort of an unemployed person, who after unsuccessfully struggling with the jobmarket, thought it may be best to open a conservation studio. Does it sound familiar? On furtherreading, you see how he came to make the decision ‐ most likely because he always liked to workwith his hands, used to fix things around the house and, of course he loves antiquities. At this mo‐ment, you probably jump into the quarter‐page photo that comes with the text and start analyzingthe image searching for details. Most likely, it will be a furniture restorer. Off he went to the nearesttool shop and set himself up in a studio or, why not, his garage. You will also probably read how, in afew months, he even developed his own secret formulas for paints and miraculous products to“properly” age materials. And as if this would not be enough, you will read all this through the eyesof the journalist who presents the story from the point of view of an heroic survivor of the unem‐ployment crisis who created his own job. A job that, in their words, is called conservation‐restora‐tion. How many similar stories have you already seen in newspapers, magazines or on television?

We conservators are aware that the reality of our job is nothing like that. But the general public isnot, and unfortunately this is the most direct way that the public is given a notion of what conserva‐tion is. To make matters even worst, this is a self‐sustainable mechanism. Most probably, thesepeople featured so often in newspapers, embraced this idea from some past news and that’s whythey nurture this romantic and erroneous view of conservation.

We do understand that conservation of antiquities is passionate. After all, at some point of ourlives, we probably had that same romantic view about works of art and shared that attraction toknow about the secrets behind the scenes, the alchemical products, the mysterious production offakes, and so on. However, not taking action against misleading the public is working against us,and even more in moments of economic crisis such as this. Limited public awareness will result inev‐itably in the maintenance of this status quo or even in its degradation.

In the wide spectrum, public awareness also raises attention in specific groups to the importance ofconservation, most notably in political groups. This is vital because often the resources needed forconservation are in the hands of a few decision‐makers and the public pressure may help to releasethem. Thus, and because one can not depend on chance, it is good strategy to reinforce attention inthis field.

So far I have seen three types of attitudes towards these issues: first, there is the majority of theprofessionals who would rather ignore these issues or that leave them to the big institutions to takecare of; then, there are those trying to maintain a high profile and raise awareness only among thepolitical class, ignoring or abhorring the general public opinion; and last but not least, there’s a fewwho are actually taking action on this matter. Although any kind of attitude is fundamental, whenwe depend on political will, it takes much longer to achieve any result and often the work of yearsmay change in a week.

Fortunately, there are already some initiatives leaded by professional associations that are takingmatters into their hands, trying to change this although it is surprising how this effort is not shared byall. Otherwise, what type of professional recognition can we expect?

Rui BordaloEditor‐in‐Chief

e‐conservatione‐conservation

http://tru-vue.com/museums/econ

NEWS & VIEWS 6

ARTICLES

CASE STUDY

40

O, Ethnographic Conservation, be some other name!

By Daniel Cull

REVIEWS

The 20th Anniversary Meeting of E.C.C.O.

Review by Rui Bordalo

Conservation and analysis techniques for the study and safeguard

of metallic heritage

Review by Ana Bidarra

“Back to the Roots”

Workshop on the Preparation of Historical Lake Pigments

Review by Martina Griesser

Educational Workshop:

Discovering Restoration, Treasuring the Original

Review by Anca Dinã and Teodora Poiatã

The 15th Symposium on Mediterranean Archaeology

Review by Hakan Öniz and Çiğdem Külekçioğlu

Conservation Matters in Wales

Review by Sarah Lawrence

UPCOMING EVENTS

May to June 2011

Old Interventions & New Possibilities

Applications of digital technology in re‐conservation

By Eleni Kotoula

Museums of Technology

Bridges of cultural identity

By Johannis Tsoumas

The Street in the Photography from the 19th and Early 20th Century

as Mean of Art or Science

By Maria Bostenaru

Scientific Study and Conservation of a Painted Enamel Qajar Pendant

By Wafaa Anwar Mohamed

EVENTS

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48

32

15

70

25

36

9

27

INDEX

e‐conservation 5

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sO, ETHNOGRAPHIC CONSERVATION, BE SOME OTHER NAME!

Within the field known as ‘ethno‐

graphic conservation’ the word eth‐

nographic has long been considered

by many to be a millstone around

our necks thwarting effective work

and progressive development of the

field. This idea was made explicitly

clear in Tharron Bloomfield’s key‐

note address to the 2008 ICOM‐CC

Triennial Conference in New Delhi,

in which he labelled this term "at

best old fashioned and inadequate,

and at worst offensive and racist".

In his keynote address Bloomfield

further called for "conservators who

work with cultural material to find

another, more appropriate name for

the material they work with". The

ICOM‐CC Working Group on Ethno‐

graphic Collections have taken this

critique on board and launched a

‘name change committee’ which in

turn recently published a discussion

document intended to further these

discussions [2].

The word ‘ethnography’ comes from

the Greek words ethnos, meaning folk

or people, and grapho meaning to

write, ethnography simply therefore

means to write about people. In an

academic sense ethnography is taken

to mean both the method of study

(the research method of cultural

anthropology) and the written re‐

"O, be some other name! What's in a name? that which we call a rose. By any other name

would smell as sweet." ‐ Juliet, in "Romeo and Juliet" (Act 2, Scene 2) [1]

By Daniel Cull

cord of that research. Traditionally ethnographers

have been outsiders engaged in ‘participant ob‐

servation’, it is from this tradition that ethno‐

graphy has for many communities who were the

focal point of such studies come to be seen as

offensive and/or racist. Ethnographers seek to

discover the emic (insiders) perspective rather

than their own etic (outsiders) perspective,

however scholars have come to realize that the

researchers own cultural biases and ideologies

have played a significant part in many of the

ethnographies produced. In the most extreme

cases we can see how racist ideologies such as

social Darwinism, colonialism, and white suprem‐

acy fed a cultural anthropology that believed in

the destruction of indigenous peoples to make

way for white, Christian, patriarchal, capitalist,

heteronormative, euro‐centric “civilization”, com‐

menting on this time period it has been wryly noted

that “ethnology is thought of as archaeology by

anticipation” [3], all of which goes someway to

suggest Tharron Bloomfield may be understating

his case!

Despite the inherent biases of those conducting

ethnographic research, it could conversely be

argued that the ethnographic method retains

value for the conservation field. The field of an‐

thropology has come a long way since the plun‐

derous activities that created the collections in

which we work, today there exists academic fields

such as critical ethnography, feminist ethnography,

and anti‐racist ethnography, which often have an

auto‐ethnographic focus in which the observer be‐

comes participant, and the participant observer,

e‐conservation

blurring or removing the distinction between emic

and etic perspectives. These auto‐ethnographic

approaches have been considered “the postmod‐

ern successor” of ethnography [4]. These develop‐

ments have become important tools for subaltern

groups to subvert the established power structures

and to gain a voice; to, as it were, tell their own

stories. These methodologies are being utilized

within the conservation field in the form of com‐

munity consultations, collaborative and partici‐

patory conservation [5]. Which counter to Bloom‐

field’s argument would suggest that ethnography

has much to teach the conservation field about

counter‐hegemonic discourse and the potentials

of first person narrative and collaborative working.

The final decision on the name is perhaps insigni‐

ficant compared to the opportunity afforded to

discuss our own personal relationship with the

terms we use to describe our field. Initially the

thought of changing the name threw me into

confusion, it seemed to me that like it or not the

word ‘ethnographic’ is the essential point of ref‐

erence for those of us who practice this field of

conservation. Moreover, I feel a great deal of af‐

finity for the contemporary ethnographic method,

and I feel the world “collections” in the working

group title is as, if not more, “offensive or racist”

associated as it is with the same colonial agendas

and concepts of categorization and control. How‐

ever, on further consideration, I came to realize

that the name must change not because I feel it

personally objectionable, but because many in

our field, and many with whom we work, do. As

such we need to find a method of self description

that is tolerable, and preferably useful, to the

most people possible, and continue our dialogue

in as many forums as possible to ensure that we

confront the real issues that brought these discus‐

sions to the fore and not resort simply to finding

a more pleasing sounding name.

Notes:

1. W. Shakespeare, Romeo and Juliet, URL

2. C. Dignard (Coord.), "A Discussion Paper on the

Name of the ICOM‐CC Working Group on Ethno‐

VIEWS

e‐conservation 7

Bronislaw Malinowski with natives on Trobriand Islands (ca 1918).

VIEWS

8 e‐conservation

graphic Collections: Should the Name Change, and

If So, to What?", ICOM‐CC, April 2011, URL

3. V. Debaene, Les deux livres l’ethnographe: l’eth‐

nographie francaise au XXe siècle entre science et

littérature, Université de Paris IV ‐ Sorbonne, Paris,

2004, p. 148

4. M. Bloor and F. Wood, Keywords in Qualitative

Methods: A Vocabulary of Research Concepts, Sage,

London, 2006, p. 19

5. G. Wharton, "Dynamics of Participatory Con‐

servation: The Kamehameha I Sculpture Project",

Journal of the American Institute for Conservation

47 (3), 2008, pp. 159‐173

DANIEL CULLConservatorThe Musical Instrument Museum

Daniel Cull is from the West Country of the British

Isles. He trained at the Institute of Archaeology,

University College London, where he received a

BSc in Archaeology, MA in Principles of conser‐

vation, and an MSc in Conservation for Archae‐

ology and Museums. He was later awarded an

Andrew W. Mellon Fellowship at the National

Museum of the American Indian/Smithsonian

Institution, Washington, DC. He currently works

as a conservator at the Musical Instrument Mu‐

seum and as a collaborator with e‐conservation

magazine.

Website: http://dancull.wordpress.com

Contact: daniel.cull@themim.org

The News section is bringing up‐to‐date

information on cultural heritage topics such as

on‐site conservation projects reports, reviews

of conferences, lectures or workshops and any

other kind of appropriate announcements.

If you are involved in interesting projects and

you want to share your experience with

everybody else, please send us your news

or announcements.

For more details, such as deadlines and

publication guidelines, please visit

www.e‐conservationline.com

Review by Rui Bordalo

Barcelona, Spain

April 4‐5, 2011

REVIEWS

A view from the conference hall.

THE 20th ANNIVERSARY MEETING OF E.C.C.O.

Organiser:

E.C.C.O., The European Confederation of Conservator‐Restorers' Organisations

http://www.ecco‐eu.org/

E.C.C.O., the European Confederation of Conser‐

vator‐Restorers' Organisations, is commemorat‐

ing its 20th anniversary. Since it’s foundation in

1991, E.C.C.O. has had a strong impact on European

policies for the protection and preservation of

cultural heritage, working to achieve legal recog‐

nition of conservator‐restorers and promoting a

high level of training in this discipline. The con‐

federation is seen by other international partners

as a role model to be followed. At the moment, it

unites 22 associations from 20 European countries,

representing more than 5000 professional con‐

servator‐restorers.

The commemoration of its 20th anniversary took

place in Barcelona, Spain, in the last 4th and 5th

of April, on the occasion of the President’s Meet‐

ing and General Assembly. The President’s meet‐

ing is a biannual meeting where all the Presidents

of the member associations of E.C.C.O. get together

and meet with the E.C.C.O. committee to discuss

about aims and objectives to be achieved by the

organisation. However, this time all the founding

members were invited to attend the anniversary

and to commemorate the founding of the organ‐

isation.

The meeting took place in the XVIII century Pati

Manning building, just next to the Centre of Con‐

temporary Culture of Barcelona. The impeccable

local organisation was merit of Agnès Gall‐Orlik

from Grup Tècnic, a Catalonian association of con‐

servator‐restorers. As an aside note, it should be

mentioned that Barcelona is part of the Environ‐

ment Committee of Eurocities, which gathers a

group of 34 cities that promote environmental

awareness. This meant, for example, that every

plastic item normally used in conferences was

replaced by wood or paper‐based alternatives,

more environmentally friendly. It would be great

if we would see this more often in conferences.

The day started with a welcoming message from

Mr. Joan Pluma, General Director of Cultural Her‐

itage, representing the Catalan Ministry of Cul‐

ture. Next, Monica Martelli‐Castaldi, President of

E.C.C.O., welcomed the participants and presented

9e‐conservation

the founding members and the previous E.C.C.O.

Presidents. Only a few could not be present and

those who are no longer with us were fondly re‐

called.

After the opening, a session on the history of the

confederation started with short presentations

by Nathalie Ravanel, from the Associazione Res‐

tauratori d'Italia (ARI) and former Vice‐President

of E.C.C.O., and Pierre Masson, from the Belgium

Association Professionelle des Conservateurs‐

Restaurateurs d'Oeuvres d'Art (APROA‐BRK) and

former President of E.C.C.O.. These short presen‐

tations were followed by interventions by Carole

Milner, from Association des Restaurateurs d'Art

et d'Archquéologie de Formation Universitaire

(AARAFU) and former Deputy Secretary, Gerlinde

Tautschnig, also from the Italian ARI and former

President of E.C.C.O., and other founding members

and former Presidents who recalled the early years

of E.C.C.O. Stéphane Pennec, founding member

from France, presented “Conservation‐Restora‐

tion of Cultural Heritage: Don’t worry, it’s get‐

ting worse!” which came as a refreshing frontal

view about the regression that the field is having

in some countries. Ylva Dahnsjö, from the National

Heritage (UK), closed the session speaking about

“The changed context for conservation and in‐

formation about UK PACR accreditation system”.

After the coffee‐break, a session focused on the

Competences of the profession took place. The

first lecturer was Susan Corr, General Secretary

of E.C.C.O. and delegate from the Institute for

the Conservation of Historic & Artistic Works in

Ireland (ICHAWI), who presented the most recent

publication of E.C.C.O.: “Competences for the

Profession and Practice of Conservation‐Restor‐

ation”. This document was developed by E.C.C.O.

in connection with the European Qualifications

Framework (EQF) foreseen in the Recommenda‐

tion of the European Parliament and of the Coun‐

cil of April 23, 2008 on the establishment of the

European Qualifications Framework for lifelong

learning. This document defines the competences

required to enter the profession of Conservator‐

restorer. Next was Jeremy Hutchings, Deputy Sec‐

retary of E.C.C.O. and delegate from the Nordic

Association of Conservators ‐ Norwegian Branch

(Nordisk Konservatorforbund, den Norske Seks‐

jonen, NKF‐N) to present the implementation of

these competences in the conservation programme

at the University of Oslo. The structure of the

course (post‐Bologna process) of this university

is quite original, allowing the students to choose

different career paths, not strictly in conservation

but also conservation‐related ones, according to

the several competences they acquire. The follow‐

ing presentation was done by Barbara Davidson,

E.C.C.O. Committee member and delegate from

the Chamber of Restorers in Slovakia (Komora

Reštaurátorov, KR). Slovakia is from the very few

countries, if not the only one, that has a Cham‐

ber of Restorers, recognized by the government,

allowing a better regulation of the profession. In

her presentation, Barbara gave an example of the

EQF implementation at the national level and

about the specific legislative framework of the

country. Wolfgang Baatz, new President of the

European Network for Conservation‐Restoration

Education (ENCoRE), presented “Conservation‐

restoration education: EQF and the Universities”,

A short meeting of the E.C.C.O. Committee members.

REVIEWS

10 e‐conservation

focused on the perspective of the universities con‐

cerning EQF and the lifelong learning issue. Closing

the session, Grellan Rourke, President of ICHAWI,

spoke on “Competences and Accreditation” where

he made a summary of the experience on accredit‐

ation in Ireland and what it has represented for

the members of their association.

After a short moment for questions from the public,

Dr. Miklós Szentkirályi and Dr. István Bona, from the

Association of the Hungarian Restorers (Magyar

Restaurátorok Egyesülete, MRE) which is also com‐

memorating now its 20th anniversary, presented the

history of their association, and several legislative

problems of laws on the protection of cultural prop‐

erty in Hungary, in a presentation titled “Changing

Legislation about Conservation‐Restoration of Cul‐

tural Property in Hungary”. Then Tomás Lupták, from

the Slovakian Komora Reštaurátorov (KR), spoke

“About the Law on Services on Internal Market and

Application of Exclusivity”. In Slovakia, conservation

is a regulated profession and the implementation of

European directives created several situations that,

fortunately, the chamber was able to resolve.

After a typical Mediterranean and eco‐friendly

lunch, the afternoon was dedicated to short pres‐

entations by Professional Bodies and Institutions.

The afternoon session was started by Véronique

Milande, President of the Fédération Française

des Conservateurs/Restaurateurs (FFCR), with

“FFCR is desperately looking for public”. As our

profession is sometimes distorted in the public

view by the media, the speech focused on the

public perception of conservator‐restorers and

the experience FFCR has had to enlighten both the

public and the media about the reality of our field.

Once the meeting was taking place in Spain, next

a series of associations, members and non‐mem‐

bers of E.C.C.O., were invited to address the audi‐

ence. In “Catalonia Today: 2 associations, One

future”, Agnès Gall‐Ortlic, from Grup Tècnic (GT),

and Voravit Roonthiva, President of Associació de

Conservadors‐Restauradors de Catalunya (ARCC),

announced the merge of the two professional as‐

sociations in Catalonia, Spain. The merge was

welcomed but news on the problematic Spanish

situation and about the recent dissolution of

A view of the conference hall during the presentations.

REVIEWS

e‐conservation 11

E.C.C.O.’s former member ACRACV, a Valencia based

association, saddened the audience. Then was

the turn of Gema Campo, also from GT, to speak

on the “Motives for becoming E.C.C.O. member

in the 90s and current relevance of E.C.C.O.”. As

a long existing association, GT was present in the

moments when the creation of a confederation

was discussed for the first time and later created.

The past and present importance of E.C.C.O. was

also discussed, for Europe but also for Spain and

Catalonia, as well as the documentation that was

delivered through the years by E.C.C.O., a true

milestone for the definition of the profession.

Afterwards, Carmen Perez Garcia, Managing Di‐

rector of the Valencian Institute for Conservation

and Restoration of Cultural Heritage (IVCR), in‐

troduced the audience to the history and struc‐

ture of the institute. The next talk was made by

Marco Moreno, from Asociación de Alumnos y Ex‐

alumnos de la Escuela Superior de Conservación y

Restauración de Bienes Culturales de Bienes Cultu‐

rales (AESCROM) in Madrid, who presented the

association, but also the particularities of the

training in conservation in Spain.

Brigitte Esser, from Associazione Restauratori‐

Conservatori Alto Adige (VRKS‐ARCA), a regional

association based in South Tyrol (Italy), spoke

about the long history of the association and the

specificity of that Italian region, and also how

advantageous and important has been the mem‐

bership of the association in E.C.C.O.. Jana Šubic

Prislan, from the Slovenian Society of Conservator‐

Restorers (Društvo restavratorjev Slovenije, DRS),

which the next day was accepted as new member

of E.C.C.O., was the next speaker. Founded in 1993,

the association reborn in 1997 and has now 283

members. Although it may seem that some pres‐

entations, year after year, are just the explanation

on how the associations were formed and the par‐

ticularities of their national ways, these are in fact

the most interesting facts to divulge as one can

learn about the variety of the realities in this field.

This is the case of DRS, a very active association,

organizing on a permanent basis trips, confer‐

ences, workshops and even a professional award.

For sure, it is an example for other organizations

to follow.

Stefan Belishki, Committee member and delegate

of the Association of Conservator‐restorers of

Bulgaria (ARBBG), informed the audience about

a turn of situation for the profession in Bulgaria,

more particularly, about the legal changes that

have occurred. In 2009, a new law on the protec‐

tion of cultural heritage was enacted. However,

the conservator‐restorer profession is not prop‐

erly regulated by the law. There are texts that

pretend to regulate the conservation practice

but they are not in accordance with E.C.C.O.’s

guidelines and in fact might even allow unquali‐

fied persons to practice. The lobbying of the as‐

sociation has been very active proposing several

changes but with few results. Nevertheless, they

were able to, at least, reduce the risk of malprac‐

tice. Another problem that was discussed was the

lack of job opportunities that conservator‐restorers

are confronted with in Bulgaria.

After a well needed coffee‐break, it was the turn

of Ingrid Louise Flatval, President of NKF‐N to

speak about “The Situation in Norway”. The asso‐

Volker Schaible, President of the Association of Restorers(Verband der Restauratoren, VDR), speaking about thesituation in Germany.

REVIEWS

12 e‐conservation

ciation has gone through several alterations due

to the size of the country, the bad economy and

internal reorganisation, among other factors. Sev‐

eral ways of dealing with these problems and din‐

amizing the associations were presented. Karen

Borchersen, from the Nordic Association of Conser‐

vators ‐ Danish Branch (Nordisk Konservatorfor‐

bund, Den Danske Afdeling, NKF‐DK) spoke about

the status and the future of the organisation. One

of the main concerns was to rejuvenate the board,

to bring new blood and new ideas, once their mem‐

bers have been there for many years. The recent

merge of Copenhagen’s School of Conservation

with other schools and the problems that have

risen was also discussed.

Jaap van der Burg, Vice‐President of E.C.C.O. and

delegate of Restauratoren Nederland (RN), spoke

on behalf of RN’s President Clara von Waldthausen

who could not attend the meeting. Jaap mentioned

the fact that RN commemorates its 5th anniver‐

sary and made a short summary of the history of

the association, which resulted from the merge of

other associations. Volker Schaible, President of

the Association of Restorers (Verband der Restaur‐

atoren, VDR) gave an amusing and lively present‐

ation focused on “The Situation in Germany”, that

is a federal country, which means that more dif‐

ferent regional laws on cultural heritage apply.

The talk focused on the history of VDR and how

they are approaching such diversity of laws con‐

cerning conservation and the protection of cul‐

tural heritage.

Finally, the last intervention was made by Karin

von Lerber, from the Association Suisse de Con‐

servation et Restauration (SKR/SCR), who talked

about “The Situation in Switzerland”. Karin showed

how challenging the management of conservation

can be in a country with 4 schools teaching conser‐

vation and 27 states (with 27 different legislations)

and an association that gathers over 500 members.

Group photo of the participants to the E.C.C.O. 20th anniversary.

REVIEWS

e‐conservation 13

Afterwards, there was a round‐table discussion

moderated by Grellan Rourke focused on Europe‐

wide issues arising from the meeting and network‐

ing between European professional bodies and

related institutions.

The second day was fully dedicated to the General

Assembly during which several internal issues were

discussed. Among these, can be highlighted the

efforts that the working groups are making con‐

cerning the European Recommendations in the

Council of Europe, the European Qualifications

Framework for Lifelong Learning (EQF) and the

European Committee for Standardization (CEN).

Two associations – from Slovenia and Malta – were

welcomed as new members. Although these meet‐

ings are generally not open to the public, there

were several national and international observers

invited in the occasion of the Presidents meeting

and anniversary of E.C.C.O.

The two days meeting, with its warm atmosphere,

made the attendees happy to meet so many old

friends and colleagues. At the end, the commem‐

oration of the 20th anniversary of E.C.C.O. was a

success, not only for the high quality participation

and the vivid discussions but also for the positive

feedback that the founding members gave on

E.C.C.O. and how much it has accomplished in the

last 20 years.

Photos by: David Aguilella‐Cueco

RUI BORDALOConservator‐restorer

Rui Bordalo, PhD, is a board member of the Portu‐

guese Association of Conservator‐Restorers (ARP)

and a Committee member of the European Confed‐

eration of Conservator‐Restorers' Organisations

(E.C.C.O.) since 2005.

REVIEWS

14 e‐conservation

The seminar “Conservation and analysis techniques

for the study and safeguard of metallic heritage”

was held at the National Archaeological Museum

and at the Centre of Atomic Physics in 29th and

30th of March, respectively. It was a one and a half

day meeting organized in the scope of the project

“AuCORRE ‐ The gold jewellery from the Atlantic

Western Peninsula (Bronze and Iron Ages). Torcs,

bracelets and earrings from the Portuguese ter‐

ritory: manufacturing techniques, metal alloys

composition and corrosion mechanisms” (PTDC/

HIS‐HIS/114698/2009). This project is funded by

the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Tech‐

nology (FCT) with the participation of Archeofactu

– Archaeology and Art, the Institute of Museums

and Conservation (IMC, Portugal), the Laboratoire

du Centre de Recherche et de Restauration des

Musées de France – UMR ‐ 171 CNRS (Centre for

Research and Restoration of the Museums of

France) and the Centre of Atomic Physics (Uni‐

versity of Lisbon, Portugal).

For a conference that intended to be informal and

that wasn’t much publicized, the two days had a

participation of nearly 100 delegates; in the second

Review by Ana Bidarra

day the amphitheatre of the Centre for Atomic

Physics was full and had the presence of several

students. The conferences were mainly held in

Portuguese, but there were also Spanish, English

and French presentations.

The first day of the conference took place at the

National Archaeological Museum (MNA) in Lisbon

and was focused on the Metallurgy of the Bronze

and Iron Ages. The opening session was made by

members of the AuCORRE project and MNA’s Dir‐

ector. The afternoon was filled with six presenta‐

tions that started with an historic background on

the “relation between metallurgy and society, its

ruptures and permanencies in the Atlantic Penin‐

sular facade”, by João Senna‐Martinez from the

Faculty of Letters of the University of Lisbon (FLUL).

Raquel Vilaça, from the Faculty of Letters of the

University of Coimbra (FLUC), made a very interest‐

ing presentation entitled “Beyond the shine of

the metal (productions and contexts): a contribu‐

tion to the AuCORRE project”, focusing on the need

to inventory and compile information on Portu‐

guese Ancient jewellery. A schematic approach

explained the relation metal/object since its

March 29‐30, 2011

Lisbon, Portugal

Hosted by:National Archaeological Museum and

the Centre of Atomic Physics

CONSERVATION AND ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES FOR THE STUDYAND SAFEGUARD OF METALLIC HERITAGE

REVIEWS

e‐conservation

General view of the conference at the National ArchaeologicalMuseum. Photo by Matthias Tissot.

Conservação e Técnicas de Análise para o Estudo e Salvaguardado Património Metálico

e‐conservation 15

native condition to its finished form, going through

aspects such has quality and control, cast, plastic

deformation, finishing and decoration.

After the coffee break, the two presentations given

by Maria de Fátima Araújo and António Monge Soa‐

res, from the Technological and Nuclear Institute

(ITN), were mainly focused on technological as‐

pects of gold artifacts from the Iron and Bronze

Ages and its laboratorial analysis using optical

microscopy (OM), energy dispersive X‐ray fluores‐

cence (EDXRF), scanning electron microscopy with

X‐ray microanalysis (SEM‐EDS) and micro Particle‐

induced X‐ray Emission (micro‐PIXE). These tech‐

niques provided information regarding not only

physical and technological aspects, but also chemi‐

cal features such as the presence of major ele‐

ments (silver and copper) in the gold.

Davide Delfino, from the Center of Geosciences of

the University of Coimbra, presented a compara‐

tive study between the recycling of metals in the

Atlantic Peninsular Facade and the Alpine area

during the Bronze Age and the causes that could

lead to recycling such as flaws, wearing or dam‐

ages. Despite the developed work consider that the

recycling of metals begin later in the Peninsular

Facade, some of the delegates disagreed with that

conclusion pointing to a parallel occurrence.

The first day ended with Aaron Lackinger, from the

Faculty of History of the University of Vigo (Spain),

and the “Urdiñeira disc”. This bronze disc or but‐

ton, along with a set of two gold bracelets, com‐

poses the “Treasure of Urdiñeira”, found in 1921

near Parada da Serra in Galicia (Spain).

The second day was focused on the conservation

and analysis of gold objects and other metals and

the opening session was made by members of the

AuCORRE project. The morning session started with

Alicia Perea, from the Institute of History of the

Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), with a

comprehensive presentation that brought several

16 e‐conservation

Opening session. From left to right: Dr. António Candeias, from LJF/IMC, Dr. Luísa Carvalho, from the Centre of Atomic Physics,Dr. Luis Raposo, MNA's Director, and Dr. Filomena Guerra, from UMR‐171 CNRS. Photo by Matthias Tissot.

REVIEWS

examples of gold archaeometry in Spain from the

past years, along with recent works and projects,

namely the study of the “Quimbaya Treasure” from

Colombia.

Maria Filomena Guerra, from UMR‐171 CNRS, pre‐

sented “Analytical research on Egyptian gold work

at the National Museums of Scotland”. One of the

main ideas conveyed was the lack of an accurate

analytical research regarding gold jewellery from

Ancient Egypt, particularly the one that is held in

Egypt, which makes very difficult or even impos‐

sible to relate or date certain objects, namely the

ones that came from ancient commercial trading.

The presentation “Archaeometry at ITN using ion

beams and X‐ray diffraction analysis” by Luís

Cerqueira Alves, compared several analytical tech‐

niques such as PIXE, Rutherford Backscattering

Spectrometry (RBS) and X‐ray diffraction (XRD). The

main advantage of the RBS technique is the fact

that an elemental depth profile distribution (us‐

ing a nuclear microprobe) is possible, while PIXE

provides no depth information on elemental analy‐

sis. Rui Lopes, from the Faculty of Fine Arts from

the University of Lisbon (FBA‐UL), spoke about

the casting techniques of ritual bronzes in Shang

and Zhou Dynasties (China) and António Candeias,

from the Laboratory José de Figueiredo of IMC

e‐conservation 17

(LJF‐IMC), presented an overall perspective of the

work developed by IMC in the study and conserva‐

tion of Portuguese metallic heritage. The morn‐

ing session ended with Maria José Oliveira, from

LJF‐IMC, and Teresa Maranhas, from the National

Palace of Ajuda (IMC), who presented the research

work that has been undertaken at IMC on the jewel‐

lery from Queen Maria Pia (1847‐1911) produced

by the Rome‐based Castellani workshop.

After lunch, the first two presentations were on

case studies related to preventive conservation and

maintenance of collections. The first one, entitled

“Atmospheric corrosion monitoring to evaluate

showcases” and presented by Michel Dubus from

UMR‐171 CNRS, referred several examples of metal‐

lic artifacts wrongly exposed and its degradation.

The lecturer also focused on the changes that can

occur when moving an object, particularly for

temporary exhibitions. Matthias Tissot, from MNA

and Archeofactu, focused on the more specific case

of the Ancient jewellery collection from the Na‐

tional Archaeological Museum in Lisbon (Portugal)

and some preliminary data on preventive conserva‐

tion parameters in the “Treasure Room”.

The following two presentations were on Portu‐

guese altarpieces. The first one, presented by

Agnès Le Gac from the New University of Lisbon,

REVIEWS

“Archaeometry at ITN using Ion Beams and X‐ray DiffractionAnalysis”, by Luís Cerqueira Alves.

“Considerations on the study of metallic artifacts – theexperience of the Laboratory José de Figueiredo”, by AntónioCandeias.

focused on the gilding techniques and the chal‐

lenges for determining the gold origin, in the spe‐

cific case of the 16th century main altarpiece of

the Old Cathedral of Coimbra (Portugal). Based

in documentary and analytical data the results

pointed to the use of two different techniques:

water‐based burnished gilding on bole and oil‐

based matte gilding on mordant. The gold leaf is

under one micron and the gold used in 1502, 1583

and 1685 is up to 23 carat, while the gold applied

in 1900 is 20 carat. The second lecture, given by

Ana Bidarra from the Department of Geosciences

of the University of Aveiro, presented an approach

to the definition of an accurate methodology to

gold leaf analysis. The results were based on the

study of the gold used in baroque altarpieces

through different analytical methods such as OM,

SEM‐EDS and Inductively Coupled Plasma – Mass

Spectrometry (ICP‐MS), in order to determine tech‐

nological and elemental features, that allow the

typification of the gold and to establish proven‐

ance relations. The limitations of the different

techniques were also focused as well as the use

of other proceedings such as X‐ray Fluorescence

(XRF) using Synchrotron radiation.

Paula Menino Homem, from the Department of

Heritage Sciences and Techniques of the University

of Porto, presented a work on the nature, altera‐

tion and conservation of the silver altarpiece loc‐

ated in the Chapel of the Holly Sacrament at the

Porto Cathedral, focusing also on some specific

alteration of the metal and it’s analysis by XRF

and SEM‐EDS.

After the coffee‐break, the last session comprised

four presentations. The first one was given by Alice

Alves, from FBA‐UL, and the conservation and res‐

toration interventions that the Belém Monstrance

had during 1833 and 1928. The Belém Montrance

was ordered by King Manuel I (Portugal) to the

master goldsmith Gil Vicente in 1503 and used the

gold brought by Vasco da Gama on his return from

the second expedition to India. During its history

the Monstrance suffered several changes, the first

one during the reign of Filipe I (1580‐1598), when

its cylindrical glass was replaced by a circular frame

easier to open, keeping this architecture for over

300 years. In 1929, José de Figueiredo, the direc‐

tor of the National Museum of Ancient Art (Lis‐

bon) decided to return the Monstrance to its

original form.

Eduarda Vieira, from the School of Arts of the

Catholic University of Porto, brought a prelimin‐

ary approach to the study of a monumental brass

from the grave of João Correia, located in the Main

Church of Penafiel (Portugal). This brass, from

the beginning of the 16th century, is engraved with

João Correia effigy and is thought to be imported

from Flanders. Since it was made during his life

time no burial date was engraved. This is an art

form that is not very common in Portugal and

that is disappearing fast due to theft.

The collaboration between a conservator‐restorer

and an epigraphist ‐ Sara Fragoso, from FCT‐UNL

and José d’Encarnação, from the University of

Coimbra ‐ studied the forgery of Roman inscriptions

in the specific case of a copper tessera, applying

both art history and analytical approaches. The

forgery of Roman inscriptions has a long history;

in the Renaissance period was mainly directed to

assign a remote origin to a city or to provide it

with famous characters. More recently the motive

is mainly economical and is located in the scope of

antiquities trade. This tessera, due to its specific

typological and textual characteristics raised sev‐

eral doubts; however, the researchers concluded

that despite these perplexities, the tessera and its

inscriptions are thought to be original.

The seminar ended with Ana Serafim, from FCT‐

UNL, and a case study on the bronze sculpture

18 e‐conservation

REVIEWS

depicting Jean d’Aire by Auguste Rodin located on

the gardens of the Gulbenkian Museum (Lisbon).

The study is focused on the degradation processes

that are currently occurring in the sculpture, in or‐

der to define an accurate conservation and res‐

toration methodology.

During the one and a half day seminar it was pos‐

sible to realise the diversity of metallic cultural

heritage and the different forms to approach it.

The relation between art history, conservation,

restoration and science was always present and the

need of cooperation between the different spe‐

cialists and institutions was once again focused.

ANA BIDARRAConservator‐restorer

Contact: bidarra.ana@gmail.com

Ana Bidarra has a Degree in Conservation‐Resto‐

ration and a Master Degree in GeoSciences on

white structured pigments for restoration. Cur‐

rently she is a PhD candidate researching the

compositional and technological aspects of gold

leaf from Portuguese baroque altarpieces. She

works as conservator‐restorer in private practice

since 1999.

“The restoration of the Belém Monstrance. History of anintervention from the first half of the 20th century (1833‐1928)”, by Alice Nogueira Alves.

e‐conservation 19

REVIEWS

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21e‐conservation

REVIEWS

Within the European CHARISMA project (Cultural

Heritage Advanced Research Infrastructures:

Synergy for a Multidisciplinary Approach to Con‐

servation/Restoration) the Doerner Institute in

Munich, Germany, organised the “Back to the

Roots” workshop on the preparation of historical

lake pigments from 23rd to 25th March 2011.

The local organisers Heike Stege and Mark Richter

acted as coordinators of the workshop together

with Jo Kirby Atkinson, The National Gallery, Lon‐

don, and Jana Sanyova, IRPA, Brussels. Altogether

10 participants from 6 European countries and

one Iranian colleague attended the workshop. It

was divided in lectures given by the coordinators

and practical sessions to test different lake pre‐

paration recipes in the laboratories of the Doerner

Institute.

On Wednesday morning, following the welcome

speeches by the local organisers, Jo Kirby gave

her first lecture entitled “Dyes, Dyeing and Lake

Pigments – Historical Background”. She presen‐

ted a comprehensive overview of the natural dyes

used in Europe for dying textiles as well as for the

preparation of lake pigments, mainly focusing on

the red and yellow dyestuffs. The two hours talk

not only contained information on the different

plant materials and animals used as sources for

the dyes and their molecular structure, but also

on the various methods of preparing the coloured

pigments, for which mainly hydrated alumina

substrates, but sometimes also other aluminium

and calcium containing substrates were used. By

describing how historical recipes had been trans‐

ferred to “laboratory versions” for the participants

to experiment with, her presentation also offered

a first introduction to the practical part.

Following lunch, one half of the attendees pre‐

pared yellow lake pigments and the other half red

lake pigments using the soaked in raw materials

already prepared by the organisers. Different

kinds of weld and buckthorn berry yellow lakes as

well as madder lakes – including one recipe for

treating wild madder – were produced in this way.

After the lake pigments were precipitated, they

were left to settle overnight. Where necessary raw

materials for the production of lake pigments

on day two were already soaked in water or water

based solutions.

The morning of the second day was again filled with

lectures. At first Jana Sanyova gave a presentation

“BACK TO THE ROOTS”WORKSHOP ON THE PREPARATION OF HISTORICAL LAKE PIGMENTS

Munich, GermanyMarch 23‐25, 2011

Organised by:Doerner Institute

Review by Martina Griesser

Visit our website

Dyed wool (madder, Rubia tinctoria L.) and silk (kermes, Kermesvermilio Planchon). The silk is cut into fine pieces (clippings).

22 e‐conservation

REVIEWS

on “Organic pigments analyses” starting by giving

an overview on the history of analysis and intro‐

ducing different possible methods for analysis

from microscopy to Raman spectroscopy. In the

main part of her talk she concentrated on the

analysis of red and yellow dyestuffs using HPLC

(High Performance Liquid Chromatography) and

showed a number of case studies of the success‐

ful analysis of lake pigments. Especially interest‐

ing was to get first‐hand knowledge from this

experienced researcher about the possibilities and

limits concerning the analysis of organic dyes in

different sample materials. Her presentation was

followed by a short lecture by Jo Kirby called “A

brief survey of colour change in lake pigments”.

This was an introduction into the field of bleach‐

ing, as all the natural dyestuffs are changing colour

by interactions with their environment, especially

with light. Besides examples of typical colour

changes in art objects and the theory and equip‐

ment for measuring these changes, Jo showed a

number of graphs concerning the bleaching of

yellow and red lake pigments in dependence of

the dyestuff, the substrate, and the binding me‐

dium used for preparing the actual paint. In the

Pigment yield of yellow lake (weld) after filtration and washing.

e‐conservation

Welcoming address of the coordinators Dr. Heike Stege and Mark Richter.

Pigment yield of yellow lake (unripe buckthorn berries,Rhamnus cathartica L.) after filtration and washing.

afternoon the participants were filtering and

washing their first lake pigments and preparing

their second lake pigments again following the

revised recipes. On day 2 different cochineal,

kermes, lac dye and brazilwood red lakes and

dyer’s broom and young fustic yellow lakes were

precipitated and left to settle overnight.

On Friday the filtering and washing of the second

lake pigments was finished. All the pigments

prepared still needed to dry out, so pigments

produced during an earlier workshop were used to

prepare paints using two different binding media.

A selection of eight pigments were ground in lin‐

seed oil as well as egg yolk and then applied on

prepared test panels (wood primed with chalk)

for each of the participants. Besides getting an

idea on the varying behaviour of the different

lake pigments during grinding in oil and egg, one

also got an impression of the different appearance

of the lakes in the two binding media. In the fu‐

ture also the observation of the different colour

REVIEWS

23e‐conservation

Paint trials: applying paints consisting of lake pigments in egg tempera and linseed oil.

Lake pigment of Young fustic (Cotinus coggygria SCOP.) afterprecipitation.

REVIEWS

24 e‐conservation

changes with time will be interesting. On Friday

evening the workshop closed with a joint discus‐

sion on the lake pigments prepared and a fare‐

well drink.

For me the participation in this workshop was a

unique and very valuable experience to better

understand the vast variety of lake pigments one

can produce from more or less the same plant or

animal raw material as well as of the many influ‐

ences on the result, e.g. by temperature, time of

heating, method of precipitation and so on. As

all the coordinators were present during the whole

workshop and available for answering questions

anytime, an active exchange of experiences was

possible. The participants also were supplied with

full documentation of the presentations, a list of

participants, a bibliography, and – besides the

“laboratory version” recipes – the corresponding

original historical recipes for producing lake pig‐

ments. The numbers of participants was well‐

considered and the organisation near to perfect

(not only because all the coffee breaks and lunches

were included). I would like to thank all the col‐

leagues at the Doerner Institute involved in organ‐

ising the activity for this excellent workshop and

hope that they will be able to offer it once again

soon. Participation for anyone interested in his‐

toric lake pigments is highly recommended!

MARTINA GRIESSERConservation‐scientist

Contact: martina.griesser@khm.at

Martina Griesser studied analytical chemistry at

the Vienna University of Technology and finished

her PhD on the analytical characterisation of CVD

diamond layers in 1995. Since 1996 she built up

the Conservation Science Department at the

Kunsthistorisches Museum. Today she is the head

of this department and since 1999 also a lecturer

at the University of Applied Arts, Vienna, Institute

for Conservation and Restoration.

Paint trials: grinding of prepared lake pigments with egg tempera binder.

"Discovering Restoration, Treasuring the Original"

is an awareness campaign launched by the Roma‐

nian association Art Conservation Support (ACS)

to promote conservation to the general public

and to contribute to a better preservation of the

cultural heritage. The workshop was organized

with the support of the National History Museum

(MNIR), the National University of Arts (UNA) and

the conservation companies Cerecs Art and Danart.

The workshop gave participants the opportunity

to go behind the scenes of conservation restora‐

tion, a field still little known to the general public.

The main questions that were raised were: what

is conservation‐restoration?, what means to pre‐

serve the cultural heritage?, how to avoid its de‐

struction?, what happens behind the scaffolding?,

and how should we look at an icon or a mural paint‐

ing? For the large public, introducing general

notions of conservation was a great way to under‐

stand the degradation process of an art object,

what care of collections entails and how improper

interventions can be avoided. This was also a good

occasion for secondary school students to get an

insight into the conservation training course at

the National University of Arts in Bucharest and

consider the possibility to undertake a degree in

this field.

ACS is a young non‐profit association founded in

2009 at the initiative of four people working in

the field of conservation‐restoration of cultural

heritage: Prof. Dr. Oliviu Boldura and conservat‐

or‐restorers Anca Dinã, Magdalena Drobotã and

Teodora Poiatã. This workshop was the first of a

series which is part of an awareness campaign to

draw attention of the general public to conserva‐

tion issues. The course took place during the four

consecutive Saturdays of March, in several loca‐

tions in order to offer participates a variety of

examples and as diverse information as possible.

A new edition will take place later this year and

will follow the same schedule.

The first two meetings were held at the UNA Gal‐

lery. To introduce the participants into the con‐

servation world, more precisely, to get them ac‐

quainted with the basics of paintings conserva‐

tion, examples of well established monuments

from several areas of the country were shown

e‐conservation 25

Review by Anca Dinã and Teodora Poiatã

March 5, 12, 19 and 26, 2011

Bucharest, Romania

EDUCATIONAL WORKSHOP:DISCOVERING RESTORATION, TREASURING THE ORIGINAL

REVIEWS

First meeting of the series, at the UNA Gallery.An introduction into the basics of paintings conservation.

Organiser:

Art Conservation Support (ACS)http://acs.org.ro/

first. From the altar to the narthex, up to the towers

and around the church, to the exterior mural deco‐

ration, participants were walked through inter‐

esting topics such as what is a wall painting, what

kind of "problems" it can have and how they are

normally "treated". Demonstrations were made

on specially prepared replicas and the public was

invited to experiment simple operations performed

with reversible materials.

The second meeting was dedicated to artistic com‐

ponents and movable assets. Examples such as

icons on panel and canvas paintings were shown

to the participants in order to illustrate how the

original matter evolves from the moment it is

created until it reaches the bench of restoration.

The direct contact with real works of art was a great

way to analyze closely each of the raised matters.

In the third Saturday, the meeting was hosted by

the National Museum of History where, courtesy

of the head of the research department, Mr. Ghe‐

orghe Niculescu and his team. Here the import‐

ance and complexity of the scientific research and

the role that it plays in conservation was explained.

An introduction into analytical techniques was

given, followed by practical demonstrations. The

meeting ended with a lecture on how to take care

of the objects with historic and aesthetic value

that are in our private collections. General infor‐

mation on best preservation practices was given.

The fourth and last meeting was held in the warm

ambient of the Stavropoleos Monastery. This 18th

century monument, located right in the heart of

Bucharest, has managed to remain a peaceful place

in spite of the heavy traffic and high buildings

26 e‐conservation

Panel and canvas paintings were shown to the participants to exemplify degradations and the conservation treatment.

REVIEWS

MNIR's laboratories and the Lapidarium Hall. Understanding the role of science in conservation.

THE 15th SYMPOSIUM ON

MEDITERRANEAN ARCHAEOLOGY

Catania, Sicily

March 3‐5, 2011

Organised by:Catania University, Sicily and the General

Association of Mediterranean Archaeology (GAMA)

Review by Hakan Öniz and Çiğdem Külekçioğlu

The fifteenth annual Symposium on Mediterran‐

ean Archaeology (SOMA) held in Catania was or‐

ganized by the 566 years old University of Catania

and supported by the General Association of Medi‐

terranean Archaeology (GAMA).

SOMA, among other conferences and symposiums

on archaeology, represented a step forward by its

two fundamental aspects: first of all, it covers a

wide geography and time span; then, it is also an

surrounding it. The evolution in time of this monu‐

ment and its conservation was presented by the

special guest Prof. Dan Mohanu, coordinator of

the conservation project for the mural paintings

of this monument. The extremely useful explana‐

tions given in situ were then followed by a visit to

the monastery library and its collection of valu‐

able historic objects.

The feedback received at the end of the course was

very encouraging. From the questionnaire filled

by the participants regarding their experience

we learned that the general public appreciates

the opportunity to learn more about our field,

especially to get a sneak peek into real conserva‐

tion laboratory and have contact with authentic

works of art undergoing restoration.

Those interested in more than just these few words

about the project "Discovering Restoration, Treas‐

uring the Original" are invited to join us in the next

session, which will take place again later this year.

e‐conservation 27

REVIEWS

In the last meeting of the series, Prof. Dan Mohanu wasinvited to present the conservation project of the muralpaintings from Stavropoleos Monastery.

About the authors: Anca Dinã and Teodora Poiatã

are conservator‐restorers and two of the founders

of Art Conservation Support (ACS), a Romanian non‐

profit association dedicated to raise awareness about

conservation of cultural heritage.

Group photo of the participants.

opportunity for the participants to get acquainted

with regions, material cultures, and archaeological

debates unrelated to their area and period of spe‐

cialization. The scope of a conference on archae‐

ology is mostly limited with a given period, region

or branch of investigation narrows the spectrum of

the participants. SOMA, in this respect, gathers all

the researchers specialized on the Mediterranean

region and offers to the archaeologists who can

barely cope with following the extensive literature

on their area of specialization, the opportunity to

have a relatively complete picture on this wide

geography that has been the core of great civili‐

sations and intensive interactions throughout the

human history.

Secondly, SOMA promotes the policy of encour‐

aging young researchers to present their papers

and posters in a friendly atmosphere to an inter‐

national audience. This year, as in the previous

ones, several MA and PhD students not only gained

their first experience of giving a presentation in

an international symposium but also received

feedback from prominent specialists in order to

improve the quality of their thesis.

This year, the symposium reached the maximum

number of participants and presentations. In two

days, 165 papers in English, divided in four sessions

according to the period and the field of investig‐

ation, were presented concurrently in four differ‐

ent halls of the Monastery of San Nicolò l’Arena

that hosts the Faculty of Humanities of the Uni‐

versity of Catania. The orientation skills of the

participants was tested in the labyrinth‐like

corridors of this 500 years old astonishing late

baroque monument that is one of the biggest Be‐

nedictine Monasteries in Europe and a UNESCO

World Heritage Site.

The first session of the symposium was reserved to

Classical Archaeology. While the presentations of

REVIEWS

28 e‐conservation

Poster from a photographic exhibition on Archaeology in Turkey.

the first day were predominantly about Anatolian

sites, those of the second day comprised mostly

the sites in Italy and North Africa, as well as the

interactions and similar traits in the Mediterranean

region. On the first day of the session A, the west‐

ern archaeologists had the opportunity to get a

general idea about the surveys and excavations

carried out in Asia Minor comprising the Greek,

Hellenistic and Roman periods. The paper of Ahmet

Yaras on the famous health center of Allianoi, that

unfortunately has been submerged underwater

because of a dam construction after being subject

to serious debates in Turkey, was definitely the

highlight of the first day classical archaeology

session. In the same session, at the second day,

the paper of Veronica Iacomi and Emanuele Cas‐

agrande on the distribution pattern of Rhodian

amphorae in the late Hellenistic Period revealed

clearly the intensity and complexity of interre‐

gional trade over a wide geography reaching the

Red sea and Bactria, in a period of multi centred

political atmosphere, through the chronological

seriation of Rhodian stamps and the historical

and stratigraphic analysis of some sites.

The preclassical archaeology was the theme of the

second session. This time, the first day the Sicili‐

an sites constituted the majority of the treated

areas; in the second day different geographic re‐

gions were encompassed, including Asia Minor,

Crete, Italy, Cyprus and so on. The paper of Biazzo

Lorenzo on textiles in early Bronze Age Sicily was

important for reminding us that there are still so

many untouched or slightly investigated topics in

archaeology: one of them is the textile production,

particularly in the preclassical period, which is

an ironic situation considering that the artefacts

related to the textile production are the common

findings of any excavation. This topic, which has

only begun to be investigated after 90s thanks to

the pioneering works of the Centre for Textile Re‐

search in Copenhagen, has a lot to promise taking

into consideration the scarcity of published ma‐

terial on this issue.

The third session was focused on History, Epi‐

graphy, Numismatics and Medieval Archaeology

and introduced nice examples of cooperation of

archaeology with the methodology of philology

and history. Although the proportion of the papers

with topics on Late Roman Empire Period in Asia

Minor and Late Antique period in Sicily was signi‐

ficantly high, three successive presentations about

the Vandals who dominated the Mediterranean as

a serious threat against the Roman Empire between

mid 5th and mid 6th centuries, were highly instruct‐

ive since they revealed the complex economic and

commercial system adopted by the Vandals whom

we are used to consider just as a community of

skilled warriors.

The forth and last session was devoted to two

different topics, namely “Archaeology and Sci‐

REVIEWS

e‐conservation 29

ences” on the first day and “Underwater and naval

archaeology, historiography, museography” on

the second. The application of GIS, spectroscopic

techniques, virtual reconstruction, 3D photo‐

modelling, facial reconstruction and the emphasis

given on creating databases changed dramatically

in the last 30 years the definition and methodo‐

logy of archaeology, introducing computer science

into archaeological research and creating digit‐

alized information. The project of Trapeza presen‐

ted by Alessandra Cilio mentioning the database

created for the domestic pottery in Sicily from the

Archaic to the Hellenistic period is a good example

to denote the contribution of forming such data‐

bases to interpret the corpus of ceramics that are

difficult to deal with through traditional methods.

Aysun Altunöz Yonuk put emphasis on the cooper‐

ation of forensic anthropology, the art of sculpture

and archaeology, in order to reconstruct the face

of unearthed skulls. Massimiliano Limoncelli and

Guiseppe Scardozzi presented a good example of

modern methodology in dealing with architectural

remains in which they showed that even the scanty

remains can provide enough data necessary for

the virtual reconstruction of the past through the

use of modern prospection methods.

The first topic of the next day was underwater ar‐

chaeology. Hakan Öniz presented at first the pre‐

liminary results of the ongoing survey at the coast‐

line of Antalya region in Turkey, a country that is

surrounded by seas crucial for the transportation

of humans and ideas over thousands of years and

where underwater investigations are ironically

scarce. Following this, Mr. Öniz mentioned about

one of the great archaeological discoveries in Tur‐

key in the last decades: the ancient city of Batho‐

nea excavated by Sengul Aydıngun and its harbour

investigated by Hakan Öniz at Kucukcekmece Lake

in Istanbul. The paper of Vesna Zmaic, from the

International Center for Underwater Archaeology

in Zadar, was impressive in terms of richness of

wrecks in Eastern Adriatic and inspiring regarding

the intensiveness of underwater investigations

in Croatia. The attempt of Eduard Ble Gimeno to

visualise a portion of the Second Punic War that

we know in detail through the work of Polybius by

the investigation of archaeological evidences in

the northeast coastline of Iberian Peninsula might

be a good model for the future attempts to test the

written historical sources through archaeological

investigations.

The high amount of papers impeded attending all

of the presentations. The ones mentioned above

are just selected examples among many other pres‐

entations that are without any doubt the result of

rigorous work, wherefore the publication of the

symposium proceedings should definitely find its

place in the personal libraries.

The symposium was not limited to paper present‐

ations. A poster session was held in the Monastery

comprising archaeological, archaeometric, ethno‐

archaeological and architectural investigations

done primarily in Sicily and in the rest of Italy but

also in Spain and other areas within the Mediter‐

ranean region.

On the last day, the participants attended a poster

and photography exhibition entitled “Archaeology

in Turkey” at Paoli Orsi Regional Archaeological

Museum, following a nice trip to Syracuse and the

island of Ortigia where they witnessed a small yet

impressive portion of the archaeological remains

in Sicily. The exhibition, organised by Catania Uni‐

versity and Eastern Mediterranean University and

supported by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism

of Turkey and the General Association of Mediter‐

ranean Archaeology, was held between the 5th and

21st of March, 2011. The posters included mostly

the Classical and Medieval sites of Anatolia and gave

a basic idea to the participants about some of the

current archaeological investigations in Turkey.

REVIEWS

30 e‐conservation

Such an intensive program is realized through the

strenuous efforts of the organizing and scientific

committees of the symposium, as well as the stu‐

dents of Catania University who worked voluntarily

at the registration and information desk. The or‐

ganizing committee was headed by Assoc. Prof.

Pietro Militello (Catania University) and Dr. Hakan

Öniz (Eastern Mediterranean University and GAMA)

and composed of Ceyda Öztosun (GAMA and East‐

ern Mediterranean University), Dr. Davide Tanasi,

Dr. Francesca Buscemi, Çiğdem Külekçioğlu (Boga‐

zici University) and Ali Kılıncbay (Eastern Mediter‐

ranean University). The scientific committee was

composed of: from the Catania University, Assoc.

Prof. Pietro Maria Militello, Assoc. Prof. E. Felici,

Assoc. Prof. M. Frasca and Assoc. Prof. P. Mazzoleni;

from the Selçuk University, Prof. Ahmet Adil Tırpan,

Assoc. Prof. Asuman Baldıran and Assist. Prof. Er‐

tekin Doksanaltı (GAMA); and Dr. Ehud Galili (Is‐

rael Antiquity Authority), Assoc. Prof. Carole Gillis

(University of Lund), and Dr. Evanghelos Kyriakidis

(University of Kent).

SOMA, hosted in previous years by several univer‐

sities from different countries including Kiev Uni‐

versity in Ukraine, Eastern Mediterranean Univer‐

sity in North Cyprus, Selcuk University, Istanbul

Technical University and Başkent University in Tur‐

key, Trinity College, Institute of Archaeology Uni‐

versity College of London, Universities of Glasgow,

Liverpool, Sheffield, Birmingham, and Edinburgh

in UK, will be held for the sixteenth time on March

1‐3, 2012 in Italy, host kindly provided by the Uni‐

versity of Florence. Following this organization, the

17th SOMA will be organized by the Russian Under‐

water Cultural Heritage Centre in April 2013. Both

organizations will be gladly supported by GAMA.

HAKAN ÖNIZEastern Mediterranean University

Contact: Hakan.oniz@emu.edu.tr

ÇIĞDEM KÜLEKÇIOĞLUBogazici University

Contact: cigdemkulekcioglu@gmail.com

During the poster session.

REVIEWS

e‐conservation 31

32 e‐conservation

REVIEWS

The annual Christmas Conservation Matters in

Wales Conference was held at Cynon Valley Mu‐

seum and Gallery Aberdare South Wales, on 15th

December 2010. The conference was organized by

National Museum Wales, The Federation of Mu‐

seums and Art Galleries of Wales and Cardiff Uni‐

versity. This year’s conference was titled “Conser‐

vation: Added Value” and consisted of seven pres‐

entations from a range of professionals working

across Wales and England.

The first of the presentations was from Emily O’Reil‐

ly, Senior Paper Conservator at National Museum

Wales, entitled “Place & Chips: reconstructing a

sketchbook ‐ but how do we display it?”. Emily

spoke about the challenges surrounding the dis‐

play of a sketchbook by Francis Place drawn in

1678. Emily explained that some of the drawings

were made from two or more separate sketches

joined together and then attached to a secondary

support of late 18th early 19th century woven pa‐

per. The sketches were removed from the second‐

ary mounts, this revealed that some of the pages

with sketches on either side were actually a con‐

tinuation of the first page and so formed a double‐

page spread. The sketches did not need extensive

treatment and were not washed.

It was decided not to display the sketches in a

traditional gallery setting, as this would have

had limited the number of sketches that could be

viewed. The decision was made to scan and digit‐

ally stitch the sketches back together, so that the

two sides could be shown as a whole and reveal

the panorama views drawn in 1678. Although the

conservation methods used on these sketches are

well established, scanning and digitally stitching

the sketches back together made a huge differ‐

ence to their display. These sketches can be viewed

at URL. Well worth a look!

Next up was David Pearson from Cardiff University.

David recently graduated from Cardiff University

with a BSc in the Conservation of Archaeological

and Museum Objects. He is now a conservator work‐

ing at Cardiff University. David’s Presentation was

titled ‘A Very Odd Dice: Reconstructing a Roman

Bone Dice’. David was given a Bone dice from New‐

port Museum as a project in his second year at

Cardiff. The dice had been on display at Newport

museum when someone had taken the dice and

decided to see how it would role. Needless to say

the dice was not in a good condition when it came

to David. In order to establish the level of damage

David drew a map of the dice highlighting dam‐

CONSERVATION MATTERS IN WALES

Review by Sarah Lawrence

December 15, 2010

Aberdare, Wales

Organised by:National Museum Wales, The Federation of

Museums and Art Galleries of Wales and

Cardiff University

Roman bone dice before damage.

The Value of Volunteers”, CSI standing for Con‐

servation Science Investigation. Courtney presen‐

ted the CSI: Sittingbourne Project. In May 2008,

archaeologists in Sittingbourne discovered 229

graves and around 2500 objects. This discovery

was of great signifi‐cance to the local community

but presented a massive conservation challenge.

In order to meet that challenge local volunteers

were utilized to help with the conservation work.

CSI: Sittingbourne was set up with help from loc‐

al professionals, local historians and the wider

community.

The volunteers were trained by conservators and

observed closely to make sure they had sufficient

skills to work on the objects. The project was a mas‐

sive success and could not have achieved all it did,

e‐conservation 33

REVIEWS

aged and missing areas. He decided consolidation,

adhesion and gap filling would be required to pre‐

pare the dice for going back on display. The dice

was injected twice with Butvar B98 5% Ethanol

to consolidate the bone. The adhesive used was

Lascaux 498HV and David then used Butvar B98

again along with micro balloons at a ratio of 1:3

for the gap fill and in painted the gap fills using

acrylic paints. The end result was impressive!

This dice defiantly benefited from conservation

and has had ‘value added’ to it especially from

the public’s perspective.

The next talk was given by Juliet Clay and was ti‐

tled ‘The dilemmas of a Book Conservator’. Juliet

is a self employed book conservator. Her talk ex‐

amined what dilemmas a book conservator can

come up against and how she overcame them.

Juliet takes the natural approach to conservation,

this means no solvents. Instead of synthetic

adhesives she tends to opt for natural adhesives,

animal glues, egg white and milk. Because of this

approach, Juliet does not need so much of the large

or expensive equipment an objects conservator

may otherwise need, such as a fume cupboard, etc.

Juliet works closely with her clients to achieve the

best option for them and the objects.

Courtney Buxey Brown gave the next talk. This was

on the wonderfully named “CSI: Sittingbourne ‐

Roman bone dice after rolling incident.

Roman bone dice during and after intervention.

without the help of the volunteers and the wider

community. If you wish to learn more about this

project please visit http://anglosaxoncsi.word‐

press.com/.

After lunch, the conference settled back down to

listen to Peter J. David’s talk titled “Conservators,

artist’s damage and value”. Peter is an accredited

ceramics conservator based in the South Wales

area and works on a large variety of ceramics. His

talk focused on how conservation can ‘add value’.

He has recently worked on contemporary ceramics,

illustrating the issues with these, for instance many

modern potters don’t glaze the ceramics and may

use materials such as car paint, which cause prob‐

lems like yellowing and can limit the treatment

options available to the conservator. He went on

to pose the question how do we define value? Is it

historical personal, rarity or are these all inter‐

linked? He also asked how does conservation ‘add

value’? It can have intangible results with some

people saying ‘it looked like it did before’, although

the structure is now sound. Peter also discussed

how much information can be found whilst con‐

serving an object and how this may add value to the

object. Peter’s talks are always very interesting and

ask important questions, opening up discussion

and debate, an important part of the conservation

process.

Next up was Sarah Paul, who is currently working

as Collections Adviser on Museums Archives and

Libraries Wales (CyMAL), with a talk called “Sig‐

nificance Model for Assessing Collections”. Sarah

spoke about Cymal’s plan to develop a significance

model for use on museum’s collections. Cymal

plan to develop the tools to help museums to

assess, and understand the significance of their

collections. They are aiming to undertake a pilot

project in one museum. Key values of this model

would be historic, artistic or aesthetic, scientific

or research potential, and social or spiritual sig‐

34

REVIEWS

nificance. This model could be applied to single

objects and to entire collections so it can be ad‐

apted to fit any size of collection. Sarah explained

that the model is aimed to aid curators and col‐

lections managers in assessing the importance

and relevance of their collection, and would also

help with the disposal of objects as well as acces‐

sioning.

The last speaker of the day was David Leigh, con‐

servation consultant. David’s talk was “Another

step towards professionalism? Conservation

standards”. He spoke on the importance of de‐

veloping standards in conservation. This topic is

most important in the development conservation

as a profession. David explained what is meant

by the term standard, how they are relevant in

many other professions and how they are vital

for the conservation community. However, he

also explained that standards are not meant to

control or suffocate conservators. Instead, they

are intended to be tools to help and guide, often

being supported by industry and reflecting cur‐

rent issues and practice.

The Conservation Matters in Wales’s Conferences

are always fascinating and well worth the £20

(£10 usually for students). This conference was

no exception. The next Conservation Matters in

Wales will be held on the 16th June 2011 in Na‐

tional Museum Cardiff Cathays Park.

SARAH LAWRENCEConservator‐restorer

Contact: sarahlawrence6@hotmail.co.uk

Sarah Lawrence graduated from Cardiff Univer‐

sity with a BSc in the Conservation of Archaeolo‐

gical and Museum Objects. She is currently work‐

ing as Historic Interiors Conservator for National

Museum Wales St. Fagans.

e‐conservation

Are you reading this?So is everybody else...

e­conservationline

For advertisingand other information on publicity,

please contact

general@e‐conservationline.com

and request a copy of our mediakit.

even

tsThe events in this section are linked to

the original homepage of the organisers

or to the calendar of events at

http://www.conservationevents.com.

Click on "Read more..." to find out

details about each event.

Aligning National Approaches toDigital Preservation

Date: May 23‐25 Read more...

Place: Tallinn, Estonia

This conference intends to provide a participa‐

tory forum for information exchange and fo‐

cused work on these topics for the purpose of

building international collaborations to sup‐

port the preservation of our collective digital

memory. The outcome will be a strategic align‐

ment of national approaches to enable new

forms of international cooperation and an

edited volume that documents an action plan

for building collaboration among interested

digital preservation initiatives.

4th symposium on PreservingArchaeological Remains in situ(PARIS4)

Date: May 23–26 Read more...

Place: Copenhagen, Denmark

After fifteen years of research and practical

application the time is ripe to evaluate the

efficacy of in situ preservation as a means of

managing the cultural resource. The key aim

of the conference is to present and discuss the

latest knowledge, focusing on long term studies

of degradation and monitoring of archaeolo‐

gical sites preserved in situ in urban, rural and

marine environments.

May

2011

From Can to Canvas

Early uses of house paints by Picasso and hiscontemporaries in the first half of the 20th century

Date: May 25‐27 Read more...

Place: Marseille and Antibes, France

This three‐day symposium will be the first to deeply

delve into the making of early house paints (and other

non‐artists' paints) and the meanings associated with

their use by artists before 1950. Studies of Ripolin®

brand house paint, said to have been used extensively

by Pablo Picasso (1881‐1973) and his contemporaries

will receive special attention.

May

2011

AIC 39th Annual Meeting: Ethos Logos Pathos

Ethical Principles and Critical Thinking in Conservation

Date: May 31 ‐ June 3 Read more...

Place: Philadelphia, PA, USA

The goal of this year's meeting is to examine how ethics,

logic, and perception guide conservation decisions. As‐

sumptions long held in the practice of conservation are

being challenged by the modern world. Environmental

sustainability, economic drivers, art as entertainment,

the use of cultural heritage, and public access concerns

changing the practice of conservation.

Re‐Thinking Technology in Museums 2011

Date: May 25‐27 Read more...

Place: Marseille and Antibes, France

In recent years, the increased presence of mobile smart

appliances and the growth of social media have impacted

on the strategies deployed by museums and exhibition

sites to invite, engage and connect with visitors and stake‐

holders. This conference will reflect on how museums/

galleries and visitors have been affected from an experi‐

ential point of view.

e‐conservation

e‐conservation

Conservation Matters in WalesUse and Misuse of Objects

Date: June 16 Read more...

Place: Cardiff, UK

This one day conference will consist of six

presentations, among which: "Working Machinery, Care

and Maintenance" by Paul Meredith (National Museum

Wales); "Tabernacl Chapel ceiling Pontypridd: Users and

abusers, past present and future" by Katie Hebborn

(Cardiff University); "Bringing National Trust Properties

to Life" by Clare Stoughton Harris (The National Trust).

University training of restoration withinthe European educational context

Date: June 1‐2 Read more...

Place: Litomysl, Czech Republic

The Colloquium will be organized in connection with the

comparative project of study methods used in conservation

/ restoration and syllabus of study at prestigious educa‐

tional institutions in Europe. Topics will include trends in

contemporary university education in the context of res‐

toration approaches in heritage preservation, alternative

forms of education for conservators/restorers, etc.

June

2011

EVENTS

June

2011

3D: digitise, deliver, discover

Date: June 6 Read more...

Place: Manchester, UK

Unlike most events of this kind which tend to be highly

specialised, 3D will be wide‐ranging and aimed at a broader

target audience, to include academics and students,

technical experts and digital novices with an interest in

digitisation. Over the course of the day, through a series

of case studies and panel discussions, we will explain,

develop and harness the needs of the initiator, maker

and user of digital content by exploring various themes.

ICE Forum (London 2011)International Curation Education Forum

Date: June 29 Read more...

Place: London, UK

The aim of this event is to provide an international

meeting place for educators, trainers, students and

practitioners of digital curation to: discuss, evaluate,

swap knowledge, and potentially improve practice

around an effective curricula and course design; the

production of advice and guidance materials, and the

creation and use of textbooks and scholarly material.

Prehistory at the cross roads of scienceand conservation

Date: June 18 ‐ July 2 Read more [pdf]...

Place: Quinson (Alpes de Haute‐Provence), France

Prehistoric sites represent assets facing serious challenges

in terms of research, interpretation and conservation,

and a UNESCO World Heritage Thematic Programme on

Prehistory was recently launched to address them in

terms of good practices. The Intensive Program aims at

developing a dialogue between scientists, teaching‐staff,

heritage professionals and students who will undertake

a career in such specialized fields.

Heritage ’11

The Second International Fair of conservation, restoration,

restoration of castles and historical buildings

Date: June 1‐3 Read more...

Place: Sremska Mitrovica, Serbia

The aim of the fair is to draw attention to local and

public cultural heritage in Serbia and the necessity of

raising awareness of the need for its protection in order

to preserve it for future generations, as well as how to

prepare for the use of funds of the European Union for

the Protection of Cultural Heritage.

37

e‐conservation magazine offers the possibility to publish bilingual articles in the html version. Articles inEnglish may also be published in French, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian and Romanian, at authors request.

arti

cles

AREAS OF PUBLISHING

Conservation TreatmentMural Painting

Painting

Stone

Sculpture

Textiles

Paper / Documents

Photography

Metals

Tile / Ceramic / Glass

Furniture

Music instruments

Ethnographic assets

Archeological objects

Conservation ScienceScientific research

Material studies and characterisation

Analytical techniques

Technology development

Biodeterioration

State‐of‐the‐art

Reviews

Preventive ConservationTheoretic principles

Case studies

Documentation in ConservationStandardisation

Documentation methods

Data management

Conservation TheoryEthics

Conservation History

Art History, Iconography,

Iconology, Chemistry, Physics,

Biology, Photography, Cultural

Management, Museology,

Computer Science, Legislation and

Juridical Processes, Conservation

Policies

and any other field applied to

Conservation and Restoration

of works of art.

Find out more: www.e‐conservationline.com

e‐conservation

OLD INTERVENTIONS

& NEW POSSIBILITIES

Applications of digital technologyin re‐conservation

This article examines re‐conservation of archaeological objects and presents the main

problematic aspects involved in such complex projects. Their analysis manifests the

technological needs and raises ethical issues. A methodological direction is proposed,

based on digital technology, which provides solutions to re‐treatment problems and

alternatives to traditional techniques. It does not intent to set principles, but to approach

high‐tech re‐conservation from a different perspective, following contemporary

conservation theory in order to determine the changes introduced to conservation from

the application of digital technologies.

By Eleni Kotoula

Introduction

The felicitous remark that a conservation interven‐

tion is an open window to the artefact’s past and

one of the most influential parameters for its fu‐

ture, underlines the necessity to fully understand

every operation as an episode of unique signifi‐

cance during its lifetime [1]. The increasing in‐

terest for earlier conservation treatments and

de‐restoration dilemma are thus justified [2].

Conservation in cooperation with conservation

science is obliged to meet the needs of successful

re‐treatment. Conservation theorists have discussed

the multi‐level relation of science and technology

with conservation. Physical sciences developed

techniques for diagnostic examination, archaeo‐

metry and characterisation of materials and the

application of scientific methodology in conserva‐

tion enforced objectivity. Nevertheless, the rela‐

tively unbalanced contribution of science in ‘resolv‐

ing dramatic conservation problems’ or, in other

words, the tendency to ‘keep away from the dan‐

gerous domain of practical conservation’ was cri‐

ticised in conservation literature, as well as the

damage caused by the unjustified sense of superi‐

ority of technology and, as a result, the ‘modern‐

isation’ of materials and processes without accurate

scientific justification [3]. Practical techniques

that meet the needs of complex treatment dilem‐

mas and bridge the gap between pure scientific

knowledge and useful solutions should be deve‐

loped, achieving high‐tech conservation with high‐

efficiency [4]. Research in the field of digital tech‐

nology is directed towards this approach. For ex‐

ample, at a European level the 3D‐COFORM project

develops 3D documentation and other applications

in cultural heritage professionals’ work [5].

Virtual and physical replication

Examining other methods of interpretation outside

the object offers an opportunity to conservators

to ‘understand the object better and to incorporate

a better interpretation of it into the treatment’,

considering that success in decision making de‐

pends on the conservators’ ability to distinguish

the ideal state [1]. Digital technology offers the

tools for the evaluation of such an interpretation.

Virtual and/or physical reconstruction comes in

accordance even with the strictest material fetish‐

ists concepts [6]. There is no doubt that replica‐

tion, either physical or virtual, acts as a preventive

conservation measure and contributes significantly

in education and dissemination. Fragile, special

and rare artefacts sometimes are not allowed to

travel for security and safety reasons, contrary to

physical replicas and virtual artefacts. Worth men‐

tioning is that the visual or written records are

responsible for the preservation of a vast amount

of knowledge from previous generations. Thanks

to replicas of artefacts, information related to

cultural heritage has been saved after natural

disasters or wars. The best approach in cases of

impossible preservation, such as uncontrollable

environmental conditions and extremely bad con‐

servation state, is to record, copy and store se‐

curely the replica or to replace the original with

the replica [7].

Digitisation and virtual reconstruction/restoration

of artefacts for conservation purposes is proposed

in various cases such as extreme dimensions and

weight, as well as in case of extremely fragile and

unstable artefacts [8]. Advanced computational

techniques offer tools for virtual recreation by

means of high‐fidelity ultra‐realistic modelling

of artefacts. The almost limitless possibility for

representation of the ideal state or a series of

preceding or future states, gains value in case of

impracti‐ cable or ethically forbidden operations,

by providing an alternative solution to treatment

dilemmas. Also, virtual artefacts can improve

decision making and enrich or justify treatment

proposals. Virtual reconstruction can restore the

e‐conservation 41

APPLICATIONS OF DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY IN RE‐CONSERVATION

aesthetic value of archaeological objects and si‐

multaneously enhance investigation and enable

better preservation. Digitisation and virtual re‐

construction of the current and the following state

fulfils documentation requirements and provides

better alternatives to traditional techniques. In

cases of physical reconstructions, the three‐dimen‐

sional model can map the correct position of each

fragment, instead of labelling. Conservation hy‐

pothesis can be tested virtually, avoiding the hand‐

ling required for traditional approaches. Other

promising options to be considered are the pho‐

tography‐based digital imaging techniques, such

as Reflection Transformation Imaging (RTI), be‐

cause they improve the accuracy of digital repres‐

entation and aid conservation [9]. PTM proved to

be a valuable tool and found numerous applica‐

tions in conservation recording and comparison,

analysis, representation and dissemination, in a

variety of material types [10].

Rapid prototyping has found numerous applica‐

tions in the cultural heritage sector [11]. It provides

solutions for documentation, and the condition

monitoring, structural gap filling storage and dis‐

play are superior to traditional moulding and cast‐

ing replication techniques because they do not

require contact with the original material. Previous

research gave encouraging results for gap‐filling

applications [12] while the experimentation for

colour enhancement [13] and control of the age‐

ing properties of rapid prototyping materials [14]

continues.

Documentation can be transferred to a new level

of excellence by means of digital technology. Tra‐

ditional recording or information preservation stra‐

tegies, namely drawing and photography, fail to

depict the amount of detail needed for conserva‐

tion purposes. Drawings and photographs are two‐

dimensional representations of three‐dimensional

objects, but digitisation and 3D modelling over‐

come this deficiency. Moreover, drawings depend

on the designer’s judgement. Consequently, the

level of objectivity of such records is questionable.

Non‐photorealistic rendering (NPR) presents a

more accurate record because it is influenced by

known computational limitations and not by un‐

predictable human perception.

Re‐conservation problems & High‐techConservation solutions

Excessive cleaning

Cleaning strategies have changed during the last

decades [15]. In the vast majority of previous

conservation, cleaning altered the appearance

of artefacts significantly by means of subtraction

of encrustations, corrosion layers, dust and other

particles depositions. For some material types,

such as bronze, excessive cleaning proved to be

responsible for severe damage [16]. Simultane‐

ously, deep cleaning destroyed data of great im‐

portance, such as residues of food in vessels, sensi‐

tive organic remains, engravings and inscriptions,

etc. For example, the archaeological evidence is

lost forever when pottery undergoes chemical

cleaning by means of strong acids solutions. Now‐

adays, semi‐, fully or non‐mineralised organic

matter as well as impressions on metals are sub‐

jected to thorough examination. However, Caple

reasonably states that previous generations un‐

derestimated this phenomenon and would have

proceeded to deep cleaning because for them ar‐

chaeological evidence consisted of different ele‐

ments [17]. A problem strongly related to the

change in conservation practice is the presence

of fragments that belong to the same artefacts

in different conservation states [18]. The identi‐

fication of fragments is a long‐lasting problem

in conservation. Sometimes it is impossible to

determine the correct positioning of each frag‐

ment or, even worse, to group some fragments

42 e‐conservation

ELENI KOTOULA

as parts of the same object. As a result, some frag‐

ments were deeply cleaned while others were left

in museum store‐rooms. Conservators face a prac‐

tical and ethical dilemma: aesthetics and/versus

authenticity and/versus preservation.

Virtual reconstruction offers almost limitless pos‐

sibilities for representation of preceding states,

which is useful in over‐cleaned artefacts and in

de‐conservation dilemmas. The treatment of re‐

cently discovered fragments, which belong to

deeply cleaned artefacts, can be focused on their

long‐term preservation, while the original appear‐

ance of the artefact can be appreciated in its di‐

gital version with respect to the authenticity.

Minimalist and anti‐minimalist opinions [19] co‐

exist, in accordance with ethics and contemporary

conservation theory, because this approach en‐

courages preservation of the original material and

presentation of its authentic appearance without

neglecting the history of the objects, expressed

via its previous restoration.

Extensive restorations:gap‐filling and retouching

Gap‐filling and retouching are among the most

common examples of extensive restorations, caus‐

ing aesthetic, structural and ethical problems. In

general, the aesthetics of restorations remain a

matter of subjective judgement and debate. Usu‐

ally the aesthetic result of an old restoration is

not satisfactory, not only due to the change in

taste but also to the presence of deficiencies, either

manufacture mistakes or deterioration effects.

Structural problems mainly derive from bad co‐

hesion between the original and the filling ma‐

terial, mainly caused by dimensional changes of

the filler, accompanied by cracks on the restored

gap. Consequently, there is a high possibility of

fracture and loss of original material. At the same

time, de‐restoration is a risky operation due to

e‐conservation 43

the application of physical forces and the use of

solvents. Moreover, even after removal of the pre‐

vious restoration, the artefact will have to face

another cycle of operations for gap‐filling purposes,

once again under physical and chemical pressure.

Traditional methods based on moulding and cast‐

ing techniques, require contact with the original

material endangering its safety. As a result, they

are not applicable in most fragile artefacts. Fur‐

thermore, extensive restoration raises ethical is‐

sues. Sometimes the filling hides original material,

which is not acceptable according to conservation

ethics. Another interesting case is the discovery

of fragments that belong to already filled areas

of artefacts [20]. The risk of the removal of the

restoration and the potential benefit of re‐treat‐

ment should be taken under consideration without

underestimating the significance of the previous

restoration for the object’s biography, even if it is

not appropriate by contemporary museum standards.

In artefacts with extensive gap filling and retouch‐

ing, virtual reconstruction restores the historical

truth. Advanced techniques, such as CAT (Com‐

puterized Axial Tomography) scanning, can be

used to reveal details of the original object, hid‐

den under the restoration, and as a result to rep‐

resent a state closer to the pre‐treatment one.

Computer‐aided fragment matching is useful for

decision making in case of de‐conservation oper‐

ations, where manual match testing is impossible.

In a recent article, matching of fragments based

on colour, shape and surface normal characteristics

leads to better results for deteriorated artefacts

than other computational approaches [21].

The virtual artefact overcomes aesthetic problems

of previous repairs, without exposing the original

artefact to risks of removal of old conservation

materials. In general, the debate about the aes‐

thetics of restorations and the de‐conservation

dilemma can be re‐examined virtually, enabling

APPLICATIONS OF DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY IN RE‐CONSERVATION

more objective decision making. If the structural

stability of the object is in danger, 3D modelling

and rapid prototyping can lead to the manufac‐

turing of a gap‐filling, without contact with the

object, reducing re‐restoration risks.

Inappropriate materials and treatmentmethodology

Collections condition surveys reveal failure of a

long list of conservation materials and techniques

widely used in the past as well as modern ones.

Joining problems, one of the most typical opera‐

tion applied in a large variety of material, demon‐

strates perfectly the negative effects of recon‐

struction failure. Even modern products’ deteri‐

oration, such as acrylic and vinyl adhesives, leads

to discoloration (yellowing), white blooming,

changes in volatility, solubility, tensile strength

and pH, decay and distress [22]. Finally, the ob‐

ject collapses, usually accompanied by loss of ori‐

ginal material and alteration of the fragments’

outline. The fracturing separates minor or small

parts of the fragment, adhered to the damaged

adhesive. This action signals an irreversible alter‐

ation, once it is impossible to remove adhesives

totally [23]. Whether this alteration threatens the

re‐treatability of the object depends on the extent

of lost material, considering that joining minor

pieces is impracticable. Virtual reconstruction of

artefacts and advanced preservation of archae‐

ological evidence can limit the use of chemicals,

such as adhesives, and, as a result, the amount

of reconstruction failure.

Fracture depends also on the insufficient support

provided to the material through direct and in‐

direct operations. Due to the lack of preventive

conservation measures (indirect actions) artefacts

excavated and conserved in the past followed a

considerably rapid aging. Mishandling and inap‐

propriate storage and display are factors of long‐

term deterioration, responsible for the vast ma‐

jority of damages after excavation. Apart from

the control of environmental conditions, appro‐

priate packaging is necessary in order to prevent

further deterioration. Artefacts found complete

and in good conservation state can suffer irre‐

versible damage due to bad environmental con‐

ditions and packaging materials. Inadequate cush‐

ioning introduces physical forces and can damage

objects. Fragments stored without special care are

usually found disintegrated after some years. Fresh

breaks appear and the outline of the fragments

changes due to loss of material. Virtual reconstruc‐

tion can limit the amount of handling and pace

the rate of deterioration. Rapid prototyping can

provide a packaging solution and consequently

can enhance preventive conservation measures.

Restoration such as gab‐filling falls in the category

of direct operations, which influence reconstruc‐

tion failure. The expansion of the ideas of minimum

intervention in the previous decades found fanatic

supporters and influenced everyday conservation

practice dramatically. Gap‐filling operations are

blamed as unnecessary interventions, which threat‐

en the authenticity. But the replacement of lost

material is crucial because it restores the object’s

aesthetic integrity in addition to its structural

strength [24]. The significance of the later was

ignored and limited structural support was provided

to incomplete artefacts or joined fragments res‐

ulting in fracturing, usually followed by further

damage. The successful implementation of adapt‐

able gap‐fillings, without affecting the material

integrity, will provide improved structural support

to fragile artefacts and, as a result, will limit sig‐

nificantly the amount of fracturing.

Discussion

The contemporary ideas of ‘minimal loss of poten‐

tial meanings’ [25] or ‘post‐minimal intervention’

44 e‐conservation

ELENI KOTOULA

[26] are embodied in the proposed re‐treatment

approach. The potential negative consequences

of conservation treatment, related both to the

material and to the non‐material aspect of arte‐

facts, are minimized. The interaction of the con‐

servator with the original physical artefact is lim‐

ited, reducing risks and potential damage. Worth

mentioning is that the human‐object interaction

follows decreasing rates in the last decades [27]

and was considered a characteristic feature of the

future conservator [3]. Virtual models of artefacts

enable better preservation and improve the re‐

treatability of original artefacts considerably. The

remedial operations on the authentic materials

are limited once revelation activities are mainly

executed virtually. The value of the object, its

intellectual meaning, is more protected and has

higher chances of correct interpretation because

the examination of the physical signs is enhanced

thanks to advances in digital tools. Thus, the origi‐

nal material is preserved in the most objective way

without being affected by subjective judgement.

Although the virtual artefact can be analysed and

interesting conclusions be reached, it fails to pre‐

serve the physical evidence of past civilisations [17].

Nevertheless, it also contributes in present and

future re‐investigation indirectly. The original

artefact is neither contaminated by chemicals

nor further deteriorated, so it is transferred in

an advanced re‐examinable state for future sci‐

entists. The potential benefit for material culture

specialists to study the virtual model offers the

opportunity for improved research, both qualit‐

atively and quantitatively.

The debate over the virtual versus the real expe‐

rience [28] is not synonymous to the debate over

the virtual versus the real artefact. The statement

that, by means of informational preservation, the

original object can become more dispensable for

some people [4] does not necessarily mean that

the original will be transformed to a less favour‐

able state. The virtual and the real are created to

fulfil different goals in different historical times

and under different circumstances, so their co‐

existence is necessary.

Conclusion

Digital technologies have vast potential in con‐

servation examination, analysis, interpretation,

treatment, documentation, presentation and dis‐

semination. Their application in re‐conservation

projects can be considered among the most in‐

teresting. The alternative methodology towards

re‐treatment presented in this article is strongly

influenced by recent developments in computer

science, but does not distance itself from conser‐

vation ethics. Not only it overcomes conservation

problems by providing alternative solutions, but

also addresses issues of interdisciplinary research.

This cooperative approach guides conservators to

problem solving and computer scientists to the

enhancement of digital technologies.

Acknowledgments

I am grateful to Dr. D. Ignatiadou, A. Kapizioni,

S. Athanasiadou and V. Michalopoulou of the Ar‐

chaeological Museum of Thessaloniki and to Dr.

G. Earl of the Archaeological Computing Research

Group of the University of Southampton.

References

[1] B. Appelbaum, Conservation Treatment Metho‐

dology, Butterworth‐Heinemann, Amsterdam/

Boston, 2007

[2] E. Pye, “Archaeological Conservation: Scientific

Practice or Social Process", in Conservation Prin‐

45e‐conservation

APPLICATIONS OF DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY IN RE‐CONSERVATION

ciples, Dilemmas and Uncomfortable Truths,

Butterworth‐Heinemann, Oxford, 2009, pp.

129‐138

[3] A. Melucco Vaccaro, P. Coremans, G. Torraca,

and G. Urbani, “The Role of Science and Techno‐

logy”, in Historical and Philosophical Issues in

the Conservation of Cultural Heritage, Getty

Conservation Institute, Los Angeles, 1996, pp.

424‐450

[4] S. Muñoz‐Viñas, Contemporary Theory of

Conservation, Butterworth‐Heinemann, Oxford,

2005

[5] D. Arnold, “3D‐COFORM: Tools and Expertise

for 3D Collection Formation”, in EVA 2009, 2009,

pp. 94‐99, available at URL [pdf]

[6] J. Ree, “Auto‐Icons”, in Conservation Princi‐

ples, Dilemmas and Uncomfortable Truths, But‐

terworth‐Heinemann, Oxford, 2009, pp. 1‐5

[7] C. Caple, Conservation Skills Judgement,

Method and Decision Making, Routledge, Lon‐

don, 2000

[8] A. Geary and E. Howe, “Three‐dimensional

documentation and virtual restoration of the

Lichfield Angel”, Journal for the Institute of

Conservation 32 (2) 2009, pp. 165‐179, doi:

10.1080/19455220903059875

[9] M. Mudge, C. Schroer, G. Earl, K. Martinez, H.

Pagi, C. Toler‐Franklin, S. Rusinkiewicz, G. Alma,

M. Wachowiak, M. Ashley, N. Matthews, T. Noble

and M. Dellepiane, “Principles and Practices of

Robust, Photography‐based Digital Imaging

Techniques for Museums”, The 11th International

Symposium on Virtual Reality, Archaeology and

Cultural Heritage VAST, The Louvre, Paris, 2010,

available at URL

[10] G. Earl, K. Martinez, T. Malzbender, “Archae‐

ological applications of polynomial texture map‐

ping: analysis, conservation and representation”,

Journal of Archaeological Science 2010, 37, 8,

pp. 2040‐2050, doi:10.1016/j.jas.2010.03.009,

available at URL

[11] J. A. Logan, R. L.Barclay, P. Bloskie, C. Newton,

and L. Selwyn, “Saving the Ferryland Cross: 3D

Scanning, Replication, and Anoxic Storage”, in

E. Williams and C. Peachey (ed.), The Conser‐

vation of Archaeological Materials: Current

Trends and Future Directions, BAR International

Series 2116, Archaeopresss, Oxford, 2010, pp.

127‐134

[12] M. Fantini, F. Crescenzio, F. Persiani, S. Benazzi,

and G. Gruppioni, “3D restituition, restoration

and prototyping of a medieval damaged skull”,

Rapid Prototyping Journal 14(5), 2008, pp. 318‐

324

[13] R. Scopigno, R. Pintus, E. Gobbetti, and P.

Cignoni, “Color Enhancement for Rapid Proto‐

typing”, The 9th International Symposium on

Virtual Reality, Archaeology and Cultural Herit‐

age, Eurographics, 2008, pp. 9‐16, available at

URL [pdf]

[14] C. Tröger, A.T. Bens, G. Bermes, R. Klemmer,

Ricarda, J.Lenz, and S. Irsen, “Ageing of acrylate‐

based resins for stereolithography: thermal and

humidity ageing behaviour studies”, Rapid Proto‐

typing 14(5), 2008, pp. 305‐317

[15] A. Oddy, “The Philosophy of Restoration:

New for Old”, Conserving Textiles: Studies in the

Honour of Agnes Timar‐Balazsy, ICCROM, 2009,

pp. 117‐123

[16] J. Basset and W.T. Chase, “Considerations in

the Cleaning of Ancient Chinese Bronze Vessels”,

ELENI KOTOULA

46 e‐conservation

Ancient & Historic Metals: Conservation and

Scientific Research, The J. Paul Getty Trust,

1994, pp. 63‐74

[17] C. Caple, “The Aims of Conservation”, in

Conservation Principles, Dilemmas and Uncom‐

fortable Truths, Butterworth‐Heinemann, Oxford,

2009, pp. 25‐31

[18] D. Ignatiadou, personal communication,

2010

[19] E. Wetering, The surface of objects and mu‐

seum style, Getty Conservation Institute, Los

Angeles, 1981)

[20] D. Ignatiadou, “Two cast glass vessels from

Derveni”, Sti mnimi Manoli Adronikou Etaireia

Makedonikon Spoudon, 1997, pp. 105‐114

[21] C. Toler‐Franklin, S. Rusinkiewicz, T. Funk‐

houser, T. Weyrich and B. Brown, “Multi‐Feature

Matching of Fresco Fragments”, ACM Transactions

on Graphics (Proc. SIGGRAPH Asia), 2010, avail‐

able at URL [pdf]

[22] C. V.Horie, Materials for conservation: or‐

ganic consolidants, adhesives, and coatings,

Butterworths, London, 1987

[23] S.P. Koob, "Poly (vinyl acetate) and acrylic

adhesives: a research update", in Holding it all

together ancient and modern approaches to join‐

ing, repair and consolidation, Archetype, London,

2009, pp. 113‐119

[24] S. Buys and V. Oakley, The Conservation and

Restoration of Ceramics, Butterworth‐Heinemann,

Oxford, 1993

[25] S. Muñoz‐Viñas, “Minimal Intervention Re‐

visited”, in Conservation principles, dilemmas

and uncomfortable truths, Butterworth‐Heine‐

mann, Oxford, 2009, pp. 47‐59

[26] C. Villers, “Post minimal intervention”, The

Conservator 28(1), 2004, pp. 3‐10

[27] J. Ashley‐Smith, “The Basis of Conservation

Ethics”, in Conservation principles, dilemmas and

uncomfortable truths, Butterworth‐Heinemann,

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[28] M. Cassar, Value of preventive conservation,

Centre for Sustainable Heritage, 2006

ELENI KOTOULAConservator‐restorer

Contact: e.t.kotoula@hotmail.com

Eleni Kotoula earned her BSc in Conservation

from the Technological Educational Institution of

Athens, Greece in 2007, her MSc in Archaeological

Computing (Virtual Pasts) from the University of

Southampton, UK in 2009. Her master thesis was

focused on virtual reconstruction and ageing ana‐

lysis of a glass, an enamelled metal and a painted

ceramic from the collection of the Archaeological

Museum of Southampton. She has worked as mu‐

seum conservator (painted surfaces, wood, bone,

textile, metal, glass, stone, ceramic), in monu‐

ments‐archaeological sites (wall painting, mor‐

tar, stone) and participated in research projects.

Her PhD examines the application of advanced

computational techniques for conservation docu‐

mentation, analysis, examination and presenta‐

tion of artefacts derived from the Derveni cemetery,

located in the Archaeological Museum of Thessa‐

loniki, Greece.

APPLICATIONS OF DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY IN RE‐CONSERVATION

47e‐conservation

MUSEUMS OF TECHNOLOGYBridges of cultural identity

By Johannis Tsoumas

Introduction

The importance of technology in the historical

development of the human race may prove to be

catalytic, as it seems to be the cornerstone of our

cultural architecture. The interest of this research

is focused on the cultural value of technology

museums worldwide: it does not have an unequi‐

vocal part nor is it limited by museology hermetic

clichés, as is often the case with museums of

different subjects of interest. Instead, it aims to

reveal its international dimensions by literally

breaking its national character.

Attention will be drawn to several elements which

will be observed through short, but pertinent

references to selected exhibit categories and a

number of views will be expressed in order to help

the reader realize the universal importance of these

cultural establishments that form the basis of in‐

stitutions, ideologies and experiences for the

whole humanity.

Technology and Culture

In History, the three major phases of human evol‐

ution, nomadic, agricultural and industrial ages,

determine the conditions of reflection which

arises when we approach the cultural, spiritual

and social identity of a nation. Looking at the

production of material life, we realize that this

seems to determine the general nature of the

political, social and spiritual context in which the

human species moves and develops. Thus, we can

suggest the Asiatic, the ancient, the feudal and the

modern production as the main eras of progress

of the cultural formation of a society [1]. All this

when seen through the prism of social anthropo‐

logy can readily refer to the value of technology

as a backbone for reading, analyzing and under‐

standing the culture of a society.

What is the role of technology in the effort to de‐

code this culturally‐formed social identity? What

are the historical criteria, evidence and physical

or ideological values which can help us reveal this

identity? Here the Museum of Technology is

presented as an important reference point in this

quest as it is considered an undeniable source of

information, tools, images, objects and activities

that opposes the status quo of other types of

museums around the world established since the

18th century [2].

The above axiom could be established by focusing

our interest in each of the above areas separately,

but this would be the beginning of a deep and

extensive research on building up a Museum of

Technology, which is beyond the objective of this

article. Instead, we will focus our attention on

49e‐conservation

MUSEUMS OF TECHNOLOGY

This article focuses in the meaning of Museums of Technology, not only as repositories of historic traces

of technology, but also in their importance as cultural evidence of a nation. Having focused on the

necessity of Museums of Technology as crucial means of culture and civilization up to the point that they

may consist in a landmark for the cultural identity of a people, this article tries to discuss the

understanding of the importance of the museum exhibits. However, in the final conclusions it is shown

that except from their local or even national value, these Museums can reveal, through their treasures,

the importance of culture universality which nowadays is meant to constitute the basic bridge of

civilization between all the nations and the peoples of the world.

only one, however basic, scientific field to under‐

stand some of the parameters, overt or otherwise,

that determine the establishment of this very

important institution. This field is the objects on

display.

Key areas of exhibits

This customarily conducted scientific process of

selecting objects in a museum broadly follows the

hereunder order: after collecting objects for dis‐

play among prospective objects, they are at first

evaluated while their registration and document‐

ation comes next. Their categorization and group‐

ing is the last, although important, stage of the

selection process and are always in relation not

only to species, but also to the number of avail‐

able items; namely, two items that are usually

formed depending on the region, culture, history,

public awareness and many more features [3].

However, what are the main areas or categories of

exhibits in a Museum of Technology under which an

object may be regarded as an agent of social and

technological culture? In order to illustrate this,

some few examples are mentioned.

One crucial area that includes objects representing

the technological, social and cultural identity of

a nation is the area of rural culture that can be

divided into two major areas: a) the traditional

technology which includes all the manual objects –

from a design and functional point of view – made

for producing processes based on the timeless

values of the vernacular tradition (figure 1) and b)

the modern technology, which includes objects,

services and/or systems that are indicative ele‐

ments of the contemporary development of

technical know‐how [4].

The energy sector is another important area for

obtaining information on the enrichment of sci‐

entific research and of correlation points of tech‐

nology with the cultural identity of a nation. Not

only do the systems, items or use from the past

constitute still references to the cultural identity of

a nation, but they also reveal their cross‐cultural

importance, making it one of the major areas of

world heritage (figure 2).

It is also worth noting the transport sector, which

stretches from the use of animals to the coaches

(figure 3) and from the flying machine of Leonardo

da Vinci to the achievements of the Right brothers.

The value of the railway era, which allowed the

transport of raw materials, products and human

populations based on steam power since the 1830’s,

is another important milestone [5].

50 e‐conservation

Figure 1. Various objects for rural activities from the early 20th

century. Technological Museum of Drama, Greece.

Figure 2. A collection of interwar machinery used in energyproduction. Technological Museum of Drama, Greece.

JOHANNIS TSOUMAS

51e‐conservation

Figure 3. Old but well maintained hand‐painted horse carriage from the early 20th century, southern Italy.

Figure 4. Home and work objects showing the traditional way of life of the late 19th century, Greece.

MUSEUMS OF TECHNOLOGY

Elements of folklore and popular tradition, his‐

torically documented through the state of the

art, but also from other scientific approaches,

such as ethnographic and anthropological ones,

arise from items on the domestic culture, also

comprising the case of cottage industry. Utensils,

equipment, appliances, tools and energy, among

many other elements, add up to the irrefutable

evidence of an encrypted microcosm, which can

be easily decoded in the show cases of a Museum

of Technology (figure 4).

Information, knowledge and briefing are values

that came to be the driving force of empowerment,

stimulation, fixation or control of the masses

and have their roots in the emergence of typo‐

graphy in the 15th century. Thus, documentation

which comprise from books to leaflets but also in

any other form or media, becomes another ambigu‐

ous area that can reveal the cultural identity of a

nation [6] (figure 5).

The communications sector is one of the most

important sectors that illustrate the evolution of

humanity as its history begins with the signs of

human life. Since the symbols of cave paintings,

but also since the primitive calendar until its

contemporary form, modern communications are

considered as primary factors that influence the

most important and fundamental facts of human

history. In fact, in most museums of Technology

this area covers the greatest proportion of the

historical evolution of telecommunications, es‐

pecially after 1830 when the first fixed semaphore

systems started to emerge during the Industrial

Revolution in Europe. Telegraph, telephone, radio,

52 e‐conservation

Figure 5 (above). Book engraving depicting the Taylor’ssteam pump, England, 1840.

Figure 6 (right). TV set reflecting the social, technologicaland aesthetical values of the late 1940’s America.

JOHANNIS TSOUMAS

television and later computer networks and the

Internet are among the major stations, from

both a historical and technological aspect, in

local, national or international course of the

concept of culture, being at the same time multi‐

dimensional sources of information for develop‐

ment [7] (figure 6).

An equally important assumption is the photo‐

graphic material that may complement worthy

information supplied by the original objects, and

enables us to know the broader context within

which the historical technological progress has

evolved. Of course, we refer to places that hosted

occasional industrial or small industrial units be‐

longing to the field of industrial architecture and

objects which are inaccessible. Of vital importance,

from a folk or anthropological perspective, is the

photographic material that documented the per‐

sonnel, either skilled or unskilled, as well as of

their lifestyle in general (figure 7).

The internationalization of a Museum ofTechnology

By analyzing the question of the evolution of

technology through a wide range of exhibits of a

museum of this type, we find specific types of

utilitarian objects whose existence is found in

many different, cultures in the course of centuries:

the tools such as scissors and knifes and the ac‐

cessories such as the coulter and straps. We may

also notice that their functionality, despite several

changes they have been subjected to from the

beginning of their emergence, remains unaltered,

certifying the classic sense of the vernacular tra‐

dition. This concept leads us to accept the temporal

dynamics of operational tools and accessories to

a large extent on the culture upon which not only

the current industrial principles relied, but most

important, the evolution of mankind. Thus, it is

not hard to find strong correlations between the

History of Technology and Anthropology. Also, from

53e‐conservation

Figure 7. Photograph depicting people working (sponge collection before given to industry), Greece, 1950.

MUSEUMS OF TECHNOLOGY

the perspective of the concept of nation and cul‐

tural identity, we find that the tools and accessor‐

ies have always been a common base of functional

and cultural value to all nations and in all eras of

world history [8].

Although the idea of organizing museum came

late in the 18th century and burgeoned during

the 19th century, the era of nationalist ideal,

nowadays a Museum of Technology is the culmin‐

ation of the cultural history upholding with its

exhibits an absolute opposition towards any form

of nationalism. The objects of such museum col‐

lections proclaim in an irrefutable way the concept

of universality of technology, promoting the idea

of unity between peoples, and the assumption of

common human needs across the whole history.

Today, globalization has dramatically formed the

pace of change of our world to such an extent that

it has most closely unbreakably linked the local,

national element with the global element. For this

reason, we can say that a Museum of Technology

can help shape a sense of cultural identity that is

no longer defined by national borders. Over that,

however, one may counter‐argue the Marxist theory

in which technology has always been synonymous

with cultural imperialism [9].

Many of the exhibits of a Technology Museum are

historical evidence of the validity that the states

or nations that pioneered science and technology

have had. Apart from their economic supremacy

(interpreted in terms of production / business and

commerce), their militaristic omnipotence (derived

from the advanced technology and know‐how), it

also enabled them to assert their authority, con‐

trol, claim and / or subordinate the less powerful

cultures. Among the prime examples is the case in

England which, after the technological and sci‐

entific flourishing during the Industrial Revolu‐

tion, conquered the world [10].

Through the exhibits and depending on the era ‐

cultural, social and political context of the place

where they were found ‐ we discover that techno‐

logy has been the springboard of recommendations

of new ways of life as it introduced evolution models

that were immediately accepted, mainly by the

upper social strata who had easier access to tech‐

nological innovations.

Through processing and, in many cases, craft

items such as the sewing machine and the first

radios, or services such as the telephone and the

telegraph, the technological innovations are a

challenge for a separate road to the "fair living",

which spread to all social areas of the world during

the 20th century.

Therefore, the 20th century and particularly its

second half was the scope of the spirit of global

technological development in almost the entire

social hierarchy of developed and developing na‐

tions of the world. Plastic items, television, mass

transport, telecommunications and the Internet

are just some of the effects of technological and

cultural pursuits, which not only did replace the

traditional patterns of life, but also bridged in

some way, the social classes gaps, at least in

terms of consumption, such as mass and cheap

ways of entertainment, communication and in‐

formation.

A museum exhibit with technological value provides

not only information relating to the purely tech‐

nical origin of the collection but it also constitutes

an unmistakable mirror that reflects, through an

interdisciplinary approach factors that complement

its historic value. The science of Physics, Chemistry,

Mathematics, Anthropology, Sociology, Ethno‐

logy and the History of Business, Industrial Archi‐

tecture and Design are just some of the disciplines

of analysis and extrapolation of the History of

54 e‐conservation

JOHANNIS TSOUMAS

Technology, which ultimately may not be seen as

autonomous from its primary fields, as these are

often important areas of research [11].

Finally, the issue of greatest importance on envir‐

onment is an important incentive for many eco‐

logically‐informed and/or sensitized visitors, but

mainly scientists and researchers who consider

these exhibits as an ideal source of information and

knowledge for the discovery of responsibility that

lies with technology in the world’s desperate

attempt to find solutions. This is another example

of the contribution of a Museum of Technology in

decoding the cultural identity of a state, a nation or

ultimately the entire world map, as it undoubtedly

bridges the actual incompatibility of the historical

reality with the already common, international

values and new perspectives.

Conclusions

In conclusion, we can highlight the multidimen‐

sional importance of Technology Museums as agents

of a major international heritage which is the

birthplace and evolution of human intelligence

and creativity. From an ideological point of view,

these museums seem to undermine any national‐

ist belief that has almost always been a barrier to

any attempt to fruitful dialogue, objective scientific

research or cultural research. At the same time,

they promote the democratic concept of equality,

fairness and social equation between peoples,

especially when talking about the societies of

the Western world, namely where the history of

technology has gone through much of the progress

so far. In addition, a cultural value is not a simple

field or a historical retrospective nor is it one

more occasion for the study of the past among

academic circles or actual researchers. Instead,

it is an important tool intended to help us to re‐

search, to study and to address several key con‐

temporary issues of global concern.

55e‐conservation

References

[1] E. Gellner, Nations and Nationalism, Blackwell

Publishing, New York, 2006, pp. 52‐54

[2] J. A. Armstrong, Nations before Nationalism,

Chapell Hill, N.C., 1982, pp. 292

[3] ICOM CIMUSET International Bulletin / Interna‐

tional Committee of Museums of Science and Tech‐

nology 1, Narodni Technicke Muzeum, Praha, 1975

[4] A. Dimarogkonas, Η Ιστορία της Τεχνολογίας,η Βιομηχανική Επανάσταση (μέχρι το 1890) (The

History of Technology, the Industrial Revolution

(until 1890)), Macedonian Publications, Athens,

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[5] J. Heskett, Industrial Design, Thames and

Hudson, London, 1980, p. 128

[6] J. Tsoumas, Η Ιστορία των ΔιακοσμητικώνΤεχνών και της Αρχιτεκτονικής στην Ευρώπηκαι την Αμερική (1760‐1914) (The History of the

Decorative Arts and Architecture in Europe and

America (1760‐1914)), ION Publications, Athens,

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[7] C. Chatenet, Les Télégraphes chappé, L’ Ecole

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[8] E. Paraskevopoulos, Κοινωνία­Εκπαίδευση­Περιβάλλον, Οικολογία­Κοινωνία­Εκπαίδευση:πραγματικότητα και προοπτικές στην Ελλάδα(Society‐Education‐Environment, Ecology‐Society‐

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Athens, 1996, p. 39

[9] T. Putnam, Household Choices, Futures Public‐

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MUSEUMS OF TECHNOLOGY

e‐conservation56 e‐conservation

[10] R. Layton, The anthropology of art, F. Terza‐

kis (ed.), 21st Century Publications, Athens,

2003, pp. 66‐67

[11] P. Woodhead, Museum Studies. A Guide to

Library Resources, Leicester University, Leicester,

1978, p. 48

JOHANNIS TSOUMAS

CALL FOR SUBMISSIONS

e‐conservation magazine is open to submission

of articles on a wide range of relevant topics

for the cultural heritage sector.

Next deadlines for article submission are:

for Issue 20, June 2011 – submissions due

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JOHANNIS TSOUMASArt and Design Historian

Contact: iannis33@hotmail.com

Johannis Tsoumas was born in Piraeus, Greece in

1963. His strong interest in Art led him to study

abroad, namely HND and B.A. Hons in 3D Design

and a M.A. in the History of Design at the Middle‐

sex University, London. Later he pursued a PhD

in the field of The Decorative Arts and Architec‐

ture in the U.S.A. and Europe of the 19th century

at the Aristoteleion University, Greece. He has

published two books ‐ “The History of the Dec‐

orative Arts and Design” and “The emergence of

plastics culture in Greece 1950‐1970” and the

third, "The role of women in the Greek magazines

advertisements in the 60's", is on the way. He is

currently working as an Art and Design Historian

at the Hellenic Open University and at the Tech‐

nical and Educational Institute of Athens.

THE STREET IN THE PHOTOGRAPHY FROM THE 19TH AND

EARLY 20TH CENTURY AS MEAN OF ART OR SCIENCE

By Maria Bostenaru

Introduction

The understanding of the world which can be

achieved through science is exceeded by that

which can be done by means of art. In this paper

we will focus on the landscape photography in the

archive of the Romanian art historian Tzigara‐

Samurcas and his 100 years old collection. The

landscape of the street was chosen as it repres‐

ents a combination between the life frame, the

container offered by architectural elements, and

the life way, the event which takes place in this

public space, without loosing sight of the inter‐

dependence between the two. For this reason,

apart of the documentary value of the photo‐

graphy regarding the physical frame and its com‐

positional elements, an artistic value is needed to

allow psychological access to the evoked world.

The film critic André Bazin once wrote that “if the

history of the plastic arts is less a matter of their

aesthetic than of their psychology then it will be

seen to be essentially the story of resemblance, or,

if you will, of realism” [1]. Along this, an essay

of Siegfried Krakauer about photographic real‐

ism and avant‐garde was republished, who was

concerned in his early times with architecture and

urbanism, and devoted himself to philosophy,

sociology and film [1] in the Weimar time.

Krakauer [2] calls photography "mirror with a

memory" in the context of the photographic

realism of the 19th century, which coincided with

the positivism in the same century in France, fa‐

vouring science in front of the metaphysic spec‐

ulation, in full time of industrialization. This

photographic realism current persists till today

[2]. According to the same author, the photo‐

graphy at its beginning was born under "a lucky

star" through its capacity to serve both arts and

science [2]. The wish to know and the search for the

beautiful are interpenetrating when we regard a

photograph [3]. Since the time of Daguerre, pho‐

tographs are considered authentic documents [3].

In the realist manifesto from 1856 it is stated that

"the artist's attitude toward reality should be so

impersonal that he might reproduce the same

subject ten times without any of his copies show‐

ing the slightest difference" [3]. Krakauer makes

reference in this context to the perception of the

photographer by Proust ("The Guermantes Way"):

"each face that we love [is] a mirror of the past"

but we see it in the same place in our soul, through

involuntary memories that superpose themselves

[3]. The emotional detach is one of the virtues

of the photographer in Proust’s vision, seen as in

the 19th century, "keeping a mirror in front of the

nature" [2]. It is the "illusion by a mechanical

58 e‐conservation

Art makes accessible to us worlds that we cannot understand through science. We focus on the street

landscape in photography from the 19th‐20th century, applying concepts from the philosophy of

photography. The concepts applied in this analysis are from Arnheim, Baudelaire, Bazin, Krakauer,

Warburton, and Snyder & Walsh Allen. Various aspects of realism in photography at its beginnings are

discussed. Examples are given on how archive photography, on the example of the Tzigara‐Samurcas

collection and notable photographers such as Sommer and Genthe, is used for documentary reasons. For

example, in restoration interventions or after events such as earthquakes to evoke the original image of

the streetscape or to document the damages. The future of documentary photography with today’s

digital possibilities is also discussed. Considerations on photography as “souvenir” and about

“microlandscape” photographs, such as family photographs that become documents, are also discussed.

Street photography is a kind of photography of “chance meeting” of people crowds and vehicles.

Photography is a “door” of access to memory.

MARIA BOSTENARU

as a "document", as opposite from that of "art",

Snyder and Allen stated that "the documentary

value of a photograph is not determined solely by

Arnheim's questions of ‘authenticity,’ ‘correct‐

ness,’ and ‘truth’. We can also ask what it means,

who made it, for whom was it made, and why it was

made in the way it was made", which are common

questions for any document, including artistic

documents and not only for photographic docu‐

ments [4].

Krakauer [2] gives some examples of the applica‐

tion of photography realism in science, which

stands out even though the aspect of exactness

is in the record of the detail and not that of the

memory. Snyder and Allen [4] give examples of the

application of photography in science in which the

artistic aspect is lacking and where there is the need

for an adequate education to understand the codi‐

fication belonging to this, affirming that there are

manuals, but also options included in some pho‐

tographic cameras for photography methods ad‐

equate for different fields, including architecture

[4]. Especially in the case of historic photography,

such as that of the 19th century pho‐tography or the

one of the interwar time one, the memory aspect

is useful for the researcher of today. Photographs of

the interwar Bucharest such as those of Nicolae Ion‐

escu [7] became the object of albums and postcards

that serve the nostalgia of that time of the history

of Romania, but are also an important research ele‐

ment of the interwar architecture, of the way how

these buildings characteristic for the image of the

Bucharest centre appeared at the moment of their

construction, the closest to the vision of the archi‐

tect. Thus, the photograph of the Balcescu Boul‐

evard on which the Carlton block of flats can be

seen presents the stylistic unity of the boulevard

before this was affected by earthquakes [7].

The Carlton block of flats collapsed in the 1940

earthquake and many others collapsed totally or

reproduction in the making of which man plays no

part", a psychological explanation through which

the solution of realism was found in the process

and not in the result [1].

In the reproduction of the subject the man is ab‐

sent, with effect on the psychology of the image

and its credibility; the documentary value, which

seems bigger than in case of a drawing, is given

by the process through which the image is born, it

"is the model" [1]. Bazin proposes the study of the

rivalry between drawing and photography in the

magazines from 1890‐1910 to see that the "feel‐

ing for the photographic document developed

only gradually" [1]. Snyder and Allen are against

the idea according to which painting and photo‐

graphy ask for different methods of interpretation

because they are differently generated [4].

In order to discuss the idea they started with a

historic view since 1889 when Emerson classified

photographs in scientific ones, which offer inform‐

ation, and artistic ones, which offer aesthetic

pleasure [4]. Snyder and Allen mention that

Stanley Canvell argued in the 1970s about the

value without subjectivity of photography [4],

statement that is connected by the authors them‐

selves to the affirmations of Bazin [1], through

automatism. Warburton [5], quoting Bazin [1],

notes that the philosophy of photography at the

end of the 20th century is based on the French

theory of the realist film.

The authenticity of photography is also underlined

by Arnheim [6], connected to the "documentary"

value in relationship with which we pose ourselves

questions if the photography is "authentic", "cor‐

rect" or "true" [6]. However, Snyder and Allen

[4] state that Arnheim [6] does not do anything

but to take over ideas about which Krakauer and

Bazin wrote [1, 2], republished in 1980 by Trach‐

tenberg. Refering to the value of a photograph

59e‐conservation

THE STREET IN PHOTOGRAPHY AS MEAN OF ART OR SCIENCE

60 e‐conservation

partially in the 1977 earthquake. Some buildings

from those partially collapsed, such as the "Simu"

block of flats, were rebuilt as they were while

in others, such as the "Wilson" or the "Turist"

(formerly "Palladio") block of flats, the corner

was changed. The vision of the architects of the

interwar time can be best understood from the

photographs of that epoch, and it is a support for

the research in history of architecture [8]. In the

same way it can be understood which typologies

were the most vulnerable to earthquakes, a use‐

ful research instrument apart of the photographs

after the event. Photographs from the Modernism

period in Germany became particularly useful in

the research before restoration interventions such

as, for example, the Muche – Schlemmer house of

Gropius in Dessau [9], where there were interven‐

tions which radically changed the shape of the

whole facade [10] (Figure 1). Similar approaches of

reconstruction were done with the Loos house in

Vienna and would be needed for the house Vaida‐

Comsa, architect Rudolf Fränkel on Zorileanu

street, Bucharest. On the other hand, photogra‐

phy in its early times did not have the memory of

colour, which led to the false impression that Mod‐

ernism was an architecture of the white [11], an

idea infirmed by the studies of colour stratigraphy

(and that of the drawing sketches of the architects)

as shown, for example, in a study from Casa del

Fascio [12].

Some critics see in the extension of digital pho‐

tography the fact that the days of documentary

photography are in their countdown, given the

possibilities of manipulation and the lack of a

physical archive of the initial image [6]. Despite

this, the manipulation of the digital photography

gives new possibilities. For example Randolph

Langenbach juxtaposed in "The Piranesi Project,

a Stratigraphy of Views of Rome" some engravings

of Giambattista Piranesi from ca. 1750 with com‐

binations of digital photography edited into a

Figure 1. Walter Gropius's Muche‐Schlemmer House, built in Dessau in 1927, was refurbished and reopened in 2002.

MARIA BOSTENARU

61e‐conservation

single image. Langenbach [12] explains the du‐

rability in time of the “Vedute”, the engraved

views of Piranesi of historical sites, through the

fact that he captured the spirit of the place in

order to present antique Rome to those who have

the occasion to visit Rome. More than that: the

images were not merely touristic but Piranesi, as

quoted by Langenbach [13], wished to conserve

these images for the eternity. The tourism gen‐

erated by Piranesi’s Vedute lead in fact to a fac‐

tual conservation [13]. The images surprise more

than the objective of a photo camera does, given

that the point of view of the painter can move dur‐

ing the painting process. Digital photography also

makes now possible such perspectives and the com‐

parison of the engraved archive with the contem‐

porary situation of the ruins, very similar in this

case. It is a new truth, that of the spirit of the place,

which comes close to the one in painting, and a

new possibility of documentary photography [13].

The Tzigara‐Samurcas archive

Between November 2007 and March 2010 we had

the occasion to work at the digitization and invent‐

orying of the Alexandru Tzigara‐Samurcas archive,

dated approximately 1904 [14, p. 18‐23]. The ar‐

chive contains glass slides collected by Tzigara‐

Samurcas in his journeys in Romania and abroad.

The glass slides represent architecture and land‐

scapes but also paintings and reproductions of

drawings. Some years ago, when digital photo‐

graphy was not yet so widespread, souvenir shops

were offering slide series, apart of the regular

albums, posters and postcards. All of them serve

the memory of the visited place. The souvenir, ac‐

cording to Bazin [1] has its origin in the "mummy

complex", i.e. in the wish to embalm for eternity.

Also Warburton [6] agrees with Bazin [1] referring

that photography is a kind of relic. According to

Emerson the souvenir should serve artistic pleasure

[5]. The utility of a slide series is in first place in

its use for projection, such as in teaching, where

the accent lays in offering information, if we follow

Emerson’s categories. Krakauer [15] cites Baude‐

laire who admitted that photographs reproduce

and thus conserve temporary things which de‐

serve a place in “the archives of our memory” and

connects this affirmation to their value as souve‐

nir. Once the time passed, they get documentary

functions, their impact as ‘photographic record’

shadows the initial one of memory help. This hap‐

pens also with the interwar photographs of “mi‐

cro landscape” presented by Adrian Majuru [16].

It is also the case of the glass slides of Tzigara‐

Samurcas. For teaching purposes the collection of

photographs had to realistically reproduce the

object of the photography, which was the object

of investigation. But there are exceptions, like

the photographs of London [17], in which the

realism gives place to some symbolism, with land‐

scape parts lost in shadow. But it is possible that

in the London of 1900 this was realism, and in fact

the exactness of the reproduction of architectural

details gave place to the exactness in the repro‐

duction of the atmosphere.

About the landscape of the street at Tzigara‐Samurcas

On the 20th of October 2000 in Florence, the Euro‐

pean Convention of the Landscape was adopted

enlarging the concept of landscape from the natur‐

al one in the following sense: “the landscape des‐

ignates a part from the territory which is perceived

as such by the population, the character of which

is the result of the action and interaction of nat‐

ural and/or human factors” [18].

In the acceptance of that European Convention,

the street is such a landscape. Krakauer [2] quotes

a French who talks about the catch of a moment

which appears unexpectedly under our eyes and

THE STREET IN PHOTOGRAPHY AS MEAN OF ART OR SCIENCE

62 e‐conservation

which interests us, the instantaneous photogra‐

phy. From here derives [2] the attraction of crowds

on the street, the mix of people and vehicles in

New York of the 1859 or of the later, Victorian

ones, which can lead to “chance meeting”, coin‐

cidences or superposition such as in street pho‐

tographs from Patras [19] or from Cartagena [20].

We also have the same mix of people and vehicles

in the photographs of Calea Victoriei of Nicolae

Ionescu, in Romania [7]. Urban life was and re‐

mains a major photogenic topic.

Sandu [21, 22] affirms that “out of all urban spaces

the street is the most adequate for the affirmation

of the urban character”. The urban character of a

street is defined by its paving, the background

and the fronts. In the photographs of the Tzigara‐

Samurcas archive there is a preoccupation for catch‐

ing some perspectives of the street so that it is

assured a perspective background, which can be

created out of the background itself (for example

the cathedral in Clermond Ferrand or in Strasbourg,

or the Beautiful Tower in Valencia) or through the

exploitation of the sinuous path of the street.

Although these define the street, the ideal per‐

spective in order to illustrate these aspects can be

catched from a single angle and this compositional

intervention is part of the art of photography. The

19th century realists stated, according to Krakauer

[2], that the photographer "lacks the artist's free‐

dom to dispose of existing shapes and spatial in‐

terrelationships for the sake of his inner vision"

while the 20th century realists often underline the

artistic character of their work, to the selectivity

of the photographer [2]. The photographer can‐

not be absolutely objective; he chooses the motive,

the frame and technically determinant details, such

as the filter and the resolution, participating thus

in the process [2]. The frame of the photograph is

part of the infinity of nature [2]. The painter can

create a work of his imagination. For the photo‐

graph, Snyder and Allen [4] quote Arnheim who

identifies that the photograph "finds", "captures"

or "selects" as an artistic contribution. Snyder

and Allen [5] then discuss the role of the selection

of the technical elements quoting finally Szarkows‐

ky who affirmed that the biggest creativity is in

establishing which shall be the subject [4].

Of course, the fact that photography can be con‐

sidered a copy of nature [2], in the case of a real‐

ist photography, has consequences till today in the

definition of the copyright terms of photographs,

considered a reproduction of a building and, there‐

fore, the interdiction to photograph or to publish

photographs of some places. However, Krakauer

[2] fights this idea of mirror through the fact that

photography transforms something three‐dimen‐

sional into a plane image, transforms the colour,

breaks from the context and reduces the sensori‐

al experience to the visual one.

The spatial manifestation of the street results from

a combination of factors: functionality, climate

and field conditions, historic existence, concep‐

tual design and last but not least the "life way"

[19]. Alexander et al. [20] wrote about the qual‐

ity of public space enouncing in pattern 61 "Small

public squares":

"... this pattern forms the core which makes an

ACTIVITY NODE (30): it can also help to generate

a node, by its mere existence, provided that it is

correctly placed along the intersection of paths

which people use most often. And it can also help

to generate a PROMENADE (31), a WORK COMMU‐

NITY (41), an IDENTIFIABLE NEIGHBOURHOOD

(14), through the action of the people who gather

there. But it is essential, in every case, that it is

not too large.

* * *

A town needs public squares; they are the largest,

most public rooms, that the town has. But when they

are too large, they look and feel deserted.” [23]

MARIA BOSTENARU

63e‐conservation

An empty street doesn’t say us as much as one full

of people. A public space is defined through the

events which take place in that space, not through

its architecture [24]. This differs from country to

country, from the electric tram in Oakland to the

donkey in Cartagena [20, 22] or Patras [19, 25].

Krakauer [3] quotes Gay‐Lussac who stated that

"no detail, not even ‘imperceptible’ cannot evade

the ‘eye and the brush of this new painter’". This

is what Philip Greenspun was also saying in the

21st century about the quality of street photogra‐

phy [26] when he says that the one who sees the

photography can see more than the photograph‐

er. Greenspun adheres here to the "mechanical"

model, cited by Snyder and Allen [4], which can

be described through the fact that a photograph

doesn’t show us what the photographer saw, but

what was. Actually, the photography shows us

what we would have seen if the eye would have

been equipped with the lens of the camera and

would have printed on the same medium [4, p.

294]. In this case, "the medium does not favour

a compositional model" [2] as it happens when

photographing the frame elements of the street.

The later generations will observe details which at

the given time were not observed, as also states

Krakauer [2], about the street photography.

Krakauer [2] states that the photographer reads

in the book of nature. Jordi Punti, at the confer‐

ence "Contemporary Public Space", stated that an

unused public space is like a book which is read by

nobody; a book in order to be of value has to be

read [27]. Also the urban landscapes from 1900 in

the Tzigara‐Samurcas collection were transmitted

to us as they were photographed. Lewis Mumford

[28] told that the stones of Athens would not tell

us much about the life of the city if the written

heritage wouldn’t have remained. With the pho‐

tographic realism of the 19th century another con‐

servation mean of the information about the life

of the city appeared.

The street results out of this combination between

public space and its architectural elements (fronts,

background, etc.). Also the photographs differ,

some being interesting only through their archi‐

tectural elements, result of the way of life and even‐

tually of the adaptation to the natural environment

in a certain geographic zone, other putting the

accent on such a street activity (promenade, ac‐

quisitions, transport) and finally some being the

accidental catch of a certain frame of human activ‐

ity on the street. Such there is a photograph in

Lauterbrunnen which shows us the adaptation to a

mountain natural environment with timber build‐

ings typical for Switzerland [29]; another photo‐

graph in Strasbourg shows us typical traditional

Fachwerk buildings for this geographic zone [30].

In a photograph of Cartagena there are typical

houses with loggias [31], as in the former Bucha‐

rest, and for Granada [32] and Istanbul [33] are

typical the storeys in console, even if from differ‐

ent construction materials. The Tzigara‐Samurcas

archive is from before the Modernism, which broke

with the tradition, and many of the images present

a urban vernacular framework, which does not

happen in American cities.

Let’s focus on the value of "mirror with memory" of

the photographs in the street landscape of Tzigara‐

Samurcas. Greenspun [34] argued for photographs

of people, with “tourists as subject” as compared

to deserted photographs, taken in early hours of

the day. Not all touristic objectives change during

some decades, but the clothes and generally the

"micro landscape" [35] of the people change. The

photographs of Tzigara‐Samurcas reveal the typ‐

ical promenade clothes (ex. Lauterbrunnen, Los

Angeles [36]) or circulation (Patras, [37]), the

favourite (or mainly) masculine spheres (Bank of

England [38]) or feminine (promenade).

Another times also the built context changed. In

Istanbul only a few from the old timber buildings,

THE STREET IN PHOTOGRAPHY AS MEAN OF ART OR SCIENCE

64 e‐conservation

as those on the street in the Tzigara‐Samurcas

collection, are conserved. The German institute in

Istanbul recently launched a campaign of building

surveys for their virtual conservation. Or even the

character of presence or absence of people changed

in the last 100 years, Granada becoming very pop‐

ular for tourists (Figure 2), for example. Or the

infrastructure, the central canalisation with rain

water in Mainz changed, even if some cities, like

Freiburg am Breisgau integrated in the regional

development plans grabs to remind this.

The archive on photos of disasters

A second part of the study is dealing with archive

photographs of 19th century individual events as

found in the archive of the Canadian Centre for

Architecture, archive material which has been al‐

ready gathered during a support grant stay there

in June‐July 2010.

The covered events were:

‐ Earthquake: San Francisco 1906, USA; Norcia,

Italy and Antigua;

‐ Fire: Boston 1860, USA; St. Claude, France; Paris

(Commune), France; Philadelphia, USA; Louisiana,

USA; Notre Dame de Montreal, Canada; Chicago,

USA; Quebec, Canada; Illinois, USA; Portland

(Maine), USA (stereo);

‐ Flood: Norwich 1878, England; Latchford 1890,

England; Warburton 1891; Johnstown 1889; Avi‐

gnon, France; Montreal, Canada; Conemaugh, USA;

Brisbane, Australia;

‐ Volcanic activity: Pompei

Notable 19th century photographers who photo‐

graphed such subjects were:

‐ for earthquake: Arnold Genthe, Robert Macph‐

erson, Eadweard Muybridge, R.J. Waters & Co

(publisher), James Stoddard and Willard Worden;

‐ for fire: J. Andrieu, Edouard Baldus, George N.

Barnard, James Wallace Black, Robert Burley, Al‐

fred Capel‐Cure, Franck, Frederick Gutekunst, Bri‐

an Merrett, A. Richebourg, C. Seaver Jr., John P.

Soule and William Notman & Son;

‐ for flood: Edouard Baldus, G. Herbert Bayley,

Alexander Henderson and Charles Rudd;

‐ for volcanic activity: Giorgio Sommer;

‐ for thunders: Alfred Capel‐Cure;

‐ for the Paris Commune: Gustave Le Gray, J. An‐

drieu, Bruno Braquehais, Albert Fernique, Franck,

C. Jung, A. Richebourg and Charles Soulier.

The approach to catastrophe photography in the

19th century was different of the one today. Were

the photographs then still available as “souvenirs”,

today the photographs are spread through mass‐

media, and, when done by professionals, they

feed databases on photographs mainly investig‐

ated in order to recognise and removed damages,

Figure 2. Andalucian street. Photo by Maria Bostenaru.

MARIA BOSTENARU

65e‐conservation

or to investigate the collapse mechanisms. The

architecture historian Stephen Tobriner looks at

historic photos of the 19th century considering

the modern approach, and trying to identify col‐

lapse mechanisms [39]. The beginning of the in‐

volvement of mass media in catastrophes started

with the eruption of Krakatau. We investigated

material on the street photography of these not‐

able photographers and from what was available

Edouard Baldus and Eadweard Muybridge did not

perform street photography. Also Giorgio Sommer

photographed the street only in his residence city

of Naples (Figure 3), not when traveling, and, of

course, in the neighbouring Pompei (Figure 4).

Arnold Genthe surprised some street scenes dur‐

ing the earthquake and street scenes in New Or‐

leans , which was affected in recent times, not in

Genthe’s times, by the catastrophe.

About memory

Even if the realism in photography is in favour of

the knowledge in science, the quality of realist

photography discusses its role to serve the me‐

mory and, as object of the memory, to facilitate

the access through arts to past worlds.

We can differentiate between own memory and

collective memory. A space or a landscape can be

covered by forgetness and must be “digged off”,

rediscovered. Nietzsche [40] talked about the re‐

lationship between history and forgetness, how

we can live without memory but not also without

forgetting. Nietzsche sees two enemies of the

history: the unhistorical (who forgets, and can

this way destroy a culture, a civilisation) and the

superhistorical (who detaches his view from what

is developed to the eternal). Between the monu‐

mental history, which believes that the great acts

of the past can be repeated because they took

place once, and the antiquarian history, which

considers that everything that comes from the past

has value, Nietzsche proposes the critical history.

The photography as mean of memory represents

an entrance “door” to the critical history.

Bazin [1] recognises the psychological basic need

of the man for protection against the passing of

time and sees in the Egyptian mummifications or

in the paintings from the French classical period

how the time will be victorious on death. It is the

“preservation of life by a representation of life”

[1]. The topic of the essay published by Trachten‐

berg [1] in ‘Classic Essays on Photography’ is the

ontology of the photographic image and Bazin

puts the problem of the ontological difference

between the model and the image despite which still

“the image helps us to remember the subject and

to preserve him from a second spiritual death” [1].

For this, the image does not have to be realist in

the sense of the duplication of the world, and the

Figure 3. Street of Naples. Photo by Giorgio Sommer (1834‐1914).

THE STREET IN PHOTOGRAPHY AS MEAN OF ART OR SCIENCE

symbol can be the image of the model, the arts

creates such an eternity, while the photography

is only a certain moment frozen in time [1], also

quoted by Warburton [5], that the photograph is

the model liberated by the space and the time

which govern them. For Scruton, quoted by War‐

burton [5], looking at a photograph is a substi‐

tute of looking to the object itself in some sense,

and relates again to the topic of the mirror. War‐

burton [5] quotes Walton with the idea from the

1980s about the “transparency thesis”: looking at

the images of the past is like looking at what was

in the past, even if it relates at our deceased rela‐

tives, we see photos in the past as we see through

a telescope or television at the distance, and this

is a consequence of realism in photography.

The critics of Walton [5] put the accent on the dif‐

ference between the real and the virtual image.

The virtual image through the concave lens and

the one through the convex lens of film or photog‐

raphy are different in physics, as the first doesn’t

need a screen to be projected on, but Walton did

not modify his theory, including in it instead also

the documentary photography. Warburton [5]

notes the contradiction of this with the philoso‐

phy of perception. If we take into consideration

the affirmation of Caroll, as quoted by Warburton

[5], of dependence of the characteristics of the

photographic medium, such as for example the

transparency, then the documentary photography

were done to be seen over a short period of time,

of remembering of the person who visited the

place, or in order to see at distance, to be used for

teaching, but not for the goal of archiving so that

other people could see them 100 years later. The

thesis of transparency is applicable also at the use

of photography for the reproduction of paintings,

as it is the case for the Tzigara‐Samurcas archive,

also as Savedoff [5, p. 622] observed.

Figure 4. Mercurius street in Pompeii, before 1914. Photo by Giorgio Sommer (1834‐1914).

MARIA BOSTENARU

66 e‐conservation

The fact that archive photographs present us just

some places from only certain angles, reminds

us the fact that archaeologists don’t always find

buildings, but just objects that remind of a past

civilisation. The civilisation doesn’t get to life

through this, but we have a history of it. The his‐

tory transformed into museum item as we perceive

it today is the future; the testimonies of the past

become an object of research. The culture of the

past, as it is in the conserved monuments is some‐

thing what belongs to the perception of the present

and which we want to make accessible in the fu‐

ture, but is not to bring back the past to life. We

can rediscover the culture as it was through arts,

not of the science of archaeology, such as for exam‐

ple in a novel or a film, and also in a photograph.

The conclusion of Krakauer [2] is that also the

realist photography can be art, even if it does

not make use of the means of the experimental

one of avant‐garde if it succeeds to make the faces

of the people and the stones of the houses to talk

eloquently to the viewer, because of their beauty

and sensibility. The photographs of Tzigara‐Samur‐

cas are already too old in order to make us a space

of personal remembering looking to them. For

some of their contemporaries they were also de‐

tached of the personal memory, because they did

not have the occasion to visit those places. They

now belong to the collective memory, to History.

The photographers created access to this space of

memory through which we can "visit" the streets

that Tzigara‐Samurcas visited. This was also the

teaching purpose of the glass slides: that students

can visit them as well. They were cut away by the

distance in space; we are cut away also in time.

"It is no longer a question of survival after death,

but of a larger concept, the creation of an ideal

world in the likeness of the real, with its own tem‐

poral destiny." [1]

Conclusions

The photography immortalises a moment in time.

The documentary photography in the Tzigara‐

Samurcas archive has artistic values through the

reproduction of not only the architecture frame in

which the street life takes place but also of the

way of life, caught in the presence of users in the

public space, and in the geographic characterist‐

ics. Through this, we enter in another universe,

another world which we can understand through

art and not science becomes accessible, even if

the world of the past, or for the Tzigara‐Samurcas

contemporaries who were at a certain distance,

wasn’t accessible through personal memories.

Although the photography from the end of the 19th

and early 20th century was made through mech‐

anical means lacking the possibilities of painting

or today’s digital photography to combine differ‐

ent views, the spirit of the place survived using the

characteristics of the medium of photographic

image on glass support.

Acknowledgments

The study on philosophy of photography was sup‐

ported by the Marie Curie Reintegration Grant for

the project PIANO "The innovation in the plan of

the current floor: Zoning in blocks of flats for the

middle class in the first half of the 20th century",

contract number MERG‐CT‐2007‐200636, run

time 2007‐2010, from the European Commission,

while the work on the archive of Tzigara Samurc‐

as was supported by the “Ion Mincu” University of

Architecture and Urbanism with co‐funding from

the Timbrul Arhitecturii, through the Union of

Romanian architects, as well as the support grant

of the Canadian Centre for Architecture to inves‐

tigate historic photography of natural disasters.

67e‐conservation

THE STREET IN PHOTOGRAPHY AS MEAN OF ART OR SCIENCE

References

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Image”, in A. Trachtenberg (ed.), Classic Essays

on Photography, Leete’s Island Books, New Haven,

1980, pp. 237‐244

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(ed.), Classic Essays on Photography, Leete’s Island

Books, New Haven, 1980, pp. 245‐268

[3] Proust quoted in S. Krakauer, “Photography”,

in A. Trachtenberg (ed.), Classic Essays on Photo‐

graphy, Leete’s Island Books, New Haven, 1980,

pp. 258‐259

[4] J. Snyder and N. W. Allen, ‘Photography, Vi‐

sion and Representation’, in P. Alperson (ed.),

The philosophy of the visual arts, Oxford Univer‐

sity Press, 1992, pp. 289‐305, republished after the

original article from 1975

[5] N. Warburton, ‘Photography’, in Jerrold Levin‐

son (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Aesthetics, Ox‐

ford University Press, 2005, pp. 614‐626

[6] R. Arnheim, ‘On the Nature of Photography’,

Critical Inquiry I, September l974, p. 154

[7] Nicolae Ionescu, URL, accessed 24 March 2011

[8] L. Machedon and E. Scoffham, Romanian Mod‐

ernism, MIT Press, Cambridge MA, USA, 1999

[9] A. Gebeßler (ed.), Gropius Meisterhaus Muche/

Schlemmer, Die Geschichte einer Instandsetzung,

Krämer, Stuttgart, 2003

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March 2011

[11] Hochschule für Gestaltung Karlsruhe (HfG),

Weiße Vernunft – Siedlungsbau der 20er Jahre,

CD‐ROM, Prestel, 2001

[12] Study tour in frame of the “Planned Conser‐

vation” conference, 30‐13 October 2009, Como,

Italy

[13] R. Langenbach, "The Building of a Symbolic

Image: The Juxtaposition of Giambattista Pirane‐

si’s Vedute Di Roma with Photographs Taken 250

Years Later", Proceedings of the ICOMOS, General

Assembly and Scientific Symposium "Finding the

Spirit of the Place", Quebec City, Canada, 2008.

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Anca Bratuleanu (ed.), Arhiva (the) Alexandru

Tzigara‐Samurcas archive (with CD), Editura Uni‐

versitara “Ion Mincu”, Bucharest, 2009

[15] C. Baudelaire, “The Modem Public and Photo‐

graphy”, from Art in Paris, 1845‐1862, with per‐

mission of Phaidon Press, Ltd., reprinted in Alan

Trachtenberg, Leete’s Island Books, 1980

[16] Round Table, architecture competition "Pres‐

ent", November 2008, in press

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accessed 24 March 2011

[18] Lege nr. 451 din 8 iulie 2002 pentru ratifi‐

carea Conventiei europene a peisajului, adopta‐

ta la Florenta la 20 Octombrie 2000 (L451/2002)

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ge 2‐54, URL, accessed 19 December 2010

[20] Strada din Cartagena (Street from Cartagena),

image 5‐29, URL, accessed 19 December 2010

[21] A. Sandu, Compozitie urbana, course notes,

1997, URL, accessed 24 March 2011

MARIA BOSTENARU

68 e‐conservation

e‐conservation

[22] A. Sandu, Structura urbana, course notes,

1995, URL, accessed 24 March 2011

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[29] Strada din Lauterbrunnen (Street in Lauter‐

brunnen), image 18‐10, URL, accessed 19 Decem‐

ber 2010

[30] Street and Cathedral in Strasbourg (Strada

si Catedrala din Strasbourg), image 19‐113, URL,

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[32] Strada din Granada (Street from Granada),

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[38] Parlamentul si Turnul Orologiului (Parliament

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for Life, Ian Johnston (trans.) accessed 2009

(original: Vom Nutzen und Nachteil der Historie

fur das Leben, 1873)

MARIA BOSTENARU DANArchitectural Engineer

Maria Bostenaru Dan (Dipl.‐Ing.) has an engineer‐

ing degree in architecture, specialisation in urban‐

ism, from the Universität Karlsruhe, Germany (1999).

She specialised in the study of risks on built herita‐

ge, seismic retrofit, doing research in Karlsruhe

(Germany), Pavia (Italy) and Bucharest (Romania).

69e‐conservation

THE STREET IN PHOTOGRAPHY AS MEAN OF ART OR SCIENCE

case

stud

ySCIENTIFIC STUDY AND CONSERVATIONOF A PAINTED ENAMEL QAJAR PENDANT

This research aims to investigate the chemical composition and the technical features of a painted

enamel Qajar pendant. This investigation was followed by cleaning and conservation of the pendant.

Optical light microscope (OLM), scanning electron microscope (SEM) combined with energy dispersive

X‐ray spectroscopy (EDX), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and X‐ray fluorescence analysis

(XRF) were used respectively for imaging and micro‐analysis of the object. The study proved that the

pendant is made of gold foils, round and half‐round gold wires of different sizes and carats. Different

forming and decorative techniques were found to be used for the manufacturing of the pendent:

repoussé, granulation, filigree, chasing, stamping, painted and cloisonné enameling. The study also

proved that the central quatrefoil ornament is not solid metal, containing a wax core.

By Wafaa Anwar Mohamed

Introduction

Qajar art is the art of Persia during the rule of the

Qajar dynasty, from 1794 to 1925. Enamel work‐

ing on metals was one of the significant forms of

art in Isfahan, Iran. Painting with enamels, or

what is referred to as painted enamel was first

developed in Limoges, France in the 15th century

and later transferred into Iran and other parts of

the world. The examples of enamels that survived

reflected the interest of Iranian artists in this art

since the Achaemenian dynasty (c. 550–330 B.C.).

Qajar enamels are characterized by figurative

scenes including portraits of youth and lovers.

These were similar in style to the oil paintings of

the same period. Luxury, prevalent costume and

jewelry styles are apparently documented in such

portraits and scenes [1‐7]. There are quite few ex‐

amples of Qajar painted enamel pendants which sur‐

vived and are now exhibited in museums world wide.

The case study presented in this research is a Per‐

sian enameled gold pendant. It belongs to the

museum of the Faculty of Applied Arts at Helwan

University, Egypt. It was given the identification

number 49/1 in the museum records although the

details about its source and date are not specified.

Figures 1 and 2 show the obverse and reverse of

the pendant. Lack of information affected the

documentation and authentication processes. For

its authentication, a survey was needed to identify

possible parallels showing a similar style, technical

features and material structure. Microchemical

analysis was also required for proper identifica‐

tion and documentation of the object. Examina‐

tion and investigation were required as well to

identify the state of preservation before under‐

taking any further conservation intervention. From

the conservation point of view, the principle of

minimal intervention is uppermost not only be‐

cause of the condition of the object but also for

ethical guidelines.

CONSERVATION OF A PAINTED ENAMEL QAJAR PENDANT

e‐conservation 71

SCIENTIFIC STUDY AND CONSERVATIONOF A PAINTED ENAMEL QAJAR PENDANT

Figures 1 and 2. Obverse and reverse side of the investigatedpendant.

Experimental

The surface of the object was examined by optical

microscopy to show details and deterioration as‐

pects. A digital caliper was used for measuring the

length, the width and the diameter of the differ‐

ent parts of the pendant. A tiny sample of filling

material (the core) was removed and examined

by optical light microscope (OLM) before analysis.

The sample was also analyzed by Fourier transform

infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) using a Jasco‐460.

The sample was first ground and pressed in KBr

pellets. The analysis has a spectral range from 400

to 4000 cm‐1 with a maximum resolution of 4 cm‐1.

All spectra were recorded in transmission mode.

Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) imaging and

energy‐dispersive X‐ray spectroscopy (EDX) micro‐

chemical analysis of the counter enamel were un‐

dertaken using a Philips XL 30 combining SEM with

EDX. The sample taken for this analysis was first

coated with carbon. The main detection limits of

EDX measurement are 0.2% for Cu, 0.5% for Au and

0.1% for Ag. Data at or below these limits are not

significant.

A portable Niton XLt 700, version 4, X‐ray fluor‐

escence (XRF) analyzer was used to determine

the composition of different parts of the metal

and enamel composition of different colors of

the portrait. The Certified Reference Material

used for the measurement was 35 EN‐04292005‐

IARM‐P. The error was not more than + 0.2% for Cu,

+0.4% for Pb, +0.1% for Sn, +0.4% for Ag, +0.09%

for Au, +0.1% for Sb, +1.6% for Fe and +0.05%

for Zn. The obtained results are the average of

two measurements.

Precipitated calcium carbonate in denatured ethyl

alcohol, 100% pure cotton cloth and ethyl alcohol

were used for cleaning, polishing and wiping off

the metal surface, respectively.

Results and discussion

A parallel was found by the author in an enameled

gold pendant from the Metropolitan Museum col‐

lection (available at the Heilbrunn Timeline of

Art History, URL). It is dated to the 19th century

and belonged originally to Iran. It was fabricated

from metal sheet and half‐round wire and enameled

on both obverse and reverse sides. The common

shapes of such enameled plaques are round and

elliptical and they were usually set into non‐or‐

namental objects such as water pipes. However,

this pendant has engravings on its back and it’s

thought to have been used as talisman [6].

A comparison between the proposed parallel pen‐

dant and the present case study reveals that the

object under investigation is similar in style and

can be identified as a Qajar pendant which is full

of decorations (figures 1 and 2). It weighs 25 g

and its dimensions are 11.5 cm long, 4.5 cm max‐

imum width and 5 mm thick. The pendant consists

of three elements: the chain, the inverted crescent

element and the central quatrefoil ornament with

seven dangling discs attached. In order to inves‐

tigate the quality of the metal wires and foil, a non‐

destructive XRF microchemical analysis was under‐

taken for the metal parts and the enamel. The

results are given in table 1.

From the analysis results it is evident that the

pendant was made of a gold alloy (gold, silver

and copper ternary alloy). Different quantities

of constituent metals were used to produce foils,

round and half‐round wires of different gauges.

Different forming and decorative techniques were

used for the fabrication of the pendent. Repoussé

was used for decorating the reverse side of the

central ornament by embossed flowers (figure 2)

and chasing was used to decorate the sides and

contour strip of the painted enamel portrait. Fili‐

gree was used to make an up side down dangling

72 e‐conservation

WAFAA ANWAR MOHAMED

crescent, which was decorated by granulation.

Stamping was used to decorate six small discs

by an eight leaves flower pattern punch. These

small dangling circular discs were soldered to

small loops after stamping.

Painted enamel technique was used for the por‐

trait of the beautiful young woman standing in

front of a colored geometric background, most

probably resembling a window and wearing a jew‐

eled red dress. Cloisonné enamel was also used to

inlay a small disc dangling from the central lower

part of the pendant with white, pink, green and

blue colors.

Segments of the manufacture such as foil and wire

production could have been independent opera‐

tions. High carat gold was cut out, embossed,

painted with enamel and fired before it was as‐

sembled into its place.

It is known that enamels are composed princip‐

ally of silicate formers, fluxes such as borax, sta‐

bilizers, and different oxides as colorants, giving

the enamel its color [8]. The enamel is mixed

with oil and then painted on the object to give

e‐conservation 73

an effect very much like that of oil paints. To ap‐

ply painted enamel on a gold foil it is usually turned

to slightly convex, then a layer of flux called counter

enamel is applied on the metal back to reduce

stresses arising from different expansion coeffi‐

cient of metal and enamel. The metal surface is

then covered with a uniform layer of enamel that,

when fired, produces a background for the drawing.

The painting is applied color by color using a paint

brush. The highest flowing temperature enamel is

fired first and followed by lower flowing temper‐

ature enamels. This can prevent colors diffusion

at later stages. Multiple firing is required to fixate

the colors, sometimes up to 20 rounds of firing

are need for a complete project. The firing tem‐

perature can be up to 800 ºC (1500 ºF) [9].

Microchemical analysis using XRF (table 1) revealed

that the finest gold alloy was used for making the

filigree crescent ornament, SEM examination and

EDX analysis results (figures 3 and 4) revealed that

enamel was applied on gold of about 20 carats. High

carat gold is normally required for more exquisite

enameling [10]. To this fine gold foil, opaque

white counter enamel was applied on the back

(figure 3). EDX analysis results of the counter

Analyzed part Chemical composition wt%

Au Ag Cu Sn Pb Sb Fe Cd Zn Bi In Se Ni Co Mn

Metal reverse/repoussé

work

60.23 32.93 4.41 1.49 0.04 0.29 0.06 0.06 0.07 0.16 0.15 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.02

Metal /filigree

67.88 21.07 8.78 8.78 0.00 0.10 0.20 0.05 0.14 0.16 0.11 0.35 0.01 0.01 0.09

Metal/ chain 65.30 25.50 6.92 0.91 0.01 0.09 0.11 0.07 0.04 0.11 0.03 0.2 0.02 0.01 0.11

Enamel rosecolor

15.51 7.87 2.17 7.76 63.61 0.39 1.69 0.06 0.07 0.25 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.38 0.00

Enamel blackcolor

22.11 6.85 2.73 6.35 50.80 0.16 6.80 0.00 0.31 0.47 0.00 0.21 0.55 0.46 2.14

Table 1: Analysis results of the metal parts and enamel using XRF spectroscopy.

CONSERVATION OF A PAINTED ENAMEL QAJAR PENDANT

enamel (figure 4) in combination with FTIR ana‐

lysis results (figure 5b) revealed that both calcium

and carbonate group are present. This may indicate

the use of either lime containing counter enamel,

such as soda‐lime, or calcium antimonite opaque

white enamel. Wax was identified by FTIR analysis

of the pendant core (figures 5a and 5b). This core

may have not only supported the gold foil during

assembly but also gave the figurative motif fur‐

ther structural support. The added weight by the

core may have played an aesthetic role by allowing

the pendant to dangle or to sway, and an economic

role by reducing the quantity of precious materials

used for the manufacturing of the pendant.

The analysis results of the black color enamel re‐

veal the presence of iron, while those of the rose

color enamel reveal the presence of iron and cop‐

per. The oxides of these elements are responsible

for the produced colors [11].

It was difficult for the author to get meaningful

analyses results of other enamel colors in smaller

areas using the available portable XRF apparatus.

The chemical composition of enamels can indicate

the period of production and authenticate the

object [8, 11‐14]. The chemical composition of

medieval enamels is similar to that of the Roman

period, consisting of soda‐lime glass mixed with

opacifiers such as tin or antimony oxides. In the

18th and 19th centuries, the chemical composi‐

tion was basically lead‐potash glass with arsenic

oxides opacifiers. XRF could not detect some ele‐

ments such as sodium and magnesium so it pre‐

vented identification of flux but the presence of

tin (Sn) as an opacifier is in agreement with liter‐

ature on medieval production [12, 13]. Moreover,

the analysis results of enamel using XRF revealed

that lead (Pb) content is very high (table 1), this

result is in agreement with the assumption that

lead‐potash glass was used for the painted enamel,

Figure 3. High‐carat gold foil with counter enamel in the back (left) as imaged by SEM (right).

Figure 4. SEM image and EDX analysis result of gold foil.

WAFAA ANWAR MOHAMED

74 e‐conservation

as lead became an almost universal additive to

enamels by the 19th century [14]. Accordingly, the

pendant is suggested to date back to the 19th cen‐

tury, but this is in contradiction with the analysis

result of the counter enamel so dating of the pen‐

dant still needs further work for archaeologists to

explain these results.

Cleaning and conservation

Both the vitreous material and the metal support

were taken into account when carrying out the

conservation treatment. The enamel was in a good

condition, presenting no cracks, although there

were some missing parts of the green circle that

Figure 5a. Core material inside the quatrefoil central ornament.

Figure 5b. A sample of the core material (left) with the corresponding FTIR analysis results (right).

CONSERVATION OF A PAINTED ENAMEL QAJAR PENDANT

e‐conservation 75

outlines the portrait. At first, the whole pendant

was cleaned from dust with a soft brush. The metal

parts of the object were cleaned using precipitated

calcium carbonate in denatured ethyl alcohol.

This was applied using 100% pure cotton cloth for

cleaning and polishing metal surface (figures 6

and 7). Calcium carbonate proved to be efficient,

abrasive and least likely to scratch soft metal sur‐

faces [15]. The metal surface was cleaned after

polishing using ethyl alcohol and cotton swaps.

The object was allowed to air dry immediately

after cleaning, meanwhile avoiding leaking of the

carrier fluid to the inner core. Dirt and grime in

cloisonné enamel was mechanically removed using

a soft, pointed wooden stick, followed by cleaning

by ethanol which also served to degrease the metal.

3% of Paraloid B72 in acetone was applied on the

whole surface to give a transparent protective

thin film. Paraloid B72 is used in preference to

other protective coating materials as it ensures

protection and provides consolidation and visual

improvement of the surface [16]. Moreover, it is

non‐staining for enamel and less likely to stain

metals. Following the work of Ryan et al., an air‐

tight Plexiglass showcase conditioned to 40% RH,

using silica gel (PRO Sorb) was designed for tem‐

porary display of the pendant [17]. This Plexiglass

microenvironment showcase was intended to pro‐

vide a stable RH environment (figure 8) which is

important for the preservation of metal enamel

composites [18].

Conclusion

Optical examination enabled full technical descrip‐

tion and detailed documentation of a painted

enamel gold Qajar pendant of the Faculty of Ap‐

plied Arts at Helwan University, Egypt. The pen‐

Figure 6. Aspect during the cleaning of the metal surface. Figure 7. The pendant after cleaning.

WAFAA ANWAR MOHAMED

76 e‐conservation

dant could have been used as head of a water pipe.

Micro‐chemical analysis enabled to identify the

metal as being a gold alloy and two enamel col‐

ors composition. The study also proved the pres‐

ence of a wax core. The object was cleaned and

coated with a transparent Paraloid B72 protective

film and isolated in a controlled relative humidity

microenvironment showcase. The showcase was

made of Plexiglass to fit the size of the object.

These temporarily procedures were meant to min‐

imize the effect of high and fluctuating relative

humidity until the museum renovation works

take place.

References

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Memorial Volume of the Vth International Con‐

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April 1968, Tehran, Isfahan, Shiraz, Volume 2,

Special Publication of the Ministry of Culture and

Arts, Iranian Center of Archaeological Research,

Tehran, 1968, pp. 200‐211

[2] A. D. Tushingham, “Qajar Painted Enamels”

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Lands, Oxford, 1969, pp. 187‐204

[3] B. W. Robinson, “Persian Painting in the Qajar

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Figure 8. Plexiglass micro‐environment showcase.

CONSERVATION OF A PAINTED ENAMEL QAJAR PENDANT

e‐conservation 77

[10] G. L. Matthews, Enamels, Enameling, Enamel‐

lists, Chilton Book Company, Pennsylvania, 1984,

p. 17

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using Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry”, in

ICCOM‐CC 11th Triennial Meeting Edinburgh,

Scotland, 1‐6 September 1996, London, 1996,

pp. 839‐844

[18] J. Navarro, “Reviewing the Conservation of

Unstable Enamels at The Victoria and Albert Mu‐

seum”, in 3rd Biennial ICOM‐CC Experts’ Meeting on

Enamel on Metal Conservation, ICOM‐CC Enamel

group, The Frick Collection, New York City, October

2010, pp. 24‐28

WAFAA ANWAR MOHAMEDConservator‐restorer

Contact: wafaaanw@yahoo.com

Wafaa Anwar Mohamed, PhD, associate professor

of metals conservation at the Conservation De‐

partment, faculty of Archaeology, Cairo University.

Her principal interests focus on the conservation

of metal objects, examination and conservation

of metals ‐ organic and inorganic ‐ composite ar‐

tifacts and metal technologies in ancient Egypt.

She has been teaching conservation of metals for

undergraduate and graduate conservation students

and supervises master and doctoral conservation

researches since 2000. In addition to teaching she

has recently took up her position as head of the

Quality Assurance Unit at the Faculty of Archae‐

ology, Cairo University, Egypt.

WAFAA ANWAR MOHAMED

78 e‐conservation

No. 19, April 2011

ISSN: 1646‐9283

Registration Number125248

Entidade Reguladorapara a Comunicação Social

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