DRESSED IN IHRAM - materialculture.nlmaterialculture.nl/sites/default/files/files/201704/dressed_in... · IHRAM Hajj clothing for the pilgrimage to Mecca Detail from a late 16th century

IHRAMHajj clothing for the pilgrimage to Mecca

Detail from a late 16th century Persian manuscript depicting the Ka'ba being covered with the new kiswa or cloth covering (after Rajab 1994, p. 8) © Gillian Vogelsang-Eastwood Textile Research Centre Leiden 2004 [email protected] www.texdress.nl

mailto:[email protected]

http://www.texdress.nl/

DRESSED IN IHRAM. HAJJ CLOTHING FOR THE PILGRIMIGE TO MECCA © GILLIAN VOGELSANG - EASTWOOD Textile Research Centre

Digital publications of the National Museum of Ethnology

Table of contents

Introduction

1. The Hajj The Five Pillars of Islam What is the Hajj? The Ka'ba Ihram

Spiritual ihram Physical ihram Where and when is ihram worn?

The 'Umra or Lesser Pilgrimage The five days of Hajj

2. Men's Ihram Appearance What is forbidden? How is ihram worn during the Hajj?

3. Women's Ihram Daily life Faceveils

4. Conclusion

Literature

Links to other websites Colophon and acknowledgements

1



Introduction Once a year up to two million people descend on the Holy City of Mecca, in Saudi Arabia, to perform the Hajj or Pilgrimage. On entering Mecca the pilgrims are dressed in ihram. “Dressed in ihram” is a way of describing the state of purity for the mind, body and soul, which all Muslims should be in when they become participants in the Hajj. But it also describes the actual clothing worn by the pilgrims as they carry out the various rituals of the Hajj, which is one of the “Five Pillars of Islam”. All men have to wear a special ihram outfit, with the idea that all men wear the same garments no matter where they come from or what their status is. On the other hand, women should wear respectable and subdued versions of their ordinary dress. However, some women wear a special ihram version of their region’s traditional dress.

2



1. The Hajj The Five Pillars of Islam An essential element of the Muslim faith is formed by the “Five Pillars of Islam.” They are regarded as the foundation stones of Muslim life. The Five Pillars are:

�� Shadada: a declaration of faith, which is regularly repeated. �� Salat: salat is a prayer ritual, which is performed five times a day at dawn, mid-day, late

afternoon, sunset and within the first hour after nightfall.

Figurine of praying muslim (RMV 957-11) and prayer beads (RMV 807-47) �� Zakah: a principle of Islam is that everything belongs to God, therefore wealth is held in trust.

The word zakah means “purification” and “growth.” The system of zakah means that a person puts 1/40 (2.5%) of his personal wealth on one side for charitable purposes.

�� Sawm: every year at the month of Ramadan, all Muslims fast from dawn until sunset. The fast is regarded as a method of self-purification and self-restraint.

�� Hajj: if possible an adult Muslim should make a pilgrimage to Mecca. What is the Hajj? The fifth and last Pillar of Islam is the Hajj. This pillar requires that any adult Muslim who is physically and financially able should try to make the Hajj or pilgrimage to the Holy City of Mecca in modern Saudi Arabia once in his or her lifetime:

And when We settled for Abraham the place of the House: “Thou shall not associate with Me anything. And do thou purify My House for those that shall go about it and those that stand, for those that bow

and prostrate themselves; and proclaim among them the Pilgrimage, and they shall come unto thee on foot, and upon every lean beast, they shall come from

every deep ravine, that they may witness things profitable to them and mention God’s Name on days well-known over such beasts of the flocks as He has provided them: “So eat therefore, and feed

the wretched poor.” Let them then finish with their self-neglect and let them fulfil their vows, and go about

the Ancient House (Quran 22:26-30).

3



Figure 1: Thousands of pilgrims circumambulate the Ka'ba (Amin 1978, p.70).

4



The Hajj is not an obligation for the insane, nor for people without sufficient funds, slaves, or for women who are not travelling with a mahram (a close male relative such as her husband, father, brother, or son (the Saudi government now allows women over the age of 46 and travelling with a group of respectable, Muslim women of the same age or older to travel without individual mahrams). The Hajj is regarded as the peak of a Muslim’s religious duties and aspirations. The pilgrimage takes place from the 8th to the 13th day of the last month of the Islamic calendar of each year. Because the Islamic calendar is based on the lunar cycle the date of the Hajj changes from year to year. The Hajj in general consists of various rituals, some of which recall the acts of Abraham, his wife, Hagar, and their son, Ishmael, when they turned the Ka'ba into the sacred place of worship (Quran, 2:119), and in particular the running of Hagar, while she was looking for water for her son. Other acts recalls the deeds of the Prophet Muhammad. The first group of rituals is called Ùmra, while the second group is the real Hajj. Both rituals are closely linked and often also known as the Hajj. Before either can take place, however, a pilgrim has to be in a state of ihram and wearing ihram dress. The Ka'ba The first House established for the people

was that at Bekka [Mecca], a place holy, and a guidance to all beings.

Therein are clear signs – the station of Abraham, and whosoever enters it is in security. It is the duty of all men towards God to come to the House a pilgrim, if he is able to

make his way there (Quran 3:96-96). At the centre of several Islamic religious practices is the Ka'ba, a building in Mecca to which Muslims face when in prayer. The Ka'ba (“Cube”), also simply called the “House”, is a roughly square building made of a hard, dark bluish-grey stone. It is always covered by a cloth called the kiswa, which is made of black silk and decorated with panels of gold thread embroidery. It stands at the centre of a religious complex called the al-Masjid al-Haram (“The Sacred Shrine”).

RMV 1444-2, print of the Ka'ba, and B106-123 and B118-1: fragments of the kiswa According to tradition the Ka'ba was built by Adam and following its destruction it was later rebuilt by Abraham and Ishmael. Within the last fifteen hundred years, the Ka'ba has been rebuilt on nine occasions, including the changes made by the Prophet Muhammad in the early seventh century AD. The present appearance of the whole al-Masjid al-Haram owes much to the twentieth century rebuilding by the Saudi authorities in order to accommodate the vast numbers of people who come on Hajj.

5



Figure 2: Detail from a late 16th century Persian manuscript depicting the Ka'ba being covered with the new kiswa or cloth covering (after Rajab 1994, p. 8) Ihram The term ihram is used to describe the spiritual state of a person and the garments worn by the pilgrims, especially men.

… men wrap themselves with two pieces of unstitched white clothes instead of elegant clothes, which make people distinct from one another. They look like dead people in shroud, detached from the world and entering the realm of submission. A pilgrim takes off the robe of disobedience and puts on the garment of piety… (www.al-islam.org/thehajj/7.htm, p.1).

Spiritual ihram The process of being dressed in ihram involves various acts, including the cutting of one’s finger and toe nails, removal of unwanted body hair, washing and combing the head hair, and the trimming of beards and moustaches. These are followed by a purification bath, shower, and wudu (ritual washing normally carried out prior to saying one’s prayers). The following act is to don ihram clothing. As will be seen later, men wear two sheets of white cloth, while women can wear their ordinary clothing. The pilgrim then says the niyyah, or statement of intention, whereby it is publicly announced that he or she intends to carry out a pilgrimage. This is followed by a number of specific prayers, and the person is now regarded as being in a state of ihram. The simple nature of the (male) ihram garments is intended to be a reminder of equality; no one is able to show his status and wealth by the type and quality of his clothes. The wearing of ihram is also meant to be a reminder to the pilgrim of his or her mortality, as the garments were often needed in the past as shrouds for pilgrims who died en route. The situation was described by al-Ghazali (d. AD 1111):

As for buying the ihram garment, at that moment he should reflect on the shroud and how he will (one day) be wrapped in it. He will wear the ihram garment when he reaches the Lord’s House, but it may be that his journey there will never occur. What is sure is that he will face God wrapped in his shroud. And just as he may not look upon the Lord’s House except in

6

http://www.al-islam.org/thehajj/7.htm



clothes different from what he usually wears, so after death he cannot see God but in a dress different from his worldly dress (quoted by Peters 1994, p. 115)

It is also regarded as a reminder of how people will be on the Day of Resurrection, namely naked and barefooted. Physical ihram Ihram is also the term used for the distinctive garments worn by male pilgrims during both the Ùmra and the Hajj. Women are not subject to the same restrictions and are allowed to wear subdued versions of their daily wear. It would not appear, however, that this was always so: there is an anonymous description of the Egyptian Hajj caravan from about AD 1575, for instance, which seems to suggest that women also wore the two part ihram dress:

When the next morning by the sun rising, the Caravan arrives at Bedrhonem [Badr Hunayn in the Hijaz], in which place every man washes himself from top to toe, as well men as women, and leaving off their apparel, having each one a cloth about their privities … and another white one upon their shoulders, all which can go to Mecca in this habit do so, and are thought to merit more than the other, but they which cannot do so vow to sacrifice a ram at the mountain of pardons. And after they be washed, it is not lawful for any man or woman to kill either flea or louse with their hands, neither to take them with their nails, until they have accomplished their vowed orations at the mountain of pardons aforesaid (Anon 1927, vol. 3, p. 185).

Nowadays it is normal for men to wear ihram dress while women wear their own, respectable form of clothing. This point will be returned to later. Where and when is ihram worn? There is an imaginary boundary around Mecca called miqat (pl. mawaqit). A pilgrim cannot cross this boundary without first entering a state of ihram and wearing ihram. A pilgrim in the state of ihram and wearing ihram is called a muhrim. The place where most pilgrims change their status reflects the ancient pilgrim routes by land from Syria and Yemen, and by sea from Egypt and India and further east. The main mawaqit around Mecca are Zhal Hulaifa (north), Dhat Irq (north-east), Al-Djuhfa (north-west), Yalamlam (south-east), and Qarn al-Manazil (east).

Figure 3: Map showing the position of the main mawaqit around Mecca

7



Figure 4: Pilgrims arriving for the Hajj (Amin 1978, p. 40). Nowadays with the advent of air travel, pilgrims are advised either to don ihram prior to stepping on board the airoplane or at least one hour before arriving at the airspace over Mecca. The Ùmra or Lesser Pilgrimage The word Ùmra means a visit, literally a visit to the Ka'ba. Although the Ùmra can be carried out at any time of the year, many Muslims combine the Ùmra with the real Hajj. After entering the state of ihram a pilgrim goes to Mecca and enters the Masjid al-Haram. Here the Tawaf is performed, which involves circling the Ka'ba seven times in an anti-clockwise direction. During the whole time a pilgrim constantly says a series of prayers and carries out a number of acts. The pilgrim then goes to and drinks from the well of Zamzam, which is now enclosed in a marble chamber close to the Ka'ba. The spring is said to have appeared at the feet of Ishmael during Hagar’s search for water between the hills of Safa and Marwah

RMV 1973-70, 1973-142 and B106-88, Zamzam water containers.

8



The pilgrims then perform the sa‛y, which means walking seven times between the hills of Safa and Marwah. These hills are situated to the south and north of the Ka'ba respectively. Nowadays, there are only vague signs of these hills and the whole route between them is enclosed in a long gallery. After a pilgrim has carried out the sa‛y, men are expected to shave their heads or have their hair clipped very short, while women have two to three centimetres trimmed from their hair or a lock of hair cut off. This act releases the pilgrims from the state of ihram and normal clothing may be resumed. The Five Days of Hajj The Hajj can only take place on the five days between the 8th and the 13th day of Dhul-Hijjah, the last month in the Islamic lunar calendar. There are three types of Hajj, which are in hierarchical order: Ifrad Hajj (Single) At the miqat a pilgrim of Ifrad Hajj declares his/her intention for the main Hajj only (thus he/she does not perform the Ùmra). The pilgrim is released from ihram on the day of sacrifice at Mina, at the end of the Hajj. Tamattu Hajj (Interrupted) The second form of Hajj is the Tamattu Hajj. The Tamattu, which is the most commonly carried out form of Hajj, involves performing the Ùmra during the Hajj season and prior to the main Hajj. Normally a pilgrim carries out the Ùmra, takes off his or her ihram dress and wears normal clothing, and then on the evening of Tarwaiah (the first day of the Hajj) re-enters the state of ihram ready for the main Hajj. Qiran Hajj (Combined) In this type of Hajj, a pilgrim declares his or her intention to perform both the Ùmra and the Hajj together, so that the rites of the Ùmra are included in the act of the main pilgrimage. The restrictions of ihram apply to the whole period and ihram is only taken off on the day of sacrifice.

Figure 5: Map showing the location of the main sites associated with the Hajj The following is a summary of the rites performed during the five days of the main Hajj. The evening before the Hajj On the evening before the 8th day of Dhul-Hijjah, a pilgrim takes a bath and enters the state of ihram, and starts wearing ihram dress (if this has not already been adopted). The pilgrim then says a series of prayers, including the Talbiyah, which a Muslim recites once he or she is in ihram and has made his or her intention to become a pilgrim known. Day One: on the 8th day of Dhul-Hijjah, the pilgrim travels to Mina, some three miles from Mecca. The pilgrim stays there overnight and recites various prayers.

Day Two: “The Day of Arafat” (Yaumul-Àrafah): at sunrise on the morning of the 9th day of Dhul-Hijjah the pilgrim travels to the Plain of Arafat, nine miles from Mecca. This is the place where according to tradition Muhammad delivered his last sermon. Staying at Arafat is the single most important act of the

9



Hajj; prayers are constantly said, and people remain standing. Immediately after sunset, the pilgrims run to the nearby place of Muzdalifah, halfway between Arafat and Mina, and stay there overnight. While staying at Muzdalifah a pilgrim collects seventy pebbles to be used in Mina. Day Three: “The Day of Sacrifice” (Yaumun Nahr): just before sunrise on the morning of the 10th of Dhul-Hijjah the pilgrim returns to Mina and later in the day to Mecca. Four important acts are carried out on this day:

� Pelting of the big shaitan (Ramee or Jamratul Àqabah): after reaching Mina, the pilgrim has to carry out the ramee or the symbolic stoning of the devil (shaitan) by throwing pebbles against the largest of three pillars. This usually takes place between midday and dusk prayer. Seven pebbles are thrown while the pilgrim recites: bismillahi allahu akber (“in the name of Allah, Allah is great”)

� The next act is the sacrifice of an animal in memory of Abraham’s sacrifice of an

animal instead of his son. A sheep, goat, camel or cow can be sacrificed. During the slaughter of the animal certain prayers are said. Normally a professional butcher is employed.

� Halaq: after the sacrifice of the animal, the head of a male pilgrim is completely

shaven. Women usually have their hair trimmed by about 2.5 cm. After the hair has been shaven it is permissible for the pilgrim to remove his or her ihram clothing, take a bath, trim the moustache, clip finger nails and use hair oil and perfume. All restrictions are relaxed.

� Tawafuz-Ziyarah: the seven-fold circumambulation of the Ka'ba at Mecca while

reciting prayers. If the sa‛y has not yet taken place, then it must occur now.

The pilgrims then return to Mina to spend the night.

Day Four: On the 11th of Dhul-Hijjah the pilgrims continue to stone the three Jimaar. Those who have finished stoning the pillars spend the rest of the day in prayer and contemplation. Day Five: On the 12th of Dhul-Hijjah the pilgrim stones the three Jimaar again before either spending the night at Mina again or returning to Mecca. At this point all the main acts of Hajj have been performed. The only deed left is for the pilgrim to perform the Tawaf al-Wuda or “Farewell Circumambulation”, just before he or she leaves Mecca for his next destination. From now on a man is allowed to call himself a Hajji, while a woman is a Hajjah. It is not uncommon for pilgrims to travel afterwards to Medina to visit the “The Prophet’s Mosque”), in order to pray at the tomb of the Prophet.

RMV 1444-1 and 543-10: prints of the mosque of Medina.

10



Figure 6: Detail from a medieval manuscript showing the pilgrims around the Ka'ba (after Brend 1991, fig. 2).

11



2. Men's Ihram The nature of men’s ihram garments is laid down in several of the hadiths or traditions, based upon sayings of the Prophet Muhammad.

Ibn Umar said (on the authority of the Prophet), the months of the Hajj are Shawwal and Dhu al-Qa`da and the first ten days of Dhu al-Hijja. And Ibn Abbas said, it is the custom (of the Prophet) that a man shall not enter the state of ritual purity (ihram) except in the months of pilgrimage (Bukhari, The Sound, 25:34).

Ibn Abbas said that the Prophet – may God bestow peace and blessings upon him – appointed for the people of Medina [that is, people coming from Medina] Dhu al-Hulayfa [Zhal Halaifah] as the place where they should enter the state of ihram; for the people of Syria, Juhfa [Al-Djuhfa]; for the people of Najd, Qarn al-Manazil; and for the people of the Yemen, Yalamlam. These are for them and for those who come upon them from other places, for those who have taken a decision to perform the Hajj and Umra. And for whoever is on the nearer side of these points, the appointed place (for ihram) is where he starts, so that for the people of Mecca it is Mecca (Bukhari, The Sound, 25.7).

Ibn Umar reported the Prophet – may God bestow peace and blessing upon him – that a man once asked him, what should a man wear in the state of ihram? He answered, “He shall not wear shirt (qamis), nor turban (ìmama), nor trousers (sirwa), nor headgear, nor any dyed cloth; and if he cannot find footwear, then let him wear leather stockings (khuff), but cut off so that they may be lower than the ankles.”(Bukhari, The Sound, 3:53).

Ibn Abbas said, someone in a state of ihram may smell sweet-smelling plants, and look in a looking-glass, and use comestibles as medicines, like olive oil and butter; Ata said, he can wear a ring and carry a purse. When Ibn Umar made the circumambulation while in the state of ihram he girdled his middle with a cloth. Aisha’s opinion was that there was no harm in wearing underpants (Bukhari, The Sound 25.18).

If a man was too poor to have special ihram clothing or was unable to purchase or acquire suitable lengths of cloth, then it was acceptable for him to wear (baggy) trousers (sirwal), but not a shirt (qamis).

Ibn Abbas reports that Allah’s Messenger delivered a sermon at Arafat saying, “A Muslim (pilgrim) who finds no suitable garb may wear trousers, and if he finds no suitable slippers, he may wear shoes.

Figure 7: Male pilgrim wearing ihram (Amin 1978, p. 90) and Figure 8: Pilgrim leaving Schiphol airport for the 2004 Hajj (photograph by courtesy of Jörgen Caris and the Trouw newspaper)

12



It was also reported by Nasa’i that such a man: “… must take off his trousers and put on a proper garb when and if he finds one. But if a person finds no proper upper Hajj garment, he should not wear his shirt, for unlike trousers one can do without it”

Appearance The traditional ihram dress worn by men consists of two pieces of white, unsewn cloth, one of which is usually about 125 x 300 cm in size (the izar) and covers the lower half of the body. The other is about 125 x 180 cm in size (the rida) and covers the upper half. They are usually made out of a cotton material such as towelling, which better absorbs perspiration. Nowadays the garments are normally white, but in the past some colour was included as noted by the English Arabist, Sir Richard Burton (1821-1890), writing about his experiences of the Hajj in AD 1853:

… we donned the attire, which is nothing but two new cotton cloths, each six feet long by three and a half broad, white, with narrow red stripes and fringes: in fact, the costume called Al-Eddeh, in the baths at Cairo (These sheets are not positively necessary; any clean cotton cloth not sewn in any part will do equally well. Servants and attendants expect the master to present them with an ihram). One of these sheets, technically termed the Rida, is thrown over the back, and, exposing the arm and shoulder, is knotted at the right side in the style Wishah. The Izar is wrapped around the loins from waist to knee, and knotted or tucked in at the middle, supports itself. Our heads were bare, and nothing was allowed upon the instep (Burton 1893, II, p. 139).

Modern appearance is described as follows:

Put one sheet of Ihraam around the lower part of your body (waist below) and bring the two ends together in the front. Holding the ends with the right hand, fold the sheet to the left. Put your left hand on the left side of your stomach and over the Ihraam. Fold the sheet to the right side over the hand. Now put the hand over the fold again. Fold one more time to the left side. Holding all the folds together put a belt around your stomach, leaving about four inches [10 cm] of Ihraam above the belt. Finally fold down the portion of Ihraam over the belt. Take the other sheet of Ihraam and wrap it around the upper body, covering both arms and leaving the head uncovered (Anon, www.islam.tc/alhilaa/site/hajj.html, p. 7).

Men are also allowed to wear a bag or belt (himyan) of some kind in order to keep valuable items safe. As seen earlier, according to various hadiths it is necessary to have the ankles and upper part of the feet uncovered, and that slippers were the preferred form of footwear. Nowadays, most pilgrims wear flip-flop style slippers in white plastic (shib-shib; hawai chappal) In the case of extreme weather conditions, a blanket or towel can be used to cover part of the body.

Figure 9: Male pilgrims wearing ihram in the wishah style (Amin 1978, p. 101).

13

http://www.islam.tc/alhilaa/site/hajj.html



What is forbidden? While in a state of ihram men are not allowed:

�� to wear sewn garments, underwear, gloves or socks �� to cover their faces or head �� to use perfume on the body or the ihram cloths. Scented soap should also be avoided �� to shave or trim hairs from any part of the body, to comb or groom the hair (in case a hair is

removed) �� to cut finger or toe nails �� to kill lice, indicating it to others and removing lice from the body or hair

How is ihram worn during the Hajj There are two basic ways for men to wear ihram garments. Wishah or the ‘normal’ form of ihram is worn during most of theÙmra and the Hajj. The garments consist of one piece of cloth (izar) that is rapped around the midriff to cover the body from navel to mid-calves or lower; the other (rida) is draped around the pilgrim’s shoulders to cover the upper body. Burton’s use of the term Wishah for this style, as quoted above, appears to be wrong. Another way of wearing ihram is called idtiba and is worn during the Tawaf ul Qudom, when a pilgrim first enters the al-Masjid al-Haram in Mecca and carries out the seven-fold circumambulation of the Ka'ba. In this form of dress the pilgrim drapes one end of the rida over his left shoulder back to front. The other end goes across his back, under his right arm, across his front, and is finally draped over his left shoulder, leaving his right shoulder uncovered.

Figure 10: Many of the pilgrims in this photograph are wearing ihram in the idtiba style with the right shoulder bare (Amin 1978, p.73).

14



3. Women’s ihram According to the hadiths it is not necessary for a woman to wear special clothing while in a state of ihram. Women are expected to wear clothing that conceals their shape and covers the body completely, leaving only their faces and hands exposed. According to some authors, however, gloves can be worn. Women are also allowed to wear jewellery (it was regarded as unsafe to leave jewellery unattended).

Figure 11. A late sixteenth century Persian manuscript depicting female pilgrims standing near the Ka'ba, Mecca (after Rogers 1986, no. 116). According to the hadith recorded by Abu Dawud:

Ibn Umar reported that he heard the Prophet – may God bestow peace and blessings upon him – forbidding women in the state of ihram the wearing of gloves, a veil [face veil], and dyed garments, and (adding) that besides these they might wear whatever they liked of garments coloured with safflower, or made of silk, or ornaments or trousers or shirt.

Daily life Some women choose to wear ordinary, daily life clothing. This type of clothing is normally of a subdued colouring (figs. 12 and 13). Nowadays, more and more women are wearing black Saudi style clothing consisting of an outer garment called an abayeh and a long headscarf (shelagh; see fig. 21).

15



Figure 12: A group of women (from left to right) wearing special ihram dress; white clothing over a pale coloured dress; or normal dress (after Amin 1978, p. 35).

Figure 13: A family portrait of pilgrims at Schiphol Airport prior to leaving for the 2004 Hajj (photograph by courtesy of Jörgen Caris and the Trouw newspaper)

16



Figure 14: Pilgrims leaving Schiphol airport for the 2004 Hajj. (photograph by courtesy of Jörgen Caris and the Trouw newspaper) The second form that is often worn is basically a white version of their traditional dress from home. So a woman from Morocco would wear a (white) kaftan; a woman from Egypt would wear a galabiyeh, while an Iranian woman would wear a long dress (libas) with a white cloak (chador), and so forth (fig. 15).

Figure 15: Egyptian Hajj outfit for a woman. (photography by B. Grishaaver)

17



A third form of Hajj clothing for a woman consists of either normal clothing or a white Hajj outfit that is worn underneath the two sheets normally associated with male ihram dress. This is not commonly worn, but it is permitted as long as her hair and head are covered. Sometimes these sheets are left white, on other occasions they are dyed a pale colour.

Figure 16: Pilgrims wearing ihram arriving for the Hajj (Amin 1978, p. 44). Faceveils One of the more controversial aspects of women’s ihram is whether a woman should wear a faceveil or not. According to a hadith a woman should not have her hands covered nor have any cloth touching her face.

Ibn Ùmar reported: “Allah’s Messenger (pbuh1), forbade women pilgrims from wearing gloves, veils ….” Bukhari reported that À’ishah said: “A woman must neither wear a veil to cover her face, nor wear clothes that are dyed with saffron or other fragrant dyeing material”

However, some scholars say it is acceptable for a woman to cover her face with something other than a veil, so she may use an umbrella or a similar item as a screen between men and herself. This reasoning is based on the following hadith:

À’ishah said: “Men on camels used to pass by us while we were with the Prophet (pbuh), and in the state of Ihram. We would cover our faces with our gowns when they passed by us, and then uncover them again.” This is reported by Abu Dawud and Ibn Majah.

In the past various forms of creating a screen or a curtain rather than an actual faceveil have been used. In the nineteenth century, for example, Sir Richard Burton described the veils worn by female pilgrims from Turkey:

The wife and daughters of a Turkish pilgrim of our party assumed the Ihram at the same time as ourselves. They appeared dressed in white garments; and they had exchanged the Lisam,

1 “Peace be unto Him”

18



that coquettish fold of muslin which veils without concealing the lower part of the face, for a hideous mask, made of split, dried and plaited palm-leaves, with two “bulls’ eyes” for light. The reason why this “ugly” …….. must be worn is that a woman’s veil during the pilgrimage ceremonies is not allowed to touch her face (Burton 1893, II, p. 141).

Based on actual examples and photographs it would appear that Indonesian pilgrims wore an even more elaborate faceveil made of a long length of material mounted on a bamboo frame. The effect was of a curtain hanging in front of the wearer’s face. Nowadays, there are two basic views:

�� a faceveil is not necessary, as all pilgrims should be in a state of mental and physical purity. �� faceveils are not necessary unless a woman is likely to come into contact with men who are

outside the immediate family, in which case her face should be covered. As a result there are some women who decide to wear faceveils and others who do not. In most cases the veil chosen is a plain coloured niqab.

Figure 17: Male and female pilgrims (Burton 1892, II, op. p. 139).

19



Figure 18: A late nineteenth century photograph of an Indonesian pilgrim with her faceveil draped over the back of her head (Snouck Hurgronje, 1889, pl. XIXd).

Figure 19: A late nineteenth century pilgrim's faceveil and headcover from Indonesia (RMV 370-2992 and 370-2991).

20



Figure 20: An Indonesian faceveil and headcovering (RMV 370-2992 and 370-2991)

21



4. Conclusion Going on Hajj and being dressed in ihram is a connecting link between the modern Muslims and the millions of men and women who have carried out the Hajj since the dawn of Islam. In addition, ihram can be seen as an early form of globalization in dress, which was deliberately encouraged with the ideal of making all (male) pilgrims equal, no matter where they came from or what their status was in their home countries. Yet ihram is also one of those rare occasions in dress history, whereby the rules surrounding the use of a particular set of clothing are much stricter for men than for women. As a result, women’s ihram dress has developed a wider range of forms than for their male counterparts and these forms can be seen to represent individual, ethnic, as well as nationalistic ideas.

Figure 21: Female pilgrims wearing black faceveils and abayehs, with white dresses (Amin 1978, p. 51).

22



Literature Amin, M., Pilgrimage to Mecca, London, 1978. Anon, “A description of the yearely voyage or pilgrimage of the Mahumetans, Turkes and Moores to Mecca in Arabia”, in: R. Hakluyt, The Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques and Discoveries of the English Nation Made by Sea or Overland to the Remote and Farthest Distance Quarters of the Earth at Any Time within the Compass of these 1600 Years, vol. 3, pp. 167-197, London, 1927. Arberry, A,J., The Koran Interpreted, Oxford, 1964. Brend, B., Islamic Art, London, 1991. Burton, Sir R., Personal Narrative of a Pilgrimage to al-Medinah and Meccah, 1893, London (2 vols). Gaudefroy-Demombynes, M., Le pèlerinage à la Mekke, Paris, 1923. Peters, F.E., The Hajj, Princeton, 1994. Rajab, The Tareq Rajab Museum, Kuwait, 1994. Rogers, J.M.,1986. The Topkapi Saray Museum: The Albums and Illustrated Manuscripts, Boston. Snouck Hurgronje, C., Mekka, vol. 2; Aus dem heutigen Leben, Leiden, 1889.

23



Links to other websites Al-Islam, Halting Places, www.al-islam.org/thehajj/7.htm Anon, Hajj and Hajj-e-Badal, www.jamiat.org.za/h_badal.html Anon, Hajj, Pilgrimage, www.unn.ac.uk/societies/islamic/islam/hajj.htm Anon, Hajj Type, www.hajj.al-islam.com Anon, The Performance of Hajj, www.islam.tc/alhilaa/site/hajj.html Daughters of Adam: The Newsletter, Hajj, www.daugthersofadam.org/latest/ihram.html Islam4all, 2. Hajj, www.groups.msn.com/islam4all/hajjampumrahpage2.msnw Islam4all, Hajj & Umrah (Step by Step), www.groups.msn.com/islam4all/hajjampumrah.msnw Islam4all, Performance of Hajj (Step by Step), www.groups.msn.com/islam4all/hajjampumrahpageno4.msnw Islam4all, Performance of Hajj (Step by Step), www.groups.msn.com/islam4all/hajjampumrahpageno5.msnw Islam4all, Sa’ey, www.groups.msn.com/islam4all/hajjampumrahpageno3.msnw IslamOnline, Fiqh: Restrictions of Ihram, www.isamonline.net/English/hajj/2002/01Fiqh/article8.shtml Islamic Voice, Hajj 1: Basic Rites of Women in Hajj, www.islamicvoice.com/march.98/hajj1.htm Kjeilen, T., Hajj, www.i-cias/com/e.o/hajj.htm Usmani, M.T., Hajj: Merits and Precepts, www.darululoomkhi.edu.pk/fiqh/Hajj/haj.html Al-Uthaimeen, M. As-Salih, How to Perform the Rituals of Hajj and Umrah, www.ummah.net/hajj/rituals/index.html Zahra, A., (ed), Glossary of Hajj Related Terms, www.ummah.net/hajj/glossary/index.html Naseej, Faq’s, www.naseej.com/ilsamic/hajj/hajj-12e.asp

24

http://www.al-islam.org/thehajj/7.htm

http://www.jamiat.org.za/h_badal.html

http://www.unn.ac.uk/societies/islamic/islam/hajj.htm

http://www.hajj.al-islam.com/

http://www.islam.tc/alhilaa/site/hajj.html

http://www.daugthersofadam.org/latest/ihram.html

http://www.groups.msn.com/islam4all/hajjampumrahpage2.msnw

http://www.groups.msn.com/islam4all/hajjampumrah.msnw

http://www.groups.msn.com/islam4all/hajjampumrahpageno4.msnw



http://www.isamonline.net/English/hajj/2002/01Fiqh/article8.shtml

http://www.islamicvoice.com/march.98/hajj1.htm

http://www.i-cias/com/e.o/hajj.htm

http://www.darululoomkhi.edu.pk/fiqh/Hajj/haj.html

http://www.ummah.net/hajj/rituals/index.html

http://www.ummah.net/hajj/glossary/index.html

http://www.naseej.com/ilsamic/hajj/hajj-12e.asp



Colophon and acknowledgements I should like to thank the following people in the National Museum of Ethnology, Leiden, for their help in the preparation of this digital account of ihram dress: Marlies Jansen and Willem Vogelsang. I should also like to thank Constance Dia, Jan Fehrman, and Julia AlZadjali for reading the manuscript and making valuable comments. I should like to thank and acknowledge the generosity of the Trouw newspaper for allowing me to use three of their photographs in this article, in particular their staff, Wilma Kieskamp and Jörgen Caris.

25

Documents

DRESSED IN IHRAM - materialculture.nlmaterialculture.nl/sites/default/files/files/201704/dressed_in... · IHRAM Hajj clothing for the pilgrimage to Mecca Detail from a late 16th century