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ED 070 624 SE 015 151
TITLE Environmental Quality Research and Development. AReview and Analysis of Federal Programs.
INSTITUTION Executive Office of the President, Washington, D.C.;Federal Council for Science and Technology,Washington, D.C.
PUB DATE Aug 71NOTE 148p.AVAILABLE FROM Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing
Office, Washington, D.C. 20402 (Stock No. 4106-0031,$1.25)
EDRS PRICE MF-$0.65 HC-$6.58DESCRIPTORS *Development; *Environment; Environmental Influences;
Evaluation; *Federal Programs; Financial Support;Program Descriptions; *Reports; *Research; State ofthe Art Reviews
ABSTRACTThis is the first interagency report on Federal
environmental quality research and development programs that presentsprogram descriptions, levels of funding, and analyses. Undertaken atthe request of the Federal Council for Science and Technology, thestudy may be useful in identifying environmental quality research anddevelopment programs in various.agencies and allow for bettercoordination between widely separate disciplines. Program activitieswere considered in nine areas: air quality; water quality; landquality (including solid waste); understanding, describing, andpredicting the environment; protecting and enhancing the environment;alternatives to the use of pesticides; noise; radiation; andpopulation. Funding levels are determined in each of the subjectareas for fiscal years 1969, 1970, and 1971. .AtiarytiS'of the Federalprogram was performed in terms of its balance, trends, priorities,gaps and overlaps, and future needs. A short summary, an analysis,and a table of funding by agencies for each of the subject sectionsare included in the main report. Full reports of the subject matterinvestigations are presented in the appendix. An overall summary ofthe analyses and specific recommendations relating to all reportedFederal environmental quality research and development is alsocompiled. (BL)
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RepOrt of Ad Hoc Committee on'Environmental QualityResearch and Development ofThe Fellers! Council for Science and Technology t
EXECUTIVE OFFICE OF THE PRESIDENTOFFICE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ,
All 1471
E\VIRO\IVE\TAL QUALITY _
RESEARCH4 A\D DEVELOPMENT
a reviewand analysis
of federalprograms
Report of Ad Hoc Committee onEnvironmental QualityResearch and Development ofThe Federal Council for Science and Technology
EXECUTIVE OFFICE OF THE PRESIDENTOFFICE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
AUGUST 1971 2
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing OfficeWashington, D.C. 20402-Price $1.25 cents
Stock Number 4108 -0031
7
Committee and PanelMembership
FCST AD HOC COMMITTEE ON ENVIRONMENTALQUALITY RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
DR. DALE W. JENKINS, ChairmanDirector, Ecology ProgramSmithsonian InstitutionWashington, D.C.
DR. HARVE J, CARLSON, Vice ChairmanDirector, Division of Biological and Medical SciencesNational Science FoundationWashington, D.C.
DR. JOSEPH A. LIEBERMANDeputy Assistant Administrator for RadiationEnvironmental Protection AgencyRockville, Md.
MR. JAMES R. JANIS, AlternateSpecial Assistant to the Deputy Assistant Administrator
for RadiationEnvironmental Protection AgencyRockville, Md.
DR. CHARLES L. OSTERBERGChief, Environmental Sciences BranchAtomic Energy CommissionWashington, D.C.
DR. FRED H. TSCHIRLEYAssistant Coordinator for Environmental ActivitiesDepartment of AgricultureWashington, D.C.
DR. T. F. MCLINTOCK, AlternateDirector, Division of Forest Environment ResearchDepartment of AgricultureWashington, D.C.
DR. DAVID J. WARDAssistant Director, Science and Education StaffDepartment of AgricultureWashington, D.C.
MR. EUGENE LEHRChief of Environmental Research DivisionDepartment of TransportationWashington, D.C.
MISS MADELEINE G. SCHNEIDER, AlternateOffice of Environmental and Urban ResearchDepartment of TransportationWashington, D.C.
DR. DONALD KINGScience OfficeOffice of Environmental Affairs
Department of StateWashington, f).C.
MR. FERGUSON HALL.Senior Program AnalystNational Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationDepartment of ComnierceRockville, NId.
MR. ALEXANDER SADOWSKI, flitrilftirOffice of Plans and ProgramsNational Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationDepartment of CommerceRockville, Md.
DR. WARDELLA W. DOSCHEKProfessional AssistantDivision of Biological and Medical SciencesNational Science FoundationWashington, D.C.
DR. NORMAN HILMARChief, Program Liaison BranchCenter for Population ResearchNational Institutes of HealthDepartment of Health, Education, and WelfareBethesda, Md.
MR. MARTIN PROCHNIKDeputy Science AdvisorDepartment of the InteriorWashington, D.C.
MR. FRANK CARLSON, AlternateAssistant Science AdvisorDepartment of the InteriorWashington, D.C.
MR. NATHANIEL B. COHENSpecial Assistant to the Assistant Administrator for PolicyNational Aeronautics and Space AdministrationWashington, D.C.
MR. LOUIS FONGSpecial AssistantOffice of Space Science and ApplicationsNational Aeronautics and Space AdministrationWashington, D.C.
MR. GLENN SCHLEEDEAssistant Division ChiefNatural Resources Programs DivisionOffice of Management and BudgetWashington, D.C.
M. G. PATTON, M.D.Acting Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense
a'Ye
iii
Department of DefenseWashington, D.C.
LT. COL. IIERHERT E. BELL, A Iternate
Staff AssistantOffice of the Assistant Secretary of DefenseDepartment of DefenseWashington, D.C.
DR. ARTHUR J. Zama,Deputy Director for Water Resources ResearchDepartment of Ilousing and Urban DevelopmentWashington, D.C.
DR. THOMAS C. WINTER, JR.Staff MemberCouncil on Environmental QualityWashington, D.C.
NIn. HYMAN SCHWARTZChief, Research and Development BranchPolicy and Analysis Division, Civil WorksOffice of the Chief of EngineersWashington, D.C.
R. & D. ANALYSIS PANEL
Members
DR. HAM J. CARLSON, ChairmanNational Science Foundation
DR. N. F. BARRAtomic Energy Commission
Dr. COL. HERBERT E. BELLDepartment of Defense
DR. NATHANIEL B. COHEN
National Aeronautics and Space AdministrationMRS. JOSEPHINE K. DOHERTY
National Science FoundationDR. WARDELLA W. DOSCHEK
National Science FoundationDR. NORMAN ILMAR
Department of Health, Education, and WelfareMR. JAMES R. JANIS
Environmental Protection AgencyDR. DALE W. JENKINS
Smithsonian InstitutionMRS. JOAN M. JORDAN
National Science FoundationMR. Louts A. KAUFMAN
Corps of Engineers .
DR. DONALD KINGDepartment of State
DR. JOSEPH A. LIEBERMANEnvironmental Protection Agency -e
DR. T. F. MCLINTOCKDepartment of Agriculture
DR. HOMER W. PARKERDepartment of Transportation
DR. M. G. PsTrortDepartment of Defense
MR. MARTIN PROCHNIKDepartment of the Interior
MR. GLEN SCHLEEDEOffice of Management and Budget
MR. HYMAN A. SCHWARTZCorps of Engineers
iv
DR. ERNEST TIr.RKELDepartment of Health, Eduration, and Welfare
DR. FRED TSCHIRLEYDepartment of Agrieulture
1)R. DAVID J. WARDDepartment of Agriculture
DR. THOMAS C. WINTER, JR.Council on Environmental Quality
DR. ARTHUR J. ZEIZELDepartment of Housing and Urban Development
DR. ALEXANDER ZUCKERNational Academy of Sciences
Panel on Air and Solid Waste
DR. JOSEPH A. LIEBERMAN, ChairmanEnvironmental Pmtection Agency
MR. JAMES R. JANIS, Co-ChairmanEnvironmental Protection Agency
DR. LOUIS SCHOENEnvironmental Protection Agency
DR. DONNA REICHELEnvironmental Protection Agency
MR. LOU LEFKEEnvironmental Protection Agency
DR. W. C. SHAWDepartment of Agriculture
DR. JOHN ZERIIEDepartment of Agriculture
MR. STANLEY OLESONDepartment of Transportation
DR. HENRY F. EDENNational Science Foundation
DR. LOUIS G. MAYFIELDNational Science Foundation
MR. CHARLES KENAHANDepartment of the Interior
MR. E. P. FLINTDepartment of the Interior
MR. ARTHUR H. NEILLNational Aeronautics and Space Administration
DR. ARTHUR J. ZEIZELDepartment of Housing and Urban Development
DR. RUDOLPH ENGELMANNAtomic Energy Commission
MR. ROBERT W. BEADLEAtomic Energy Commission
MR. ALEX F. PERGEAtomic Energy Commission
MAJ. CURTIS G. UNGERDepartment of Army
COMDR. F. M. CLARKDepartment of Navy
MAJ. WILLIAM E. MABSONDepartment of Air Force
MR. FERGUSON HALLDepartment of Commerce
MR. HOWARD E. HEGGESTADDepartment of Agriculture
Panel on Water and Thermal
MR. MARTIN PROCHNIK, ChairmanDepartment of the Interior
.4
DR. JESSEE LUNINDepartment of Agriculture
DR. JEFF SWINEDROAD
Atomic Energy CommissionMR. W. FERGUSON HALL
Department of CommerceMAJ. W. E. MAsson
Department of Air ForceMM. CURTIS G. UNGER
Department of ArmyCOMDR. CURTIS CLARK
Corps of EngineersCOMDR. F. M. CLARK
Department of NavyDR. THOMAS A. MURPHY
Environmental Protection AgencyMR. JOHN FICNAI
Department of the InteriorMR. T. W. MERMEL
Department of the InteriorMR. H. L. STURZA
Department of the InteriorDR. JOHN L. BROOKS
National Science FoundationDR. ROYAL E. ROSTENBACH
National Science FoundationMR. ARTHUR NEILL
National Aeronautics and Space AdministrationDR. 0. M. DERRYDERRY
Tennessee Valley AuthorityCOMDR. WILLIAM LEHR
U.S. Coast Guard
Panel on Pesticides and Land Pollution 0
Pesticides
DR. FRED H. TSCHIRLEY, ChairmanDepartment of Agriculture
MR. KENNETH C. WALKERDepartment of Agriculture
MR. CHARLES R. WALKERDepartment of the Interior
DR. JOHN L. BROOKSNational Science Foundation
DR. DALE LINDSAY
Department of Health, Education, and WelfareCOMDR. F. M. CLARK
Department of NavyMM. WILLIAM E. MANDE
Department of Air ForceMM. CURTIS G. UNGER
Department of Army
Land
MR. CARL W. CARLSONDepartment of Agriculture
DR. ROBERT F. REITEMEIERAtomic Energy Commission
Mits. JOAN M. JORDANNational Science Foundation
DR. RICHARD G. RAYNational Science Foundation
MR. LOUIS W. LEPKEDepartment of Health, Education, and Welfare
MR. ALFRED W. GREI.I,ADepartment of Transportation
COMDR. F. M. CLARKDepartment of Navy
MM. WILLIAM E. NIAnsoNDepartment of Air Force
MM. CURTIS G. UNGERDepartment of Army
MR. ROBERT J. SMITHDepartment of the Interior
Panel on Understanding, Describing,
and Predicting the Environment
DR. DALE W. JENKINS, ChairmanSmithsonian Institution
CMDR. F. M. CLARKDepartment of Navy
MRS. JOSEPHINE DOHERTYNational Science Foundation
DR. RICHARD F. GAUPINDepartment of Health, Education, and Welfare
MR. FERGUSON HALLDepartment of Commerce
MR. ALEXANDER SADOWSKIDepartment of Commerce
MRS. JOAN M. JORDANNational Science Foundation
MR. JAMES L. KERRDepartment of the Interior
DR. WILLIAM C. LORINGDepartment of Health, Education, and Welfare
WILLIAM E. MARRONDepartment of Air Force
MR. A. WAYNE MAGNITZKYDepartment of Defense
CAPT. ARTHUR H. NEILLNational Aeronautics and Space Administration
DR. CARL E. OSTROMDepartment of Agriculture
MM. CURTIS G. UNGERDepartment of Army
Panel on Protecting and Enhancing
the Environment
DR. T. F. MeLorrocx, ChairmanDepartment of Agriculture
DR. HENRY SKINNERDepartment of Agriculture
MR. V. DANIEL STILESDepartment of the Interior
MR. RONALD COOKSYDepartment of the Interior
MISS MADELEINE G. SCENEIDERDepartment of Transportation
DR. ARTHUR J. ZEIZEL
Department of Housing and Urban DevelopmentDR. PHILIP L. JOHNSON
National Science Foundation,MR. FERGUSON HALL
Department of Commerce
6
Panel on Noise and Radiation
LT. COL. HERBERT E. BELL, ChairmanDepartment of Defense
MAJ. WILLIAM E. MABSONDepartment of Air Force
MR. W. S. AIKEN, JR.National Aeronautics and Space Administration
MR. GEORGE E. WINZERDepartment of Housing and Urban Development
MR. D. S. BLOMQUISTDepartment of Commerce
MR. FERGUSON HALLDepartment of Commerce
MR. MICHAEL S. TERPILAKDepartment of Health, Education, and Welfare
DR. J. W. MonDepartment of Commerce
MR. MARTIN PROCHNIKDepartment of the Interior
MR. J. K. POWERDepartment of Transportation
MR. R. D. FrrzsuntotoNational Aeronautics and Space Council
vi
MR. JOHN H. ENDERSNational Aeronautics and Space Council
Ale'. CURTIS G. UNGERDepartment of Army
Da. IttenAnn F. GAuPINDepartment of I lealth, Education, and 11'elfare
DR. CHARLES FOSTERDepartment of Transportation
Panel on PopulationEnvironment
Interrelationships
DR. NORMAN A. IIILMAR, ChairmanDepartment of IfeLith, Education, and Welfare
DR. CALVIN BEALEDepartment of Agriculture
DR. JOHN BitooKsNational Science Foundation
MR. DeWAYNE KOCHDepartment of Army
DR. ROBERT PARKECommission on Population Growth and the American
Future
Preface
This is the first interagency report on the Federalenvironmental quality research and developmentprograms that presents program descriptions, levelsof funding, and analyses. It is presented in accord-ance with Federal reorganizations including the En-vironmental Protection Agency and the NationalOceanographic and Atmospheric Administration.The study was undertaken at the request of theFederal Council on Science and Technology. It leresponsive to the requirements of the Council onEnvironmental Quality and the Office of Manage-ment and Budget to review existing programs andactivities in this area. It is hoped that it will beuseful in identifying the environmental quality re-search and development programs in various agenciesand to provide better coordination between widelyseparated disciplines.
Environmental quality is one of the most per-vasive issues facing the Nation today. It is theresponsibility of the public, industry, and all levelsof government. The Federal Government has re-sponsibilities for acquiring new knowledge, and fordeveloping methods and technology to prevent degrs,-dation and to improve and wisely manage tfne en-
vironment. Federal agencies are contributing to so-lutions of these problems, but available funds andmanpower do not permit adequate coverage for allproblems, so that relative priorities and balancesmust be established. Many reports have been pub-lished' in recent years recommending the researchand development in environmental quality thatshould be undertaken by the Federal Government.Available recommendations and analyses have beenconsidered in this report in an attempt to identifytrends, gaps, and overlaps.
The report has been made possible by the valuableassistance of Federal agency representatives and hasbeen reviewed by all of the agencies involved. TheCommittee is grateful to its vice chairman, Dr.Harve J. Carlson who chaired the R.& D. analysispanel which organized, revised, and edited the reportwith the capable assistance of Dr. Wardelia W.Doschek of NSF and Mrs. Mary Higgs of USDA.
DALE W. JENKINS, ChairmanAd Hoc Committee on EnvironmentalQuality, Research and Development
VII
Contentsa.
Page Paw
COMMITTEE AND PANEL MEMBERSHIP ui Modeling and Systems Approach 02
PREFACE VIIWhere Should 11. & D. Attention he Focosed in
the Future? 23
Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION New Legislation ):3
Definitions of Terms UsedAgency Activities in Environmental Quality R. & D...
44
Chapter 4: WATER QUALITY
Summary2525
Atomic Energy Commission 4Agricultural Water Quality Control Technology .. 25
Corps of Engineers 5Industrial Water Quality Control Technology 25
United States Department of Agriculture 5 Mining and Related Water Quality Problems.... 25
Department of Commerce 5 Municipal Water Quality Control Technology 25
Department of Defense 6 Other Water Quality Problems 27
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare... 6 Salinity lieseareli 28
Department of Housing and Urban Development..Department of the InteriorDepartment of TransportationEnvironmental Protection Agency
6677
Thermal ResearchWaste Treatment and Ultimate DisposalGeneral Water Quality ResearchWater Quality Requirements Research
282828
The National Aeronautics and Space Adminis- Analysis 29
tration 7 Chapter 5: LAND QUALITY :32
The National Science Foundation 8 Summary 32The Smithsonian Institution 8 Analysis 35The Tennessee Valley Authority 8
Chapter 6: UNDERSTANDING, DESCRIBING, AND PREDICTING
Chapter 2: SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS 9 THE ENVIRONMENT :37
General Recommendations 9 Ecology and Related Research :37
Air Quality Summary :37
Water Quality 11 Analysis 39
Land Quality 13 Environmental Observation and Measurement toUnderstanding, Describing, and Predicting the Describe and Predict Weather and Ocean
Environment. 14 Activities 40Protecting and Enhancing the Environment . 15 Summary 40
Alternatives to the Use of Pesticides 15 Analysis 41
Noise 15 Impact of the Environment on Man 42
Radiation 16 Summary 42
Population 16 Analysis 42Locating and Describing Natural Resources 43
Chapter 3: AIR QUALITY 17 Summary 43Summary 17 Analysis 43
Evaluation of Effects 17 Surveys to Describe the Physical Environment 44Measuring and Monitoring 17 Summary 44Prevention and Control 17 Analysis 44Transport and Fate 19 Weather Modification 44
Analysis 20 Summary 44Major Trend in Research Related to Air Quality.. 20 Analysis 44Trends in Intramural vs. Extramural Research
in Air Quality 20 Chapter 7: PROTECTING AND ENHANCING THE ENVIRONMENT.. 46Relative Priority of Air Quality R. & D. Problems S:ummary 46
and Requirements 20 Analysis of Environmental Systems 46Integrating and Team Efforts Necessary 21 Fisheries and Wildlife Resources 46
Ot
tvvrpatimi liestatreesRural and Wild Land Enyirmanent17rlein and Suburban EnvironmenttVater liesuurces
A nalysis
Chapter 8: SPECIAL STUDIES
Alternatives to the I'S(' of I'VS1NI
SummaryAnalysis
It adia tionSummaryAnalysis
Poptalat .
The Distinction Bet weeit Population I tltiVareliand Environmental Research
The Importance of Demographic I )9ta for Ettviron-mental Purposes
Definition I If Pertinent ResearchSutures Reviewed in the Search for Federal It. tk: I ).
un 1401)111:III011 I.uvinlnment Interrelationships..Federal !tow:melt and I /evelipment Activities
Concerned Wit II Pol)1113II011/ nvinItimentI nterrelat ionshif
Appendix 1: AIRQUALITY
Evaluation of EffectqAtonic Energy CommissionDepartment of AgricultureDepartment of Ilealth, Education, and Welfare...Department of TransportationEnvironmental Protect' AgencyNational Science FoundationionTennessee Valley Authority
Measuring and MonitoringAtomic Energy CommissionDepartment of CommerceDepartment of Defense.Department of the Interior .Department of TransportationEnvironmental Protection AgencyNational Aeronautics and Space Administration..National Science Foundation
Prevention and ControlCorps of EngineersDepartment of AgricultureDepartment of DefenseDepartment of the interior.Department of TransportationEnvironmental Protection AgencyGeneral Services AdministrationNational Aeronautics and Space Administration..National Science FoundationTennessee Valley Authority
Transport and FateAtomic Energy CommissionDepartment of TransportationEnvironmental Protection AgencyNational Aeronautica and Spare Administration..National Science Foundation
X
.1s
III
.12
12
53
5757.ill51)
65
6565ti.)656366666667
07076767686869697070707071
73
73
75
75767676707677
77
77
1 10
Page
Appendix 2: WATER QUALITY 78Agrienlitaral Mdlution Control Technology 78
Department of Agriculture 78Envinalmetit al Protertion Agency 79
Tennessee Valley Authority 79
Industrial Pollution Control Technology 79
I )(part molt. of Agrieult oreI:uvironnuvltal Protection Agency 79
Mining PollutionDepartment of the interiorEnvironmental Protetion Agene:.
Si)
nu
80Nlimicipal ?Anthill Control Teelmo.ogy 80
Environmental Pnit(Ptiini Agency 80National Science Foundation 81
Other Water Quality Problems.... 81
Atomic Energy Commission 81
Corps of Engineers 81
Department of Agriculture 81
Department of Commerce 81
Department of Defense 82
Department of Transportation 82
Environmental Protect ion Agency 82
National Science Foundation. 83
Salinity Research 83
Depart men t of Agriculture 83
Department of the Interior 83
Thermal Research 84
Atomic Energy Commission 84
Corps of Engineers RW
Department of CommerceDepartment of the Interior 85Environmental Protect' Agency 85
Department of Rousing and Urban Development. 85
National Science Foundation 86
Tennessee Valley Authority 86
Waste Treatment and Ultimate Disposal 86
Atomic Energy Commission 86
Department of Deiense 86
Department of the Interior 86
Department of Transportation 87
Environmental Protection Agency 87
National Aeronautics and Space Administration 87
General Water Quality Research 87
Corps of Engineers. 87
Department of Commerce 88Department of the Interior 88Department of Transportation 89Environmental Protection Agency 89
Tennessee Valley Authority 90
Water Quality Requirements Research 90
Environmental Protect Agency 90
Appendix 3: LAND QUALITY 91
Animal Wastes 91
Department of Agriculture 91
Forest and Crop Residues 91
Department of Agriculture 91
Heavy Metals 92
Department of Agriculture 92
National Science Foundation 92
Industrial Processing Wastes 92
Corps of Engineers 92
t'
er
11,
Depart went of Agricm: ure .Toutessee Valley Authority
Pesticides ResearchAtomic Energy CommissionDept.-411Iva of AgrieultureDepartmeot of the InteriorDepartment of Ilealth, Education, and Welfare
Plant NutrientsDepartment of Agriculture
SalinityDepartment of Agriculture
SedimentCorps of EngineersDepartment of Agriculture
Solid WastesDepartment of Agriculture. 4Department of CommerceDepartment of DefenseDepartment of the InteriorDepartment of TransportationEnvironmental Protection AgencyNational Science FoundationTennessee Valley Authority
RadiationThermalOther (Unclassified) Land Quality Research.
Department of AgricultureNational Science Foundation
Appendix 4: UNDERSTANDING, DESCRIBING, AND PREDICTINGTHE ENVIRONMENT
Ecology and Related ResearchCorps of EngineersDepartment of AgricultureDepartment of DefenseDepartment of the InteriorNational Science FoundationSmithsonian Institution
Environmental Observation and Measurement toDescribe and Predict Weather and OceanActivity
Corps of EngineersDepartment of AgricultureDepartment of CommerceDepartment of DenseDepartment of the InteriorNational Aeronautics and Space AdministrationNational Science FoundationSmithsonian InstittMion
Impact of the Environment on ManCorps of EngineersDepartment of Health, Education, and Welfare..National Science Foundation.SmitLonian Institution
Locating and Describing Natural ResourcesDepartment of Agriculture
Page
929293939394949494
9595
95959506960697970797989898i)898
99999999
100100100101
101
101102102104104104105106100100107107108108108
Page
Dcpart rued of the Interior.. 108National Aeronautics and Space Administrative. 109National Science Foundation 110
Surveys to Describe the Physical Environment... ... I It)Department of Commerce 110Dip:lenient of the Interior 110National Aeronatities and Space Administration 111
National Science Foundation 111Smithsonian Institution 111
Weather Modification 112Department of Agrieulturc 112Department of Commerce 112Department of Defense 112Department of the Interior 113Department of Transportation 113National Aeronautics and Space Administration 113National Science Foundation 114
Appendix 5: PROTECTING AND ENHANCING THE ENVIRONMENT 11'.1
Analysis of Environmental Systems 115National Science Foundation 115
Fisheries and Wildlife Resources 115Department of Agriculture 145Department of Commem. 116Department of the Interior. 116
Recreation Resources 117Department of Agriculture 117Department of the Interior 117
Rural and Wild Land Environment 118Department of Agriculture 118Department of the Interior 118
Urban and Suburban Environment 119Department of Agriculture 119Department of Transportation 1 If?
Department of Housh, D.:'..!lopment 120Water Resources 120
Department of Agriculture 121Department of the Interior 121
Appendix 6: ALTERNATIVES TO THE USE OF PESTICIDES 122Introduction 122
Department of Agriculture 122Corps of Engineers 123National Science Foundation 123
Appendix NOISE 124Air 124Human Effects 128Land 129Water 133
Appendix 8: RADIATION 134Evaluation of Effects 134Measuring and Monitoring 135Prevention and Control Technology 135Transport and Fate 136
Introduction
The Federal Council for Science and Technology(FCST) established the ad hoc Committee on En-vironmental Quality Research and Development' inJuly 1970. The assigned functions of the Committeewere
To continue to assemble information on theresearch and development activities of the Fed-eral Government related to environmentalquality.To carry out a special analysis of research anddevelopment in the Federal agencies and writea report for the Council on EnvironmentalQuality and the Office of Management andBudget.
The Committee, with representation from thescientific segments of Federal departments andagencies, compiled narrative summary descriptionsand fiscal data on the environmental quality re-search, development, and demonstration (hereinafterreferred to as R. & D.) programs performed or sup-ported by the Federal Government. Projects andtask level activities were not reported individuallybut were included as part of programs. In general,more narrative is devoted to larger, more heavilyfunded programs. Some smaller programs of an inno-vative nature, however, have also been highlighted.The areas considered are air quality; water quality;land quality (including solid waste); understanding,
ti describing, and predicting the environment; pro-tecting and enhancing the environment; and specialstudies on alternatives to the use of pesticides; noise;radiation; and population. It is recognized that someof the material, which has been classified under anyone of these areas, could just as logically have beenclassified under another of the areas. The Committee
1 The Committee on Environmental Quality of FCST wasterminated in May 1970 in recognition of the new Council onEnvironmental Quality. However, the former Research,Development, and Demonstration Subcommittee was retainedand the ad hoc Committee was formed with additional agencyrepresentatives.
uHAPTER 1
took into account previous studies of pollutionR. & D. by the former Committee on EnvironmentalQuality of FCST and more recent environmentalquality special analyse:: conducted by the Officeof Management and Budget.
The results of the Committee's survey to determinethe level of funding for the subject areas consideredin the report for fiscal years 1969, 1970, and 1971are reported in table 1 (p. 3) and summarized infigure 1 (p. 2).
The present study had three specific objectives:(1) To identify and describe agency R. & D. ac-tivities in the above-listed categories; (2) to de-termine the funding levels for fiscal years 1969, 1970,and 1971; and (3) to analyze the Federal program interms of its balance, trends, priorities, gaps and over-laps, and future needs. Special panels were formedto compile the program descriptions and to reviewand analyze the programs. An R. & D. analysispanel assembled, analyzed, and critically reviewedthe entire report.
Full reports of the subject-matter panels are in-cluded in the appendix of this report. A short sum-mary, an analysis, and a table of funding by agenciesfor each of the sections are included in the mainreport. An overall summary of the analyses andspecific recommendations relating to all reportedFederal environmental quality R. & D. are includedin chapter 2.
Environmental quality was considered from suchbroad standpoints as pollution, environmental degra-dation, esthetics, recreation, resource management,space for living, wildlife habitat, and biological andphysical systems or phenomena. Components of theenvironment were considered to be air; water; land(soil, minerals, etc.); biota (including man); andmaterials, devices, and structures. An underlyingconsideration for all aspects of the Committee's workVMS the need to maintain or manage surroundingsand natural resources and systems essential for thelong-range benefit of man and other living organisms.A primary consideration was the availability of sound
GI1
millions
of dollars
800
400
200
Nu.
FIG
UR
E 1.F
ED
ER
AL R
&D
FU
ND
S
EN
VIR
ON
ME
NT
AL Q
UA
LITY
by Purpose, F
Y 1969, 1970, 1971
Total
Environm
entalQ
uality
Air
Quality
Water
Quality
landQ
ualityU
nderstanding,Probating
Alternatives
Describing
andto U
se ofand
Enhancing
PeadddaaPredicting
V
C4
TABU.: 1.Total Fish ral cnrironnuntal quality program rem-archand (14 rdopmentlisral guirs 190, 14P3, and 1t71.
multistory by parposi
inguret in million. of dollar4
Purim°
Fiscal year
1969 1970 1971
Air quality 62.51 79.06 93.92
Water finality s,3 31 55.79 115.37
Lind quality
niderptanding. deleribing. and
predicting the environment
42.119
199.49
44.71
249.99
50.91
323.32
Protecting and enhancing the
environment 57.53 65.59 67.62
Special studies:Alternative, to we of pesticide 33,00 14.74 38.94
Noise 15.90 114.95 19.47
Radiation 74.29 77.43 77.37
Total 572.10 639.26 757.13
scientific knowledge about the effects of pollutantson living organisms and their environments.
This study did not attempt to summarize environ-mental quality R. & D. supported by non - FederalentitiesState and other levels of government, othercountries, industry, universities, State experimentstations, and foundations. The Committee is awarethat a great deal of important and effective workis done by non-Federal organizations and recognizesthat no overall evaluation of the Nation's total en-vironmental R. & D. effort can be made withouttaking them into consideration. .Such an analysisstill needs to be made.
Capital investments in R. & D. facilities are notincluded. The closely related areas of pollutionmonitoring, industrial health, occupational healthand safety, pollution control and technology, man-power requirements, legislation, regulations and en-forcement, and all actual operations for environ-mental enhancement and surveys to understand theenvironment are not included. Funding for researchon environmental quality in this report may differfrom that reported elsewhere, because this reportexcludes such costs as building and operating re-search facilities, ship support, launch vehicles, satel-lites, and aircraft.
Reorganization of Federal agencies involving en-vironmental quality occurred while this report wasbeing written. Program and fiscal data for the En-vironmental Protection Agency (EPA establishedDec. 2, 1970) and the National Oceanic and Atmos-
pheric Administration (NOAA created Oct. 3, 1970)have been presented according to the presentreorganizations. Fiscal data for programs transferredfrom other agencies are reported under EPA andNOAA as though they existed previously, to preventcomplexities of data presentation.
Another important consideration not extensivelycovered in this report is the impact of closely relateddevelopments, research or otherwise, on environ-mental quality. There are technological, social, eco-nomic, and legal developments that could hay,' asgreat an impact on the future of environmentalquality as those research activities considered in thisreport. Information exchange is also necessary. Theserelated activities might, be appropriately classifiedas alternatives.
Typical examples are(a) Low-cost tunneling techniques that would
offer mass transportation with closed-cycle or con-trolled air ventilation.
(b) Low-cost fuel cell or other power sourcesfor home or industrial use that could eliminate asignificant measure of pollution from wasted energyassociated with centralized powerplant operations.
(c) Atomic fusion development offering whatappears to be a relatively pollution-free energysource.
(d) Urban and rural land-use planning, whichguides community development, to avoid or reducenatural hazards and constraints and to use andpreserve environmental opportunities and amen-ities.Another area only briefly discussed in the report
is R. & D. programs on disposal of solid waste.Municipal solid waste is generated in this countryat a rate of 6 pounds per capita per dayabout aton for every man, woman, and child in this countryevery year. By 1980, this rate is expected to increaseto about 8 pounds per capita per day. To collect,transport, and dispose of this enormous quantity ofurban refuse, this country spends more than S4billion each year, and 80 percent of that amount isspent on collection alone. Increased emphasis mustbe placed on developing improved collection pro-cesses utilizing the techniques of systems analysisand other operations research tools in this area.
Concern about the quality of our environment isshared at the Federal, State, and local levels. Pol-lution, whether in the air, land, or water, has noboundaries and, therefore, becomes of concern inter-nationally whether or not the countries share acommon border, river, or sea. Our Nation is partici-
143
inning in several global R. & D. and monitoringprograms and should particiisite in additional ones.All international programs of the Federal agencieson environmental quality H. & D. are not includedin this report.
Environmental quality H. & D. programs of Fed-eral agencies are coonlinated by various mechanismsincluding interagency panels and committees Of theOffice of Science and Technology, and various com-missions, interagency committees, task forces andtask groups, and working groups, between variousFederal agencies. Certain agencies pool their re-sources and provide each other with basic infor-mation. There are a number of information coordi-nation systems such as the Science Information Ex-change. Agencies also maiiltain multidisciplinarylaboratories and centers, and fund joint prognuns orprojects. Agencies frequently transfer funds to otheragencies to carry out research programs and tasks.Memoranda of understanding agreements are signedbetween agencies to provide.long-term mutual pro-grams.
In addition to interagency coordination, theFederal agencies also have coordinating mechanismswith State and local agencies including joint pro-grams and funding of programs. The Federal agenciesgive research contracts and grants to profit andnonprofit institutions including universities andconsortia.
There is a very real need for additional intensive,intelligent R. & D. efforts in all areas of environ-mental quality. Of equally great importance, how-ever, is the conscientious application and utilizationof existing knowledge in the making of policy de-cisions and in the initiation of activities that mayaffect environmental quality.
The total Federal expenditures (obligations) in thefields of pollution control and abatement and en-vironmental quality related activities for fiscal year1971 were $6,005 million of which pollution controland abatement was $2,005 million based on surveysby the Office of Management and Budget and theR. & D. subcommittee, Committee on Environ-mental Quality, FCST. These reports show that thefiscal year 1971 obligations for research and develop-ment in the above fields were $856.5 million. In thepresent study, using different parameters and moredetailed and updated information, the fiscal year1971 obligations for R. & D. were $787.15 million.These studies show that the R. & D. programs areleas than 15 percent of the total Federal expendituresin this field.
4
DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED
Terms used in this report are defined as follows:ResearchThe systematic pursuit and acqui-
sition of information, knowledge, and under-standing.
DerclopmentThe systematic conversion of theresults of research into useful technology.
DemonstrationOperational or commercial-scaleexhibits of designated subjects at selected locationsand for specific objectives designed to depict newtechnology.
EnvironmentThe surrounding or envelopingcomplex of physical, chemical, and biological con-ditions that may affect the survival and welfareof man and other living organisms.
Encironmental qualityThe degree to whichconstituent environmental conditions meet ac-ceptable standards for human health, welfare, andthe enjoyment of natural resources and amenities.
PollutionA condition of air, water, or landcharacterized by the presence of materials in suchform or quantity as to be potentially deleteriousto health, injurious to plant or animal life, offensiveto the senses, or otherwise socially unacceptable.
EcologyThe study of organisms and their re-lationships to each other and to the environment.
EcosystemA natural, identifiable, interactingnetwork of organisms and their physico-chemicalenvironment that constitute a subsystem of thebiosphere.
AGENCY ACTIVITIESIN ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY R. & D.
"kilinie Energy Commission (AEC)
AEC's research and development responsibilitiesinclude achieving a more complete understanding ofthe mechanisms by which radioactivity arising fromman's nuclear activities moves through and interactswith the natural environment.. An extensive programin radiation biology is continuing to elucidate thebiological and physical processes resulting from radio-activity in the environment and to adequately assessthe effects of radiation injury and repair. Improvedinstrumentation for the detection, and measure ofradioactivity in the environment is being developed.Immediate and long-term effects of acute and chronicexposure to radiation in terrestrial and aquatic eco-systems are studied. Improved methods of handlingand disposing of radioactive wastes from the nuclear
.
energy industry arc developed and tested. The pro-gram includes terrestrial, fresh water, marine, andatmospheric sciences. These vital research areas pre-date the current popular interest in environmentalproblems, and include studies dealing with inter-relations of organisms and populations with theirenvironment, with particular emphasis on the fateand effects of radioactivity within these ecosystems.Much of the support is for research on pathways,rates of movement, and distribution of radioactivesubstances in the natural environment and man'sfood chain, but many studies on effects of radiationon natural populations have also been supported.Some of the effort is necessarily devoted to baselinestudies which establish the norm on which pre-dictions may be made about fate and effect. In ad-dition to increasing our understanding of radio-activity in the biosphere, these programs contributemuch to basic knowledge about ecology, man's foodchains, and other broad aspects of environmentalscience.
Corps of Engineers (CE)
CE2 is concerned with the development of theNation's water and related land resources, requiringdetailed study of the effects of engineering works onthe environment. Investigations are accomplishedthrough a centralized research program and as partof studies of proposed construction projects. Impactsof engineering works on the terrestrial And marineenvironments are evaluated to develop design cri-teria and improve technology. Experiments are con-ducted in deep multipurpose impoundments to re-duce stratification and improve temperature andstored oxygen levels. Studies of aquatic plant controlare pursued to include methods of controlling aquaticplants in navigable streams and along coasts withemphasis on nonchemical methods. The Corps hasresponsibility for studying shore processes as affectedby wind and wave actions, storms and other marineand atmospheric processes in order to preserve thenational coastline. Studies are being conducted onthe hydrologic cycle, general watershed hydrology,and effects of the atmosphere on regional areas inorder to minimize the effects of floods.
United States
Department of Agriculture (USDA)
USDA's responsibilities include research on the ef-fects of air pollutants on forests, crops, and horti-
2 U.S. Army.
cultural plants and on the prevention and emu rol ofagricultural and forestry sources of air pollution. Amajor continuing program includes the st.arell forvarious safe and effective alternative,: to pesticidesand the development of selective and nonpersistentchemical pest cont rols. The Department has interestsand resiumsibilities for alleviating adveNe impoetsof and on agricultural and forestry operations. Re-search is conducted on the development of outdoorrecreation resources, on the protection and manage-ment of fish and wildlife habitat, and on the augmen-tation of fresh water resource. Ways are sought toimprove esthetic aspects of man's environmentthrough plants and systems for landscaping homes,green spaces, and countryside. A wide variety ofprojects relate to the structure, development, andfunctioning of natural ecosystems and to naturaland man-caused impacts.
Department of Commerce (DOC)
DOC provides services related to pollution de-tection and abatement through the National Bureauof Standards. This Bureau provides evaluations ofcurrent measurement methods and of the results ofresearch leading to improved techniques, in supportof abatement programs of other Federal agencies,local government, and industry. The NationalOceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)WAS created on October 3, 1970.' Current R. & D.contracts under the supervision of the MaritimeAdministration call for development of equipmentand techniques and tanker design studies for mini-mizing pollution from oceangoing ships. The De-partment's major program in environmental qualityR. & D. is dedicated to a more complete under-standing of atmospheric and oceanic conditions andforces. Studies of hurricanes, tornadoes, and tropicalstorms result in earlier detection and more depend-able forecasting. Long-term changes in national andworld climate are studied with a view to improvinglocal:and regional weather forecasts. The Department
NOAA brought together in one agency the followingdements: The Environmental Science Services Administrationfrom the Department of Commerce; the Bureau of CommercialFisheries, marine game fish research program, and MarineMinerals Technology Center from the Department of theInterior; the national data buoy development project fromthe Department of Transportation; the national sea grantprogram from the National Science Foundation; parts of theU.S. Lake Survey from the Army Corps of Engineers; theNational Oceanographic Data Center, and the NationalOceanographic Instrumentation Center.
so*.A.:
5
conducts extensive experiments in modification ofhurricanes, lightning, snow, hail, and other forms ofprecipitation. DOC also has responsibility for studiesof the biological characteristics and requirements of
.living marine resources and conducts experiments onthe effects of pollutants on marine ecosystems tobenefit the sports fishing industry.
Department of Defense (DOD)
DOD's R. & D. program includes finding ways toreduce the emissions of undesirable exhaust con-stituents through improved combuStion efficiency ofmilitary engines and modification of fuels. Contri-butions of military installations and ships to waterpollution are minimized by better methods of sewagetreatment, chemical effluent reduction, and tonicwaste decontamination. New concepts, designs, andmethods of construction are being tested to preventerosion and sedimentation. Methods of preventingand controlling pollution from oil spills are alsounder study. The Department maintains a largeprogram of atmospheric and oceanographic researchaimed primarily at the understanding and modifi-cation of various severe storm phenomena. Possi-bilities of reducing noise from aircraft, particularlyjet engines, are being investigated.
Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare (HEW)
HMV's research programs provide data useful inassessing the human health hazard of a variety ofmaterials. These data can be used to develop criteriaand standards for food safety and environmentalquality. The acute and chronic toxic effect of avariety of environmental components on the generalpopulation are assessed, and measurable parametersare being sought that can be used to predict toxicityin man. The materials receiving greatest attention inthis program fall into the following categories: (a)Pesticides and agricultural chemicals; (b) air pol-lutants, including synthetic smog, metal oxides, andairborne dusts; (c) pharmaceutical agents; (d) in-dustrial chemicals; (e) food constituents, additives,and contaminants; (f) natural products, particularlymyotoxins; (g) metals and metallo-organic com-pounds; and (h) tobacco and related products. Thisprogram has had a, major emphasis over the pastseveral years in the area of pesticides, since knowl-edge gained from research on pesticide residues infoods aids in establishing the chemical identity of
6
residues and their conversion products, developingimproved techniques for measuring residue amounts.and tracing the metabolism of pesticidesles in biologicalsystems. Soil and plant intentetions with pesticidesare also under study. These efforts are devoted togenerating a body of information which will assistin drawing conclusions about a central and recurringtheme of this report.: "The Impact of the niron-ment on Alan."
Department of
Housing and Urban Development (HUD)
HUD's research and demonstration program con-tributes toward enhanced urban environmental qual-ity by improving the knowledge base and techniquesfor community environmental planning, manage-ment, development, and redevelopment. The focusis upon the effects of the physical environment, orthe social environment and in community and per-sonal needs. Support is provided for a wide range ofprojects related to local and regional planning, infra-structure investments (public facilities and services)and housing, public buildings, and other institutionalconstruction. The diverse projects supported includesuch subjects as methods for: environmental planning(earth science focus), noise abatement, waste man-agement (solid and liquid), energy provision, earth-quake hazard reduction, subsidence prevention overabandound mines, accommodating transportation fa-cilities to the environmental multiple use of utilitytrenches and tunnels, and efficient deployment anddistribution of public utilities and services.
Department of the Interior (DOI)
DOI's improved ore-smelting and coal-processingtechniques are resulting in more complete removalof sulfur and other constituents, which reduces thelevel in stack gases. Methods of converting coal toother fuels having lower air pollution potential arebeing tested. Water quality programs are concernedwith upgrading water for municipal, industrial andagricultural applications. Better methods of measur-ing dissolved and suspended inorganic, organic, andbiological materials and heat are being used. Themovement of these materials through the hydrologicsystem is being explained. Research in waste treat-ment is directed at methods of improving the qualityof effluents and reducing processing costs. The De-partment also maintains research projects on recla-mation of metal scrap, recycling of municipal refuse,
..17
st
and stabilization and reveget a ion of industrial wastepiles. I )0I conducts studies on the origin. becurrence,and distribution of mineral resources and makesnational land and mineral resource surveys. It hassimilar responsibilities for surface and undergroundwater resources. Experinu.nts'on precipitation modi-fication have reached the pilot test stage, and oper-ational effectiveness is now being evaluated. The lifeprocesses, habitat requirements, natural enemies,diseases, impacts of environmental modifications.pollution, and techniques for improved managementof fish and wildlife resources are being studied.
Department of Transportation (DOT)
DOT carries out investigations of air pollution inairport areas to provide the basis for environmentalquality standards. DOT is also concerned with thedevelopment of fog dispersal systems for airportsafety. Experiments in unproved surface transpor-tation system design, location, and structure willlead to reduced noise and air pollution. Other re-search in the Department is directed toward pre-vention of shipboard water pollution, more effectiveways of detecting and tracing the source of pollutantconcentrations in coastal and inland waters, and thedevelopment of oil spill and waste control equipment.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
EPA was established within the Executive Branchon December 2, 1970.4
The R. & D. mission of EPA is to develop, testand demonstriite effective techniques for combatingair, water, and land pollution by elucidating the
1 EPA brings together in a single organization the followingFederal pollution programs formerly existing in separateagencies and in an interagency council: The Federal WaterQuality Administration (FWQA) from the Department of theInterior; the National Air Pollution Control Administration(NAPCA) from the Department of Health, Education, andWelfare (HEW); parts of the EnVironmental Control Ad-ministration (ECA)Bureaus of Solid Waste Management,Water Hygiene, and part of the Bureau of RadiologicalHealthfrom HEW; the pesticides research and standard-setting program of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA)from HEW; the pesticides registration authority from theDepartment of Agriculture (USDA); the authority to performgeneral ecological research from the Council on Environ-mental Quality (CEQ); certain pesticide research authorityfrom the Department of the Interior; the environmentalradiation protection standard-setting function from the AEC;and the functions of the Federal Radiation Council (FRC).
critical relations among pollutants, forms of pol-lution. and control techniques. Through its researchEPA determines the impact of air pollutants onplants. animals. and structures, and it provides thescientific basis for air quality criteria and standards.The capability for measuring and monitoring airpollutants will be improved through developing moresensitive and reliable instruments and techniques.The principal atmospheric processes that are affectedby major air pollutants will be characterized. In therealm of water quality, EPA develops and demon-strates effective and economically practical tech-nology for the treatment of specific pollution prob-lems wherever possible through renovation and reuseof waste waters. EPA also provides a sound scientificbasis for regulatory action, including the setting ofwater quality standards, through the development ofknowledge and techniques for detecting, identifying,and quantifying pollutants, determining their fatein the water environment, and evaluating theireffects on water use. EPA is also seeking betterways of reducing, recovering, and recycling usefulproducts from waste materials.
The National Aeronautics
and Space Administration (NASA)
NASA in carrying out its responsibilities for spaceresearch and applications and the advancement ofaeronautics and space technology, has a number ofprograms that may contribute to environmentalR. Sr D. These include work associated with thereduction of air pollution from aircraft engines andwork on spacecraft life support systems which cancontribute to the reduction of water pollution. Amajor program in aircraft noise abatement includesresearch and development aimed at a reduction inthe noise generated, research promising a reductionin the noise impinging on the community, and re-search to aid the understanding of human responseto noise. The meteorology program provides thesatellite and instrumentation technology to supportNOAA in its responsibilities for understanding theatmosphere, predicting weather, and establishing abasis for weather modification and climate control.The aeronomy program contributes to an under-standing of the upper atmosphere. The earthresources survey program develops the efficient ap-plication of remote sensing technologies from aircraftand spacecraft to the needs and problems of the usercommunitythe Federal, State, and lodal line organi-zations charged with earth resources responsibilities
7
(agriculture, forestry, geology, hydrology, ocean-ography, land use planning, envimmnental manage-ment). The geodetic satellite program contributesto an understanding of the figure of the earth andto the dynamic processes governing the earth'sactivity.
The National Science Foundation (NSF)
NSF supports a broad spectrum of programs re-lating to the environment. The projects included inthis report are only those programs whose specificobjectives are related to or have a direct applicationto environmental quality. Examples of currentlysupported air pollution projects are fundamental in-vestigations on combustion processes, long-termstrategies for urban air quality, sources and move-ment of lead contamination, and determination ofsulfur oxide and ozone levels that affect photo-synthetic rate. In the area of water quality, supportis provided for research on eutrophication processes,biogeochemistry of heavy metals, benefit-cost modelsof waste disposal systems, and basic investigationsof heat transfer mechanisms. A diverse program inoceanic ecology includes such projects as ocean-atmospheric interactions, chemical oceanography,and polar environmental systems. NSF funded workin basic atmospheric physics supports weather modifi-cation research by a number of agencies. Of greatscientific interest and importance is the internationalbiological program (IBP) supportedfain large part byNSF. The Research Applied to National Needs(RANN) program supports a variety of environ-mentally related investigations in addition to otherivork. Other ecological research includes intensivestudies on local or specialized plant and animalcommunities.
8
The Smithsonian Institution (SI)
SI through its astrophysical laboratory studiessolar radiation, atmospheric dynamics, and the heatbalance of the earth. The mobility of the earth'ssurface is being investigated, and attempts are madeto relate such movements to the occurrence of earth-quakes, volcanic activity, and other massive geo-physical changes. The adaptability of the humanspecies to rapid and severe environmental changes isbeing explored. Other Smithsonian programs es-tablish ecological baseline data on plants and ani-mals, examine natural regulatory systems and theireffects on growth of living organisms, and conductresearch on a variety of pollution problems.
The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA)
TVA includes environmental research and de-velopment as part of its mission of comprehensiveand unified development of the resources of theTennessee Valley region. These efforts help solveenvironmental problems arising from or associatedwith resource use and development. TVA conductsresearch and development related specifically towater resources development, electric power supplyand use, fertilizer and munitions development, andgeneral resources development. This includes re-search on the effects of heated water discharges onstream temperature regimes and on downstreamwater uses, studies of river basin management toenhance water quality, pollution potential of agri-cultural fertilizers, reaeration of releases from storageimpoundments to improve dissolved oxygen, researchon the disposal of solid wastes, sulfur recovery frompowerplant stack gases, strip mine reclamation de-velopment, and feasibility studies of joint facilitiesfor treatment of wastes from several industrial plants.
Summary andRecommendations
This chapter highlights the crucial parts of theexpanded analyses in the chapters that follow. Topermit cohesion and unity without sacrificing brevity,it is organized into a short discussion of each of thesechapters, followed by a list of recommendations thatare common to most or all components of the totalreport. No single component of the environment isindependent of others. For example, research anddevelopment (R. & D.) directed predominantly to-ward land quality also impinges on air quality andwater quality. This interdependence is treated tosome extent in chapters that follow and more com-pletely in the appendices. The reader should refer tothe appropriate chapter and appendix for a thoroughtreatment of a given subject.
Noise (app. 7) and radiation (app. 8) are not dealtwith in the "media" chapters but are considered asseparate topics. Similarly, the alternatives to theuse of pesticides (app. 6) and population are regardedas sufficiently distinct to justify separate treatmentas a special study.
While this report highlights the Federal R. & D.effort in environmental quality, it should be pointedout that conducting R. & D. in and of itself does notimprove the quality of the environment. Effectiveeducational and abatement-control programs thatseek to apply the knowledge gained through researchwill continue to be required. Strong Federal leader-ship is essential to bring about the Environmentalenhancement we seek.
The funding for the total Federal environmentalquality R. & D. program is summarized in figure 2(p. 10). Table 2 (p. 12,13) presents the funds whichwere reported by each Federal agency in the subjectareas covered by the chapters of this report. Thefiscal years 1969, 1970, and 1971 are considered.
CHAPTER 2
GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS
A few major recommendations have been foundto apply to many or all of the areas considered inthis report. Some of them will he reiterated in thechapters for which they are particularly crucial.These recommendations that warrant special em-phasis are the following:
1. Program planning must be improved. Thisincludes better evaluation of problems and es-tablishment of priorities in terms of needed sup-port for action programs, and more precise defi-nition of specific research goals. Research on pol-lutants should give first emphasis to those thatendanger man's health; second consideration tothose affecting his welfare and the environment.
2. Program coordination must b.. strengthened.Some mechanisms for coordination already exist.In many areas of environmental quality, however,improvements must be made including bettermechanisms for interagency and interagency col-laboration and joint planning, closer cooperationat the project level, multidisciplinary action in-cluding wider and more effective use of inter-disciplinary teams, and better coordination ininstrument development.
3. Application of research results must be ac-celerated.Existing knowledge must be morepromptly and effectively disseminated, organized,tested, and put into use to solve important prob-lems.
4. Modeling and systems analysis procedures mustbe fully utilized.Increasingly sensitive, versatile,and powerful analytical tools are becoming avail-able and should be adapted more skillfully and
g4A14Fr
9
FIGURE 2.FEDERAL R&D FUNDS
ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY by Purpose and Agency, FY 1971
Ak Quality12.0%
Misr Qedlly14.1%
Lad *WINGO%
EsDibanuii.4
.....i.gProdkeagAl"
10
I I
0 10 20 30 40 SO 60I I
70 W so
EPA DOI DOD NSF DOT USDAOther
EPA DOI USDA ANOther
USDA EPA DOI HEW NI0114r
NASA DOI DOT DOC NEW 1100 NIOther
1 IDOI USDA DOC NUT/ NI
Oent
LUSDA
NASA DOD DOT PM
AEC
I I I I I I0 10 20 30 40 50
NEW M1 1 I I
Oeur
W 70 GO 10
imaginatively to solution of complex environ-mental problems, including socioeconomic aspects.
5. Better saste disimal systems arrest be derttse of bodies of water for dumping
municipal and industrial wastes is at an end.Alternative approaches, such as land disposal andrecycling systems, must developed and tested.
Air Quality
The major trend in research related to air qualityis toward greater Federal participation in the de-velopment of prevention and control technology.Two-thirds of the more than $200 million totalFederal expenditures on air quality R. & D. overthe past 3 years have been on prevention and control.
Prevention and control of air pollution from mobilesources has been given high priority by Federalagencies. This is, in part at least, in response to thePresident's mandate in his February 1970 environ-mental message to develop "man unconventionallypowered, virtually pollution-free automobile within5 years." Emission standards for mobile sourceshave also been established. Technology being de-veloped for controlling pollution from other mobilesources, especially aircraft, will also help solve theautomotive engine problem. Another high priorityarea is the development of control technology forstationary sources, particularly fossil-fueled electricpower generating plants.
The necessity for more sensitive reliable measuringand monitoring instrumentation and techniques isrecognized by the age neics reporting activities onthis problem.
No obvious 'examples of unnecessary programduplication were found. EPA, supporting more than60 percent of the total Federal funding for airquality R. & D., has a major responsibility in thisregard, which it is able to exercise through its inter-agency fund transfers. Parallel efforts can be comple-mentary or supplementary if they are planned thatway. Interagency committees are useful and oftenessential tools, but it cannot be assumed that theirexistence automatically insures adequate and con-tinuing coordination at the project level.
A number of the air quality R. & D. activitiesreported here have effectively mobilized diverse re-search talents in a team approach to problem so-lution. This is particularly important in dealing withthe private sector. Good use is also made of industrialhygiene research findingi in helping identify andevaluate t otentially hazardous air-quality conditions.
An innovative and potentially productive project
is planned for St. Louis, Io., where the total airpollution problem of a single city would be studiedin depth. An integrated effort involving Federal andState agencies, universities, and other groups wouldexplore the chemical, meteorological, and biologicalramifications of air quality. The Committee believesthis is an excellent approach and recommends thatit be carried out.
The utility of modeling systems for predicting themovement and concentration of pollutants is gener-ally recognized. However, the measurement caps'bility and sophistication necessary to deal with thecomplex forces involved are not yet available. Somemodeling systems an field test results currently inexistence may be applicable to modeling and pre-dicting the movement of pollutants and airbornetoxic materials. Particularly needed are high-accu-racy sensing devices, better measuring methods forcritical atmospheric parameters, and developmentof photochemical models.
There is insufficient emphasis on interactions andeffects of mixtures of air pollutants. A more completeunderstanding is needed of the transformations,synergisms, and fate of airborne chemicals. Simi-larly, control technology for pollutant mixtures re-quires greater attention.
Basic and applied economics research, includingcost-benefit studies, on air quality maintenance andimprovement is needed.
Recommendations applicable to air quality arelisted below:
Assure interagency coordination to avoid un-necessary duplication of R. & D. effort.Implement an integrated attack on the air-quality problems of a metropolitan area.R. & D. program priorities should be more rigor-ously established on the basis of needs of actionprograms and pollution-control agencies.Utilize modeling systems to study individualand combined effects of pollutants.Insure adequate transition from IL & D. tooperational programs to get new knowledge andtechnology applied promptly.
Water Chaty
Research on water quality is now focusing onwidening the known research base and on increasingefficiency and reducing costs of known processes.'Particularly needed is a greater awareness of knowl-edge already available and not being used, and amore systematic and determined effort to organize
11
TABLE 2. -Total F4 dcral 3nrironmrnlal quality program rtsrarch and drrelopmrnti
(Figures in millions of dollars)
Agency Air quality Water quality Land quality
Understanding. describing,and predicting the
environment
1969 1970 1971 1969 1970 1971 1969 1970 1971 1969 1970 1971
AECCEUSDADOCDODDOIDOTEPAGSA..HEWBUDNASANSFSITVA
Total
1.313.901.638.265.382.60
33.970
.20
.454.39
.2062.51
0.234.431.747.336.386.48
43.45.11.34
.505.77
.1979.06
0.044.691.847.529.284.81
54.632.08
.23
1.706.89
.1993.92
0.83.311
9.96.61.66
11.30.80
35.09
.10
.701.95
.7183.31
1.49.32
11.51.6.3
1.0311.594 .27
53.70
.10
.981.99
.9588.79
3.231.29
12.04.94
1.1313.174.00
73.02
.101.282.15
1.00115.37
0.03.10
20.114
.10
6.80.01
8.19
6.10
.80
.2042.99
0.03.12
21.37.20.10
7.30.01
8.99
3.30
.99
.3044.71
0.03.16
21.41.20.20
7.19.01
11.40
3.60
1.64
.1030.94
3.509.89
22.909.89
40.223.00
27.30
46.0829.115.60
199.49
6.70
2106 .12)03
18.0744.43
2.30
23.60
73.7034.76
9.30
249.99
8.40
34.90
.1t2) 0546)
24.60
107.0148.5210.40
323.32
I Funding for reaeareh on environmental quality in this report may differ from that reportedelsewhere, because this report excludes such coats u building and operating normal facilities.ship support, launch vehicle'', satellites, and aircraft.
and apply such knowledge to the solution of im-portant problems.
Several agencies with no previous commitment towater quality research are now becoming involved,in part because of their responsibilities for solvingwater quality problems which originate from theirown activities. Other agencies for which water qualityresearch has long represented an important butlimited part of their total R. & D. are now giving itconsiderably more emphasis. Such broadening ofconcern could be expected to produce some overlapof research activities. The program descriptions pro-vide evidence of apparently uncoordinated dupli-cative research. The extent to which this representsunnecessary duplication is difficult to determine.However, there seems little doubt that stronger andmore effective interagency and intraagency coordi-nation is needed.
More intensive use of coordinated interagencyefforts and multidisciplinary team approaches basedon analyses of total systems a e also desirable.Federal water quality research has benefited fromthe competence found in industry, but the degree ofindustrial collaboration may not be adequate. Inany event, university and industry cooperationshould be solicited on a more systematic basis.
All broad areas of water quality problems werefound to receive some B.. & D. coverage. However,
12 23
for many important problem areas this coverage isseriously inadequate. More reliable water qualitycriteria for heavy metals, synthetic organic com-pounds, and other specific pollutants are needed.Baseline data gathering, including monitoring tech-niques, could be improved in terms of geographiccoverage and the number of toxic substances beingmeasured. A great deal remains to be known aboutthe biologic effects of water temperature and temper-ature changes under field conditions. More thoughtshould be given to finding beneficial uses of thermaleffluents. The role of sediments in streambank andchannel erosion needs to be more clearly defined.Increasingly widespread salinity in surface drainagewaten, and the contributions of plant residues andanimal wastes to nutrient enrichment pose problemsthat have not had adequate research attention.
Innovative approaches to waste treatment thatwill remove toxic metals and other harmful ma-terials are urgently needed. Prevention of dischargeof toxic materials is urgently required. Alternativesto the use of streams, lakes, and oceans for dis-charging municipal wastes and industrial effluentsmust be developed and tested. The possibilities ofdisposing of such materials on forest and agriculturalsoils for recycling have particular promise.
Mathematical modeling of water quality situationsis not yet fully utilized elthough it appears to offer
summary by various Fl dr rat (up urifs and porposr, fiscal !pars 19GJ, 1970, 1971
!Figure!. in milliuu. of olollar.1
Agency
Protecting and
enhancing the
environment
Special et
ltmhation Total
Alternative,. to the
use Of pesticide?. Noi4
1969 1970 1971 1969 1970 1971 148411 1970 1971 1969 1970 1971 11169 1970 1971
AEC 68.67 70.70 69.19 69.57 72.22 72.17CE 0.20 0.30 0.30 7.40 7.89 10.19USDA 20.27 21.62 23.31 32.05 33.64 37.71 96.71 103.53 116.11DOC 14.22 13.16 13.15 39.48 43.93 55.03DOD ..31 4.71 2.82 1-15 .S3 .83 22.27 32.07 31.11oca 22.27 23.00 20.59 86.17 92.70 105.89DOT 0 .65 .75 0.48 2.56 1.73 8.89 16.27 11.80EPA 1.11 2.36 97.25 109.28 143.43GSA 0 .11 2.08HEW .05 .10 .20 4.25 4.54) .67 37.48) 33.84 35.30
.77 2.09 3_08 .12 .08 .10 .99 2.27 3.88NASA 13.88 11.35 14.47 61.11 86_59 124.49NSF. 0 3.07 .11 .83 .80 .90 .044 .15 .15 .22 .29 .32 37.56 47.82 60.68SI 5.60 9.30 10.40TVA 1.11 1.44 1.29
Total .57.53 05.59 67.62 33.08 34.74 38.94 18.90 18.95 19.17 74.29 77.43 77.37 572.10 659.20 787.13
great promise. Modeling systems are rapidly be-coming more sophisticated and can accommodate anincreasingly large number of variables. Systemsanalysis has a similar potential especially for waste-recycling studies. The necessity for maintaining abalance between increasing refinements of modelingsystems and improving the base of scientific knowl-edge about parameters that feed into those systemsshould be kept in mind.
Recommendations applicable to water quality arelisted below:
More effective methods and more positive imple-mentation of intraagency and interagency re-search program coordination must be achieved.The total system approach to water qualityproblems, involving close Federal-State-industrycooperation, should be more widely utilized.Determined and well-organized efforts shouldbe made to identify and apply knowledge abutwater quality control that is already availatile.Greater emphasis should be given to developingimproved waste treatment and alternative wastedisposal systems.More attention to the development of modelingsystems is strongly encouraged.High priority should be given to the followingresearch needs:Baseline data with broader geographic coverage
and representing a greater number of toxicmaterials.Water quality criteria for specific pollutants.Thermal effects on aquatic life.Recycling of municipal, industrial, and thermaleffluents on the land and in the air.Prevention and control of salinity and othermineralization.The role of plant residues and animal wastesproduced by agricultural activities in cutrophi-cation.
Land Quality
Land is a vital resource that cannot be permittedto deteriorate. Today, much attention is being givento reducing the pollution of air and water whereasrelatively little is being given to reducing pollutionof the land. Standards have been established for per-missible levels of some pollutants; standards forothers are being developed. Restrictions on pol-lutants of air and water have an immediate effect onland quality. For example, restrictions on burningto improve air quality require alternate methods fordisposal of wastes, such as cotton gin trash, slashfrom logging operations, and the organic componentsof junked cars. Improved water-quality standardsrequire alternate disposal methods for wastes, such
13 1
as sewage sludge and effluents from industrial pro-cessing.
The social and economic problems associated withthe collection treatment and disposal of municipalrefuse are assuming gigantic proportions. A morevigorous, coordinated, and imaginative approach totheir solution is mandatory.
Because of the increasing restrictions on pollutantsof air and water, there will be mounting pressureson land as a disposal site. However, land has a finitecapacity for absorbing and assimilating wastes, andground water quality can be adversely affected.Integrated planning and intensified research aremandatory requirements if the esthetic qualities andproductivity of our land are to be improved, or evenmaintained.
Disposal of animal wastes and sewage sludge onland can be expected to increase. The effects especi-ally the long-term ones, of repeated applications ofanimal and human wastes on the chemical, physical,and biological characteristics of the soil are notknown. Accumulation of heavy metals from suchpractices is probable. Disposal on land of forest andcrop residues pose some of the same problems as doanimal and human wastes. Information is now in-adequate to understand the biophysical and bio-chemical relationships that occur during residuedecomposition.
Mineral and organic junk and urban refuse are ablight on the landscape. Studies are underway toimprove sanitary landfill methods and to developimproved recycling technology.
Refuse from mining and milling operations anddenuded land resulting from strip mining contributeto the deterioration of land quality. R. & D. in thisfield involves the recovery of valuable materialsfrom mining and milling operations and the revege-tation of strip mining sites to improve estheticquality and habitat for wildlife and to provide ad-ditional areas for recreational use.
With increasing pressure on land for the disposalof various wastes, problems will become more severe.Thus, it is critically important that a national landpolicy be developed in terms of local, regional, andnational planning. Only through such a concertedeffort can the quality of our land be maintained.
Recommendations applicable to land quality are:
14
Develop a national land use policy.Mount a more aggressive and innovative attackon municipal refuse problems.Increase emphasis on recycling of waste ma-terials.
rg5
Understanding, Describing, and Predicting
the Environment
R. & 1). in this broad area includes (1) ecology andrelated research, (2) environmental observation andmeasurement for describing and predicting weatherand ocean activities, (3) impact. of environment onman, (4) locating and describing natural resources,(5) surveys to describe the physical envimiunent.and (6) weather modification.
An apprecitition for ecologic concepts is increasingrapidly. But the total effort is fragmented amongmany agencies with different missions and responsi-bilities. Coordination of ecological investigations iscritically needed to permit identification of prioritiesand to provide the knowledge for asking criticalquestions. It is recommended that a special criticalanalysis be made of all ecologic research projectssupported by the Federal Government regardless ofthe subject area in which it is classified.
Some R. & D. which is carried out by Federalagencies and reported elsewhere could have beenincluded in this chapter.
Describing and predicting weather and ocean ac-tivities are very complex undertakings. If theirutility and accuracy arc to be increased, expandedresearch will be needed, particularly for an under-standing of atmospheric and oceanic circulations.Only through increased research and monitoring canthe interaction of land-sea-air be understood andultimately predicted. Monitoring systems must beestablished and integrated to determine pollutantlevels and their effects on estuarine and marineorganisms.
The study of increasing chronic effects of specificenvironmental pollutants on man, and on other se-lected organisms, should be intensified. In a broadersense, the impacts of long-term environmental changealso need investigation.
Greater efficiency is required in making surveysfor locating, describing, and monitoring natural re-sources. It is recommended that the potential ofremote multispectral sensing be fully developed fornatural resource surveys. Particularly needed is re-search on the correlation of ground truth withspectral signatures so that identification can beautomated.
Modeling systems appear to have promise forpredicting earthquakes and shoreline changes.
The Federal weather modification program is wellcoordinated and has made great progress in de-veloping the fundamental information needed topermit significant results. It is recommended that
extensive applied research be coupled with researchinto the legal, social, and economic implications.Precipitation management, reduction of damagefrom hail, lightning, and violent storms, and im-provement of visibility in fogs are possible if fundsare committed to achieve operational technology.Systems approaches and mathematical modeling arerequired components for success.
Protecting and Enhancing the Environment
The activities reported under this category lackthe common orientation of other chapters of thisreport. It includes (1) environmental systems, (2) fishand wildlife resources, (3) recreation resources, (4)rural and wildland environment, (5) urban andsuburban environment, and (6) water resources. Also,problem areas described often impinge upon theconcerns of other chapters.
The overall effectiveness of research could be im-proved by broader application of the principles ofgood planning. Problems should be more systemati-cally defined and evaluated and should be selectedfor study on the basis of explicit and valid criteria,with priorities established for specific and attainablegoals. An appropriate balance should be sought be-tween short-term projects to correct existing prob-lems and longer term activities to prevent futureproblems. Positive action should be taken to insureplanned coordination and cooperation at the projectlevel both within and between agencies throughmutual funding. Multidisciplinary teams should beused where needed.
Knowledge developed by research is. frequentlynot being used. More effort should be made to carryresearch results through the pilot test phase, tomobilize existing information for the development ofpredictive models, and to organize and synthesizefragmented information into practical guides formanagement decisionmaking.
A greater proportion of the wildlife research shouldbe directed toward nongame species, particularlythose threatened with extinction. The R. & D. sup-port for, all other outdoor recreation resources is farbelow that justified by their economic and socialimportance, and the need for better knowledge ofhow to conserve, manage, and use them most ef-fectively...
Urban environmental problems are receiving fartoo little .attention. All aspects of urban planningand development that relate to quality of livingneed increased emphasis. The avoidance of past
mistakes and satisfying environmental needs in urbanand suburban expansion should be of special concern.
Recommendations applicable to protecting andenhancing the environment are:
More systematic, long-range planning, includingbetter establishment of program priorities, isneeded.Better mechanisms for insuring coordinationand cooperation among agencies should be de-veloped.Research information and technology shouldbe more promptly and effectively field testedand put into operational use.
The following research needs are most critical:A greatly expanded program for protection andenhancement of recreation resources.More attention to nongame birds and animals,especially endangered species.Expansion of urban environmental studies.
Alternatives to the Use of Pesticides
The R. & D. trend today is toward greater empha-sis on biological and other nonchemical methods ofcontrol rather than the use of pesticides. More thanone-half of the research by USDA on pests is nowdirected toward nonchemical control. Despite thisemphasis, the use of pesticides must be continueduntil alternate methods of control are available. Thedetrimental environmental impact of not using pesti-cides could be greater than that arising from theircontinued use. Integrated pest control methods usedin concert should be given more impetus. This willrequire, interdisciplinary teams in a systems ap-proach.
Recommendations applicable to alternate methodsof pest control are listed below:
Intensity effort on systems approach to pestmanagement, including modeling and integratedpest control.Increase research on fundamental biology ofpest species.Improve remote sensing capability for definingpest problems.Assure continued R. & D. at present level topermit gradual replacement of persistent com-pounds with those of less persistence.
Noise
The principal R. & D. effort on noise pollution isdirected toward controlling aircraft noise at the
15
source. A lesser effort is devoted to noise generatedby ground-based transportation systems, high-speedequipment of various kinds, and to noise arisingfrom natural causes.
Noise levels can be reduced but not eliminated.Continuing research is needed, however, on the re-sponse of man and other organisms to infrasonicsand ultrasonics. Problems may arise because of moresubtle effects from continued or repeated noise emis-sions. The effect of sonic booms on structures, hu-mans, domesticated animals, and wildlife are beingstudied.
Expanded area-wide studies are needed to con-sider the causes, trends, and impact of transpor-tation noise on people and communities. Such studies,utilizing appropriate models, would permit con-clusions on acceptable noise levels, and on the effectsof noise suppression methods, such as vegetationscreens, and would provide more useful analytictools for urban planners, vehicle manufacturers, androadway builders.
Recommendations applicable to noise are:Expand research to determine the nature anddegree of hearing damage resulting from con-tinuous or repeated exposure to noise.Increase research with models on noise problemsin transportation systems.Conduct area-wide studies to determine the im-pact of noise on people and on communities.
Radiation
Radiation R. & D. for this study was viewed asencompassing these activities that will lead to betterprotection of man and his environment from adverseexposure to both ionizing and nonionizing radiation.The major effort has been concerned with the evalu-ation of radiation effects on man, with particularemphasis on expanding the level of knowledge ofboth immediate and long-term results of exposure.This level of activity is justified and should continue.More R. & D. on prevention and control technologyto avoid radioactive contamination is needed.
Current programs point out necessary studies forfuture nuclear power plants. Prediction has beenreliable but is increasingly refined as research pro-ceeds. More research to better understand, describe,and predict the pathways to man of radionuclidesin terrestrial, fresh water, and marine environments
is needed. Generally the effects of radiation on manare well known when compared with other pollutants.
There is an increasing need to evaluate the effec-tiveness of treatment systems for radioactive wastes.Land disposal methods offer promise as needed al-ternatives to ocean disposal, but they must be care-fully developed and tasted.
Recommendations applicable to radiation arc:Accelerate development of procedures for
Evaluating proposed power reactors.Assessing their environmental impacts.
Increase research on transport and fate of radio-nuclides in ecosystems.Develop and evaluate radioactive waste treat-ment and disposal systems.Expand program on prevention and control ofradioactive contamination.Increase research to determine the hazard po-tential of human exposure to current and pro-jected levels of nonionizing radiation, such asradar, microwaves, UHF radiation, and VHFradiation.
Population
Population impinges on the many factors affectingt).w quality of the environment. While reliable popu-lawn data are essential to comprehending and copingwith many environmental problems, we must avoidthe gross oversimplification that equates "environ-mental control" with "population control."
The Commission on Population Growth and theAmerican Future in its March 1972 final report un-doubtedly will include a number of general andspecific recommendations for research needed onpopulation-environmental quality interrelationships.Because the Commission will have studied the prob-lem in great detail, and this study was a cursoryanalysis, no recommendations arc made in the popu-lation report. Thus far, there has been only minorFederal support of research on the population-environment interface. However, large-scale Federalinvestments undoubtedly will be required and war-ranted to investigate systematically the complexinteraction of economic, technological, demographic,and other social factors that alone and in combi-nation affect environmental quality. The interrela-tions among population, technology, and industrialdevelopment are in particular need of clarification.
Air Quality
SUMMARY
The chapter on air quality reports four major re-search categories: evaluation of effects, measuringand monitoring, prevention and control, and trans-port and fate.
This report includes most air quality research,development, and demonstration programs con-ducted by Federal agencies during fiscal years 1969-71. Research related to the role of noise and radiationin air quality appears in separate subchapters underspecial studies and in appendixes 7 and 8.
The research programs represent an investment of$62.51, $79.06, and $93.92 million by the FederalGovernment for fiscal years 1969, 1970, and 1971, re-spectively. The breakdown of these funds by agencyis given in table 3 (p. 19) and summarized in figure 3
.(p. 18). Two-thirds of the funds have been allocatedto the development of prevention and control tech-nology for stationary and mobile sources of air pollu-tion. Major emphasis has been placed on the controlof sulfur oxides and particulates from stationarysources and on the prevention and control on motorvehicle and aircraft emissions.
Evaluation of Effects
Research on the evaluation of effects of air pollu-tion includes programs to develop and advanceunderstanding of the nature, duration, and impor-tance of effects of air pollutants, singly and in corn-bination, on man, plants, animals, and nonlivingobjects. Both acute and chronic effects studies havebeen reported. Approximately 14 percent of thefunds have been allocated to effects research.
Major research programs include projects to de-termine effects of air pollution on human health,livestock, vegetation, the food chain, and selected'natural ecosystems. Recent studies have emphasizedthe effects of SO., CO2, CO, particulates, NO., oxi-dants, hydrocarbons, and trace metals, singly and incombination. Research has included studies of the ef-
CHAPTER 3
fects of aircraft and motor vehicle emissions of manand biota.
Measuring and Monitoring
Research classified as related to measuring andmonitoring includes projects conducted to providenew or improved methods for identifying specific airpollutants and measuring their concentrations in theair. Approximately 15 percent of the funds havebeen allocated to research in this category.
Prevention and Control
Research related to the prevention and control ofair pollution includes studies to discover, develop,test, and demonstrate methods and processes thatwill prevent or assist in managing air pollution prob-lems and methods to restore local environments thatmay have been harmed by air pollution. Research inthis category amounts to $38.27, $49.78, $60.48million for fiscal years 1969, 1970, and 1971,respectively.
Research on prevention and control technology forstationary sources includes the development anddemonstration of techniques for controlling particu-lates, sulfur oxides, and nitrogen oxides from electricpowerplants and other combustion-related stationarysources. Major R. & D. programs aim to control sul-fur oxides, for example, by dry limestone injection,limestone wet scrubbing, ammonia injection, andSO= absorption by copper oxide impregnated into analumina support.
Extensive mobile source control programs havebeen reported. Research is underway to modifyboth aircraft and passenger vehicle engines. For ex-ample, projects are being conducted to establish highefficiency removal devices for particulates; to verifycarburetor design requirements for reduced emis-sions; and to determine the best materials for con-structing a thermal reactor for hydrocarbon and COremoval. Work is currently being expanded to im-
17
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I
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17Alux :3.--Sununary of funding for air quality research and
development by various Federal agencies, fiscal years 19010-71
(Figures in millions of dollars)
Agency andfiscal year
Eva lu-ation
ofeffects
Measuringand
monitoring
Preven-tionand
control
Trnns-portandfate
Total
CE:19691070-1971
USDA:
1.31.25.04
1.31.25.04
1060 1.31 2.50 3.901970. - 1.36 3.07 4.431971. 1.44 3.25 4.69
DOC:1069 1.65 1.651970 1.74 1.741071- 1.84 1.84
DOD:1069- .02 8.24 8.261970 .03 7.30 7.331971 .00 7.43 7.52
HEW:1069 .20 .201070 - - - -- .34 .341971 .23 .23
DOI:1969 .40 4.98 5.381070 .80 5.58 6.381071 1.40 7.88 9.28
DOT:1969 0 0 2.60 0 2.601970-- .05 .15 8.23 .05 6.481971 .24 .33 3.89 .35 4.81
EPA:1960 8.60 2.80 17.77 4.80 33.971970 - -. -. 8.70 5.60 26.48 4.70 45.481971 8.45 7.74 34.26 4.20 54.65
GSA:1969 0 01970 ---- ....... .11 .111971 2.08 2.08
NASA:1969 .20 .15 .10 .451970 .17 .27 .12 .561971 .62 .92 .16 1.70
NSF:1969 2.24 .84 .45 1.06 4.591970- 2.40 1.38 .32 1.67 5.771971-- 2.71 1.86 .56 1.76 6.89
TVA:1969- .02 .18 .201970 .02 .17 .191971 .02 .17 .19
Total allagencies:
1969 12.37 5.91 38.27 5.96 62.511970.-- 12.87 9.87 49.78 6.54 79.061971 13.09 13.88 60.48 6.47 93.92
prove the safety of diesel engines operating in under-ground mines: Steam and other low-polluting vehiclesare being developed for transit buses.
A comprehensive advanced automotive power sys-tems program is also in progress. It is designed tostimulate the automobile industry to independentlydevelop the most promising candidate systems for
low-pollution motor vehicles while the Governmentcontinues a Federal R. & D. program through to thedemonstration of selected systems. Leading candi-dates are the gas turbine engine, the Rankine cycleengine, the stratified charge engine, and the smalldiesel engine.
Other research that would result in the preventionof air pollution is in progress. Fuel cells and highenergy density batteries are being developed. Re-search to improve the design of coal-cleaning plantsfor removing pyritic sulfur has been reported. Coalis being treated to remove pyritics and other sulfur-bearing consituents by selective grinding. Investiga-tions of the availability of low-sulfur fuels are alsounderway. New processes for removing sulfur fromores of copper and other metals are being developed.Improved processes foi coal gasification and lique-faction are also being vigorously pursued. Magneto-hydrodynamics combustion tests are being con-ducted. Various incinerator designs are beinginvestigated, including high temperature, vortex,fluidized bed, and pyrolysis units.
Extensive research to prevent and control air pol-lution related to agriculture has also been reported.The relationship of soil erosion to air pollution isbeing studied. Research is in progress to prevent airpollution by pesticides and by smoke from burningcrop and forest residues. Studies have been reportedto identify the gaseous components from animalwastes that cause odor and to develop practices thatreduce odor from these sources. Methods for protect-ing and maintaining adequate shelterbelts to reduceair pollution by soil particles are being developed.Also, to reduce the odors from pulping wastes, in-creased uses of these wastes, and improved pulpingmethods are being sought. .
Transport and Fate
Research related to the transport and fate of airpollutants includes studies of the physical, chemical,and biological processes involved in the initial distri-bution, redistribution, cycling, and ultimate fate ofair pollutants in the environment, including theprocesses by which contaminants are naturally de-graded. Approximately 7 percent of the funds havebeen allocated to research related to the transportand fate of air pollutants.
Studies include mathematical systems analysis ofair pollution problems using various diffusion models.Field and laboratory projects to evaluate the photo-chemical reactivity of pollutants also have been re-ported. Aircraft engine emission dissipation rates are
19
being determined. Investigations of the kinetics ofsmoke and nitric oxides formation under conditionsfound in aircraft gas turbine combustion systems arebeing conducted. A study to analyse the amount andfate of persistent pesticides carried by air currentsfrom the area of application is also underway.
Field measuremen's for input to models of theeffects of heat from large sources such as cities areunderway. Possible effects include changes in thun-derstorm rain and changes in the diffusion anddeposition of air pollutants.
Efforts to extend the distance and time ranges oftransport models and to include the effects of chang-ing rural to urban terrain on diffusion are underway.These are necessary to assess the effects of exposuresof cities, regions, and continents to small quantitiesof radioactivity.
ANALYSIS
It is recognized that the Federal programs, whileextensive, do not constitute the total national effortin air quality research. Many private concerns andState and local governments are also expending con-siderable resources in this area. Similar work is beingconducted in other countries. To place some definiteboundary on the discussion, however, this report in-cludes only federally sponsored research, and variousFederal programs may not be included for lack ofdata.
Major Trend in Research
Related to Air Quality
Analysis of the research indicates that the majortrend is toward allocating greater amount of Federalresources to the development of prevention and con-trol technology. Two-thirds of the funds reported tothe Committee in the area of air quality were relatedto prevention and control. This trend results in partfrom the emphasis placed on such research in thecurrent Federal legislation. Also, various reviewgroups, including the Council on EnvironmentalQuality, have recommended that the Federal effortsin this area be increased.
Trends In Intramural vs. Extramural
Research In Air Quality
The largest Federal program in air pollutionR. &. D. is supported by the EPA, particularly
through its Office of Air Programs. R. &. D. accountsfor about half of EPA air pollution control funding.This research is supported in-house, by interagencyfund transfer, by grants to universities, and by con-tract. Analysis of the proportioning of EPA air pollu-tion R. & D. funds indicates that although funds inall areas have risen since 1967, the percentage allo-cated to in-house work and university grants hasproportionately decreased. Interagency fund trans-fers have increased gradually from about 10 percent,to somewhat over 15 percent in fiscal year 1971.Contract funding has risen to a little over 50 percentof the total effort in fiscal year 1.971. EPA uses thecontract mechanism particularly in developmentalareas such as full-scale demonstration projects; forexample, processes for sulfur control in utility boilers,whose locale must be at the site of the powerplant.This has perhaps an added advantage in promotingair- pollution control research in the private industrialsector.
The other agencies conducting R. & D. in the airpollution area have reported that funding is also ac-complished by various mechanisms. Much of the re-search supported by NASA, for example, is conductedin-house. NSF supports a variety of interdisciplinaryand basic research efforts related to air pollutionprincipally through the research grant mechanism.USDA through formula fund and special grants toState agricultural experiment stations and schools offorestry, also conducts various extramural researchin addition to the work done in-house. DOI supportsan extensive in-house program of research related toair pollution control associated with mineral resourcesutilization, mainly in the regional laboratories of the
- Department. This effort has been a continuing oneand is now proceeding at an accelerated pace. DOTsupports in-house and contract research directed to-ward reducing air pollution from transportationsystems and vehicles.
20 31
Relative Priority of Air Quality
R. & D. Problems and Requirements
On February 10, 1970, President Nixon sent to theCongress an historic message on the environment. Inpart he said, "I am inaugurating a program to mar-shal both government and private research with thegoal of providing an unconventionally poweredvirtually pollution-free automobile with 5 years."In this way the President chose to recognize theprincipal urban air pollution problem of the Nation:The automobile. The Congress, in part responding tothe President's message, enacted the 1970 amend-
inents to the Clear Air Act and actually made thedevelopment of such a vehicle by 1975 a legalrequirement.
When the various data reported are reviewed, it isclear that the various Federal agencies with ex-pertise in mobile source pollution control have re-sponded to the President's mandate in an almostunprecedented manner. The largest program in mo-bile source pollution control is conducted by EPA.Of particular interest is that EPA, through inter-agency transfer, is supporting programs in this areain DOI and in NASA. All Federal agencies are notconcentrating on the automobile per se, but thetechnology developed by DOT and DOD, for ex-ample, for measuring and controlling emissions frommobile sources such as aircraft should lie of use incontrolling or measuring emissions from other mobilesources. In sum, the Federal involvement in mobilesource pollution control represents a multimilliondollar investment, and a high priority obviously hasbeen assigned to these programs by the variousagencies.
Another problem area that is being funded in multi-million dollar amounts relates to controlling emissionsfrom stationary sources of air pollution such aselectric powerplants. Emissions from fossil fueledplants are being investigated by DOD, DOI, EPA,and TVA.
DOI and EPA are also conducting an extensiveprogram to prevent or reduce air pollution from com-bustion-related stationary sources. Improved proc-esses for coal gasification and liquefaction are beingpursued. Magnetohydrodynamies combustion testsare being conducted.
Significant research on stationary sources is alsobeing conducted by EPA's Office of Solid WasteManagement Programs, DOD (both military andcivil works), NSF, and DOI's Bureau of Mines, re-lating particularly to the control of emissions result-ing from the incineration of solid wastes.
USDA has reported various investigations relatedto controlling agriculturally related air 'pollution.For example, projects are underway to determine therelationship of wind erosion of soils to air pollutionand concomitantly to reduce damaging effects of air-borne soil particles on seedlings and crop plants.Other research is concerned with reducing smoke andodors* from agricultural operations.
Methods to evaluate and prevent air pollution bypesticides are being developed by USDA. NSF is de-termining the amount and fate of DDT carried bywind from the area of application of the chemical.AEC is also conducting an extensive R. & D. pro-
gram aimed at understanding the transport and fateof radioactive, substances released to (lie air fromnuclear facilities.
The various agencies have also assigned priority tothe develorment of measurement and monitoringmethods for various air contaminants. Although EPAhas invested the greatest dollar amount of all agenciesreporting work in this area, almost every Federalagency reporting to this Committee is investigatingsome facnt of this problem.
As noted above, the significant trend in air qualityR. & D. is that the highest percentage of researchfunds reported is being spent on the development ofprevention and control methods. Effects research,however, is still being emphasized, particularly inEPA, USDA, and HEW. For example, since exposureto atmospheric pollutants is considered to be an im-portant contributor to the total lung cancer hazardof the population, there has been an increasing effortin this area by HEW's National Cancer Institute.Among the air pollutants studied under this programare the polycyclic hydrocarbons and related hetero-cyclic compounds, tobacco smoke, and a variety ofairborne dusts such as asbestos and metal oxides.Additional research that will contribute to greaterunderstanding of the effects of air pollution, but is notconducted for that purpose, is included elsewhere inthis report.
Integrating and Team Efforts Necessary
Research efforts in the various air quality programsare directly coordinated within the various Federalagencies, principally through such mechanisms asinteragency fund transfers. Although parallel effortsexist, they are not necessarily detrimental to the totalFederal effort, provided they are recognized by theagencies funding the research.
A project planned for St. Louis, Mo., representsan example of a team approach to the solution of airquality R. & D. problems by various Federal agenc-ies. Although plans for the project have not beenfinalized, NOAA, EPA, NSF, AEC, and a diversifiedgroup of national laboratories, universities, andState agencies may participate in this project tostudy the air pollution problem of a single metro-politan area and all its ramificationschemical,meteorological, and biological.. Other examples of interagency term approaches to
the solution cf air quality problems include a projectundertaken by: AEC, NSF, and NOAA. Scientistsfrom the three agencies have recently increased theutilization of the AEC aircraft and balloon sampling
tis 3221
system to gain knowledge of present amounts ofozone, water, and pollutants expected from super-sonic transport (SST) operations. The high altitudesystem exists due to a continuing AEC-DOD co-operative effort on radioactivity monitoring forstratospheric circulation research.
Integrating and team approaches are particularlyimportant when dealing with the private sector.DOD, DOT, and NASA, for example, have estab-lished a well-recognized program in cooperation withthe private sector in sponsoring defense and aero-space research.
In the air quality area, DOT works closely withaviation system developers to insure that environ-mental considerations enter into the design of majorprojects. USDA has established an extensive coopera-tive research program with the various State agri-cultural and forest conservation programs. NSF,which conducts most of its research related to airpollution through the grants mechanism, has alsoestablished a history of cooperative and integratingefforts with private, not-for-profit organizations.
Integration efforts are also necessary betweenEPA and private industry to develop a low-pollutingadvanced automotive power system as an alternativeto the conventional engine in the event that the lat-ter fails to meet the 1975-76 statutory emissionstandards.
EPA, through its Office of Air Programs, is alsopresently involved in cost-sharing (50-50) demon-stration and pilot plant projects with other Govern-ment agencies and private industry, to remove sulfuroxides and particulates. The demonstration projectsinclude (1) dry limestone injection (TVA), (2) wetlimestone scrubbing (TVA-Key West-Zurn), (3)catalytic oxidation (Monsanto), and (4) magnesiumoxide scrubbing (Chemico). The pilot plant projectsare (1) modified chamber process (Tyco), (2) charprocess (Westvaco), and (3) ammonia scrubbing(TVA).
In addition, research under the direction of theCoordinating Research Council Air Pollution Re-search Advisory Committee is sponsored by theAmerican Petroleum Institute, the AutomobileManufacturers Association, and EPA on a cost-sharing basis. The four main areas of activity areengineering projects, at: ',spheric projects, medicalprojects, and in-house programs. The EPA programis unique among Federal environmental researchprograms.
Discussion of needed integrating efforts in airquality R. & D. would be incomplete without men-tion of the importance of industrial hygiene research
22
PI4; 335."
findings to air quality programs. In many cases,thefirst. indication of the hazardous nature of a particularcontaminant occurs in the occupational environment.Measurement. instruments developed for the use ofoccupational health and safety personnel often can beutilized for air pollution control work.
The agencies reporting air quality H. & D. haveindicated that they recognize the importance of co-ordinating air quality and occupational health re-search programs. DOI's work in air quality R. & D.,for example, is conducted for the most part by theBureau of Alines, where significant. mine safety re-search has been underway for many years. The DODalso conducts a variety of industrial hygiene andmedical research projects on the toxicology of varioussubstances, much of. which is directly relevant to airquality problems.
Modeling and Systems Approach
A number of agencies are conducting research in-volving mathematical modeling of air quality prob-lems. Modeling designed to predict air pollutantconcentrations likely to occur as a result of variousmeteorological conditions, emission rates, and pat-terns is generally based on a diffusion model thatmathematically simulates the transport of pollutantsthrough the atmosphere. Though a single diffusionmodel may be applicable in more than one com-munity, no single model is suitable for all sets of cir-cumstances. Different types of models also arerequired to predict short-term and long-term pollu-tant concentrations.
The AEC, for example, has developed a model forpredicting radiation dose to man from a future nu-clear industry over an entire region by air, water, anda variety of food pathways. One type of model hasalready been applied by the AEC to the upper Missis-sippi basin, and another approach is under develop-ment using the Chesapeake Bay and its feed rivers indemonstration. Among other parameters, the modelsconsider the living habits, diets, age, and sex of theindividuals; the industries and food crops of the area;the meteorology of dry and wet deposition of pollu-tants; and the artificial and natural radioactivityentering and leaving the system.
To construct improved, realistic models, sensingdevices of high accuracy, both remote and otherwise,will be needed, Additional research also should bepursued to determine modeling parameters such asvertical profiles of wind and temperature, turbulence,plume geometry, and pollutant concentrations. Highpriority should be given to photochemical modeling
t
to Letter understand the diverse phenomena involvedin photochemical smog. Results of research in thisarea are being applied to practical air pollution prob-lems through the NATO Committee on the Chal-lenges to the .1Iodern Society in Ankara. Turkey. andFrankfurt, Germany. Also, some modeling systemsand field test results curirntly in existence may beapplicable to modeling and predicting the movementof pollutants.
The need for a systems approach to solving en-vironmental problems has been stated over and overagain by various professional review groups. Thevarious pollution control programs of the FederalGovernment must be integrated to facilitate theapplication of various operations research techniquesto the solution of not only air quality problems but tounderstanding the interrelationships of air, water,and land pollution, including consideration of thevarious kinds of chemical and physical pollutants.
Where Should R. & D. Attention be Focused
In the Future?
Rather than attempt a comprehensive listing ofgaps existing in the Federal R. & D. effort, one ortwo areas that should receive increased attention arediscussed here.
Whether one chooses to analyze Federal air qualityresearch in terms of prevention and control, trans-port and fate, measuring and monitoring, or effects,it seems that greater priority should be assigned toresearch programs aimed specifically at understand-ing the action of various pollutants in combinationand the resultant effect on man and his environment.
A primary goal of air pollution control, for ex-ample, is to obtain an in-depth understanding ofchemical transformations and the distribution andfate of pollutants from the time they are emittedfrom a source to the time they are removed from theatmosphere by a sink. Greater attention should befocused on this subject in the future.
Programs to develop prevention and control tech-nology for mixtures of various air pollutants shouldalso be expanded. It is well recognized, for example,that the presence of lead in gasoline destroys theutility of catalytic control methods. Similarly thepresence of certain plastics in municipal wastes canaffect the operation of incinerator effluent control de-vices. Although these specific problems are being in-vestigated by the agencies, many other problems ofthis nature likely exist.
Synergistic or other interactive effects of combi-nations of air pollutants should be given priority
attention. Major attention has been focused on thecombined health effects of SOS, and particulates, forexample, but additional research of this natureshould be vigorously pursued. Until the air pollu-tion problem is abated by adequate control at thesources, additional R. & D. to provide the necessaryscientific and technical basis to adequately protecthealth and welfare must be continued. Research onthe health effects of various contaminants must con-tinue to be stressed so that realistic evaluations ofthe adequacy of standards can be'rihade.
increased attention should be given to the poten-tial for interactive effects on man, biota, and struc-tures from a combination of physical, such as noiseand radiation, and chemical pollutants. A compara-tively small amount of research is being conductedin this area. EPA, for example, has supported re-search on the combined effects of certain pesticidesand ionizing radiation. Also, synergistic effects ofsmoking and the inhalation of pollutants from di-versified industrial activities have been studied. Forexample, epidemiologic studies of undergrounduranium miners have shown that a synergistic effectmay result from the continued exposure of smokers tohigh radon daughter concentrations.
The development of measurement methods forcombinations of chemical pollutants is receiving someattention. EPA, for example, is developing a singlemultichannel analyzer, which will analyze vehicleexhaust for carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hy-drocarbons, and nitrogen oxides. NASA has reportedsimilar work. However, accurate, low-cost, portableinstruments for field use are urgently needed.
Although perhaps somewhat outside the scope ofthis Committee, it is believed that a more compre-hensive and detailed program of research in basic andapplied economics is urgently required since theseconsiderations are an intagral and important part ofa rational national attack on our air pollution prob-lems. For example, DOT is supporting a study of theprobable social, economic, and technical impactsthat might result if it becomes necessary to changefrom mass production of the internal combustionengine to mass production of nonconventional low-polluting power systems for motor vehicles.
New Legislation
The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970 will sig-nificantly increase R. & D. activities throughout theNation. Included will be research on the diversehealth effects directly traceable to air pollutants;
23
34
preparation and publication of air quality criteria tire stationary source technology; and accelerationand associated control techniques documents; moni- of mobile source pollution control technology (in-toring of air pollutants; development of more effec- eluding aircraft).
V
Water Quality
SUMMARY
The total Federal R. & D. effort in water qualityin fiscal year 1971 is $115.37 million carried out by12 Federal agencies with over 64 percent of the pro-gram being administered by EPA. The water qualityprogram is presented on the basis of pollution sources,that is, agricultural, industrial, mining, municipal,and other sources, with special reference to controltechnology. The programs are also presented on thebasis of salinity research, thermal research, wastetreatment and ultimate disposal, water quality, andwater quality requirements research.
Figure 4 (p. 26) and table 4 (p. 27) summarizethe funding of each of these categories by each of theFederal agencies involved in water quality R. & D.
Agricultural Water Quality Control Technology
This R. & D. program involves development anddemonstration of technology for effective and eco-nomic control of water quality from agriculture,forestry and logging operation, irrigation return flow,rural runoff, and animal feedlots. Procedures arebeing developed to reduce runoff of fertilizers, pesti-cides, and dissolved organics that leach from plantresidues and to completely eliminate pollution fromanimal feedlots through recycling of waste constitu-ents. Research is being supported on increased bene-ficial use of crop and forest residues, including theiruse to prevent soil erosion. Research on liquid wastesfrom processing raw agricultural products is beingundertaken to show effectiveness of land disposal orapplication by sprinkler or furrow irrigation tofertilize crops. Byproduct recovery and utilizationand improved harvesting and processing are beingstudied. Mathematical models are being developedfor predicting nutrient movement in soil and forstudying processes of nutrient cycling.
Industrial Water Quality Control Technology
The objective is to develop economical technologyfor complete control of industrial waste discharges.
CHAPTER 4
New or improved systems for significantly reducingwaste have been demonstrated for metal platingshops, steel mills, food processing plants, pulp andpaper mills, organic chemical plants, and petroleumrefineries. The program includes pretreatment tech-niques for safe discharge into municipal systems,closed-loop systems to eliminate industrial waste, andrenovation and reuse of waste waters and byproductrecovery.
Mining and Related Water Quality Problems
This R. & D. program is being supported on elimi-nation of water pollution caused by extraction andpreparation of minerals, including coal, copper, othermetals, oil, phosphate, rocks, sand, and gravel. Amajor effort is placed on treating coal mine acid dis-charges, including desalting processes to providefresh water for municipal and industrial use; on de-veloping new methods for sealing mines; and on evalu-ating new mining methods and techniques to reducedischarges.
Research is also conducted to find ways of modify-ing processes for converting animal, crop and timberproducts so that wastes are reduced. Developmentof technology for byproduct recovery is an importantaspect of this experimental work.
Municipal Water Quality Control Technology
R. & D. involves improving or lowering the cost oftreating and enhancing effluents from municipalsewage, storm sewer discharges, combined storm andsanitary overflows, nonsewered runoff, and jointmunicipal/industrial wastes. Major emphasis will beon using existing techno!ogy for sewage treatmentand for development of technology for removal ofphosphorus, bacteria, viruses, nutrients, and re-fractory organic wastes. The in-sewer treatment ofsewage for individual and clusters of homes will con-tinue, increasing efficiency of municipal systems, as-signing constraints on industrial loads, and studyingthe impact of urban storm water discharges.
25
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&D
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ater
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TABLE 4.-Summary of funding for water quality research and development by various Federal agencies, fiscal years 1969-71
[Figures in millions of dollars]
Agency andfiscal year
Agricul- Indus-tural trial
pollu- pollu-tion tion
control controltech- tech-
nology nology
Miningpollu-tion
Muni-cipal
pollu-tion
Otherwater
qualityproblems
WasteSalinity Thermal treatmentresearch research and
ultimatedisposal
Generalwater
qualityresearch
Waterquality
require- Totalment
research
AEC:100010701071
CE:
1 (0.80)(8.10)(0.29)
0.851.493.25
1(3.31)(3.10)(3.44)
0.85
1.49
3.25
1060 .00 .10 0.10 .311
1070 .18 .20 .14 .52
1071 .. .21 .21 .87 1.29
USDA:1069 5.22 1.27 2.12 1.35 9.98
1970 0.71 1.30 2.11 1.42 11.54
1971 6.02 1.73 2.18 1.51 12.04
DOC:1900__-
1970
.09
.18
s .27.20
.25.25
.61
.63
1071 .21 .15 58 .94
DOD:1969 .07 .59 .66
1070 .07 .96 1.03
1071 .13 1.00 1.13
DOI:1969 0 1.60 .35 .09 9.46 11.50
1970 .04 1.70 .49 .11 9.25 11.59
1971 .00 1.87 .52 .13 10.59 13.17
DOT:1909 .41 .10 .29 .80
1970 3.61 .11 .55 4.27
1971-- 2.50 .30 1.20 4.00
EPA:1069........_. 1.37 9.01 3.43 12.13 1.89 .85 11.67 10.69 4.05 55.09
1970 2.44 7.36 2.71 10.45 2.77 1.75 7.26 13.47 5.49 53.70
1971 2.47 6.00 4.52 9.82 10.83 2.87 5.35 22.78 10.38 75.02
HUD:1969 .10 .10
1970 .10 .10
1971 .10 .10
NASA:1969 .70 .70
1970 .98 .98
- 1971 1.28 1.28' NSF:1969 .35 .86 .74 1.95
1970 .35 .75 .89 1.99
1971 .43 .82 .90 2.15
TVA:1969 .03 2.24 .44 .71
1970 .05 .42 .48 .95
1971 .05 .42 .53 1.00
Total all agencies:1969 6.62 10.28 3.43 12.48 5.53 2.95 3.59 13.15 21.23 4.05 83.31
1970 9.20 8.66 2.75 10.80 9.67 3.12 5.54 9.42 24.14 5.49 88.79
1971 9.14 7.73 4.58 10.25 16.88 3.38 8.42 8.06 36.55 10.38 115.37
These AEC figures are not included in the totals, but are included in the radiation section of the special studies.2 Expenditures relating to thermal pollution obtained from OST report "The Effects and Control of Heated Water Discharges."
Other Water Quality Problems
R. & D. is conducted to develop and demonstratetechnology for control of water quality related to
recreational activities, watercraft, construction pro-jects, impoundments, salt water intrusions, naturalpollution, dredging and land fill, and spills and dis-charges of oil and hazardous materials, .including
27
pesticides, herbicides, and heavy metals. Majoreffort by several agencies is on the problem of oilspills and clean up, including development of tech-niques for detecting, chemical treatment, spill controlequipment, high-depth tanker design, flouting bar-riers, sorbent, and other systems. Sediment controlresearch and development involves sediment trapefficiency of improved reservoirs, sediment transportand deposition, erosion control, and the study of thecarrier role for phosphorus and pesticides. Researchis supported on biogeochemistry of heavy metals infresh water and the ocean. Research is conducted onovergrowth of algae and aquatic plants and herbi-vores and herbicides for their control.
Salinity Research
R. & D. studies on desalting plants include de-velopment of intake structures and antifouling de-vices to minimize the amount of marine life present,the ecological effects of introducing large quantitiesof waste brine, and the synergistic effects of increasedsalinity and copper and high temperatures. Studiesare supported to convert geothermal brines to de-salted water, to recover useful byproducts, and todispose of wastes safely. Solar ponds for evaporationand deep wells for ultimate disposal are being studied.
Dissolved salts in irrigation water present a seriousproblem, and methods are being studied and de-veloped to better control salinity, minimize evapo-transpiration, and control phreatophytes and seep-age. Effects of salt tolerance are being studied inareas where.salt water must be used. The problem ofsaline intrusion from the oceans into fresh water sur-face and ground systems and the land is also a seriousproblem.
Thermal Research
Research is conducted to study the causes andeffects of thermal changes to streams, estuaries, andlakes especially those stemming from nuclear andfossil-fueled powerplants. Research includes studiesof seasonal changes, urbanization, stratification,diffusion; mixing, evaporation, circulation, measure-ment techniques (including remote sensing), and theeffects of increased temperature on the survival,growth, and reproduction of aquatic organisms andecosystems. Mathematical and physical models arebeing developed to predict temperature distribution.Studies are underway on constructive use of wasteheat for agriculture and aquaculture and on the in-creased value of such water for recreation, industry,
28
and dwellings. The use of air diffuser systems and ofsubmerged weirs is being investigated to &genuineeffects on temperatures in stratified lakes.
Waste Treatment and Ultimate Disposal
Different methods of waste treatment and controlare being studied, including development. of methodsto remove nitrogen, to handle sludges and brines, torenovate and reuse waste water, to remove and add tothe water, to prevent and control scale, to removeiron and manganese, to control pH, to use for purifi-cation, to improve shipboard sewage control. to im-prove disinfection methods, and to develop proce-dures for tertiary treatment. Research is supportedon irradiation of water, sewage treatment in coldregions and reclamation of photographic film washwater.
General Water Quality Research
Water quality research in this area covers a broadrange, of characterization and quantification of thedeterminants of . water quality including sources,kinds, amounts, prevention, control, effects, reclama-tion, and fate of pollutants, mixing, sedimentation,erosion, and sorption studies, research on watercycles and hydrologic systems research. 11. & D. pro-grams include development and standardization ofdetection and identification methods, especiallythose for trace constituents such as heavy metals andbiocides and transport and effects of the contami-nants. Methods of monitoring, including develop-ment of remote sensing methods are being studied.Research on control of eutrophication by advancedwaste treatment, nutrient removal, weed harvesting,and chemical inhibition is being studied. Demon-stration of these methods is being attempted inseveral areas. Research in waste treatment is directedtoward physical, chemical,. and biological improve-ment of the quality of effluents and toward innovativemethods to remove undesirable elements. Studies aresupported on reaeration of waters to increase oxygenand prevent stratification, use of herbicides, andeffects of high evaporation on salt levels. Mathemati-caand.physical models are being develdped to betterunderstand complex systems and the transport andfate of water and pollutants in water bodies andwatersheds.
Water Quality Requirements Research
This program provides the scientific basis for es-tablishing improved water quality standards and for
t
predicting the water quality effects of the many newsubstances being constantly introduced into thewater environment. Research involves all water uses,but especially the effects of pollutants on aquaticorganisms. It is assumed that standards adequate toprotect aqtiatic life will probably provide waterquality suitable for other water uses. Research in-cludes the establishment of water quality criteria forheavy metals, pesticides, hydrocarbons, petrochemi-cals, dissolved oxygen, complex industrial chemicals,and temperature.
ANALYSIS
The first annual report of the Council on Environ-mental Quality points out that institutional andmanagement changes affecting our use of water playa role at least as important as scientific researchin solving our national problems in this area.A major role for water pollution research, therefore,is to support water management by .supplying toolsfor the development of a strong and coherent policyfor achieving high water quality. These tools taketwo principal forms: (1) Developing a sound scientificbase of information for making regulatory decisionsand (2) developing systems and technology for solv-ing specific water pollution problems.
A review of Federal water pollution control pro-grams points out the complexity of the problems in-volved, the large number of Federal organizationsthat have activities in this field, and the significantnumber of differing research approaches that arebeing taken.
The level of effort of water quality research anddevelopment for 12 different Federal agencies was$83.31. million in fiscal year 1969, $88.79 million infiscal year 1970, and $115.37 million in fiscal year1971. In fiscal year 1971, about 42.5 percent of theprogram involved source pollution control tech-nology, 31.5 percent multisource water quality con-trol technology, and the remainder (26 percent)waste process technology, water quality require-ments, and thermal and salinity research.
There appears to be a research and developmenttrend toward widening a known research base, apply-ing existing knowledge and technology to long-neglected problems, optimizing existing technology,reducing cost, and other management problems. Theresearch focus is on providing input to the currentsurge of regulatory and control activity. This empha-
sis on current and short-term needs may result intemporary switches in researeh attention when atten-tion is drawn to a toxic substance or pollution issuethat catches the interest of the news media or thepublic. Environmental research is especially respon-sive to political pressures and public concern and caremust be taken not to neglect long-term needs.
There are few broad areas of water quality researchactivity remaining that are not now the object ofsome research attention ; the adequacy of this cover-age varies a good deal.. There is, for instance, in-sufficient research on levels of those substances thatdo not interfere with water uses. Further knowledgeneeds to be developed on the biological effects oftemperature and temperature changes on variouswater systems, the role of sediment in streambankand channel erosion, and the magnitude and signifi-cance of dissolved and suspended material originatingfrom plant and animal sources that enter watercourses. New methods should be explored for dis-posing of saline drainage water to avoid degradingexisting water resources. Processing methodologyneeds to be improved for greater emphasis on recycl-ing or closed-loop systems. There is .a definite needfor greater involvement of new technology such asremote sensing in pollution surveillance and detec-tion, including development of sensors for relevantpollution parameters.
There is agreement on the part of governmentalorganizations that the problem of ultimate disposal,8116 as deep wells or ocean dumping is receiving in-adequate research attention and should be looked atfrom a broader environmental perspective. With theincreasing use of nuclear plants and their associatedrelatively high thermal discharge, the problems ofthermal pollution will undoubtedly continue to re-ceive increasing attention. Translated into terms ofactual projects, there will be a step-up in studies ofthe various technologic and economic options forcooling and the biologic effects of temperature change.Innovative research is needed in applying thermaleffluents to beneficial uses, such as space heating,alleviation of ice conditions hindering shipping andextending the season for irrigation crops. Increasedregulatory authority will require expanded researchto develop water quality criteria for specific pollu-tants, such as heavy metals and synthetic organics,and for monitoring to establish reliable baseline in-formation on water quality. Increasing pollution ofthe oceans will require further research on the Meetsof discharges from such activities as dumping ofshore-generated wastes and exploitation of seabedresources.
4O L;?
29
Many actual or potential water quality problems,such as those resulting from detergent constituents,are not associated with point discharges and may re-quire source control by restriction of manufacture oruse. Such control would require research to developcriteria for defining what constitutes an environ-mentally hazardous substance and for screeningmaterials for potential environmental effects. Cur-rent emphasis is on known problems. Increased at-tention is nceded for a capability for predicting waterquality issues. As waste treatment becomes moreeffective and reuse of renovated water more neces-sary, specific criteria will be needed to establishguidelines, especially in the public health area, forthe uses to which such waters are put.
The Federal water quality programs were reviewedin light of comments by various groups. The recom-mendations for Federal water quality It. a: D. frommany private and government organizations, com-mittees, and testimonies clearly request a greater andmore imaginative program in certain areas than theFederal agencies are conducting. These recommenda-tions not drawn from individual departments havebeen summarized as follows: Water should be pro-tected from pollutants. Since water is reused,' moreknowledge is required on the effects of waste treat-ment processes on harmful substances and organism.sand on the compositional amounts of wastes intro-duced by industry. An inventory of industrial wastesis recommended. New and innovative approachesshould be made to supply treatment. More knowledgeon effects of water treatment on heavy metals,viruses, and others is required.
There is genuine alarm concerning the inadequacyand poor results obtained by present archaic methodsof waste treatment. This is based on concern thatpresent primary and secondary methods do not re-move nutrients, toxic heavy metals, and diseasepathogens from the effluent, and they do producelarge quantities of sludge that cause a severe pollu-tion problem. New and innovative approaches arerecommended, including recycling of waste with
. creative beneficial use of both effluent and solidsludge for fertilization and other uses but at the sametime preventing water pollution.
Other recommendations include: Increased studiesof effects of pollutants, including oil or organisms,especially in estuaries; increased studies on conserva-tion and increase of water in semiarid regions; andimproved knowledge and methods for handling oilpollution.
A very large proportion of Federal agency budgetsdeals with water quality related to construction of
30
41 a
facilities and other activities using known tech-nology. The proportion of funding devoted to re-search is relatively small, and increase in levels ofsupport is sorely needed.6 The cost of providing ade-quate municipal waste treatment is estimated atabout $10 billion per year.
A Federal expenditure of 84 billion per year wasrecommended to match municipal expenditures. (Endof recommendations from outside groups.)
While the increase and broadening of environ-mental concern may have led to some overlap ofresearch activities, it is difficult to determine thedegree to which such overlaps could represent un-necessary duplication. In the case of pesticides andoil pollution, for example, interagency groups existthat have coordination as one of their primary func-tions. From the program descriptions provided, how-ever, there is a high probability that at least someresearch is undesirably duplicative. A project byproject comparison would be needed to confirm this.
More intensive use of coordinated efforts and inter-disciplinary team approaches and a clearer definitionof the responsibilities of various agencies are neces-sary in water pollution. Although there are someobvious examples of meaningful specific cooperativeprograms, such as the EPA-DOI support of waterresearch information transfer and intent-piny groupsexisting in fields such as oil pollution and pesticides,a review of program descriptions inelintes greaterneed for interdisciplinary team approaches and moredetailed coordination in certain critical areas of pollu-tion. Oil pollution, cleanup also appears to receivean unbalanced amount of attetktion from variousgovernment agencies.
Physical and mathematical modeling, and combi-nations of both, are being used to some extent. How-ever, a strong case can be made for greater relianceon these techniques in studying the effects on ecosys-tems. These _models are rapidly becoming. moresophisticated and contribute to avoiding or lesseningfuture water pollution problems. Systems analysis hassimilar potential in underlining the basic unity of theenvironmental structure. A greater reliance on thesystems approach is especially needed where there isa promise of reclaiming waste water or recycling po-tential pollutants that now add to the load of unde-sirable inputs to our water. Because this type ofanalysis requires reliable data and information ofwater quality interactions, concurrent emphasis
The agencies themselves did not report an imbalancebetween monies spent for construction of facilities andresearch. See last page of this chapter.
should be given to develop relevant data for input tomodels.
While there is general agreement that funds spentfor water quality H. & D. should be greatly increased,
t
there is no clear evidence, from the programs de-scribed in this report that the relative balances ofsupport now going for R. & D. as opposed to con-struction of facilities should be significantly altered.
Cf31
Land Quality
SUMMARY
This chapter describes the It. & D. currently con-ducted by Federal agencies relating to land quality.The total effort represents both intramural andextramural R. & D.
Figure 5 (p. 33) and table 5 (p. 34) summarizethe funding of each of these categories by each of theFederal agencies involved in land quality R. & D.
Historically, the quality of our land always hasbeen an important concern. Before the present em-phasis on environmental quality, concern centeredprimarily on erosionthe process of losing fertiletopsoil to the ravages of wind and water. Withinrecent times, however, emphasis has shifted to pollu-tion of land. Erosion is 'still a problem, but is nowbut one element of a much broader awareness thatthe land resource must be protected.
Pollutants contributing to the potential deteriora-tion of land quality include pesticides that resistdegradation, inorganic salts that accumulate andcause -phytotoxicity, plant nutrients in the form offertilizers that have secondary adverse effects onwater quality, animal wastes, industrial processingwastes, heavy metals, crop and forest residues, andradioactive nuclides. Some of the pollutants havedirect effects on land and its capacity for primaryproduction. Others have secondary effects on thequality of surface or ground water, or on the qualityof air. Solutions to problems relating to land qualitycan be solved only by a concerted effort on all aspectsof the environment.
In tonnage, sediment arising from water and winderosion is still the primary pollutant. Complete con-trol of sediment will never be possible. It is possible,however, to reduce the amount of sediment by themaintenance of adequate vegetation on land and bythe creation of wind barriers to reduce water andwind erosion. Effort in this area must not be per-mitted to decline as emphasis on other pollutantsincreases.
Persistent pesticides are a pollutant of land and
32ts'410
CHAPTER 5
also of water and air. Considerable R. a: D. effort isunderway on nonchemical methods of pest control.Nonchemical methods include biological, mechanical,and cultural control. Other methods, such as attract-ants, repellents, regulators of growth and develop-ment, and pheromones, are partly chemical andpartly biological. Nonchemical methods of pest con-trol offer much promise in the future. There isagreement, however, that chemical pesticides willcontinue to be necessary to insure adequate agricul-tural production and to protect human health. Asystems approach to pest control holds the mostpromise for the future. Integrated use of chemical,biological, mechanical, and cultural control must befostered in order to reduce the amount of chemicalsbeing introduced into the environment.
Animal wastes are an increasing concern. To main-tain economically competitive positions, producershave had to specialize, automate, and increase thesize of their operations. This has resulted in greaterconcentration of livestock, and thus a greater con-centration of wastes into a small area. Land is theonly reasonable disposal site. A better understandingis required of the reaction of animal wastes in thesoil. High concentrations of animal wastes may re-duce the productive capacity of the land.
Recent restrictions on disposal of sewage sludge inwater will result in increased disposal on land. At-tendant problems parallel those of animal wastes. Itis unreasonable to expect that animal and humanwastes can be repeatedly applied to land without ex-periencing problems; for example, the accumulationof heavy metals. Land has a finite capacity to absorband assimilate wastes. Accelerated research is criti-cally needed to solve problems that will surely arisein the future.
Soil salinity will become a more serious problem asthe acreage under irrigation increases. Acreage ofland under cultivation has decreased in recent years.Irrigation is one of the factors involved in increasedproduction per unit area.
Forest and crop residues pose some of the same
NIP
c.
Wee:W
e,X
tZt:t.t.t.
"Weeeeeeeeee"W
eeeeeeeeeWto.t._444.__..44.....:
:::::+:$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$;
TABLE 5.---Sunonary of land quality research and dcvelopmenl for various Federal agencies,
fiscal years 1909 -71.
(Figures in millions of dollars(
Animal Forest
Agency and wastes and crop
fiscal year research residues
Industrial
Heavy processing
metals wastes
Pesti-
cides
research
Plant Sedi-
nutri- Salinity inent Solid
cuts research research wastes
Other(unclassified) Totalland quality
research
AEC:1969
1070
1071
CE:
0.05
.03
.03
0.05
.03
.03
1960 0.10 .101070 .12 .121071 0.03 .13 .16
USDA:1960 0.49 2.36 0.06 .19 8.68 2.33 0.70 3.03 1.42 1.32 20.841070 .00 2.51 .06 .21 8.09 2.38 .80 3.15 1.65 1.32 21.371071 .92 2.88 .06 .22 0.81 2.60 .85 3.37 2.20 1.50 24.41
DOC:1080 .10 .101070 .20 .201071 .20 .20
DOD:1060
1070 .10 .101071 .20 .20
D31:1060 2.40 4.40 0.801970 2.40 4.00 7.301071 2.60 4.59 7.10
DOT:1969 .01 .01
1970 .01 .01
1971 .01 .01
EPA:1960 8.19 8.101070 8.09 8.001071 11.40 11.40
HEW:1000 6.10 0.101070 5.30 5.301071 5.60 5.60
NSF:1900 .10 .10 .60 .801970 .10 .30 .59 .99
1071 .50 .45 .69 1.04TVA:
1969 .20 .20
1970 .30 .301971 .10 .10
Total all agencies:
1969 .49 2.38 .16 .39 17.23 2.33 .78 3.13 14.22 1.92 42.991970 .60 2.51 .16 .51 16.42 2.38 .80 3.27 16.15 1.91 44.711971 .92 2.88 .58 .35 18.04 2.60 .85 3.50 19.05 2.19 50.04
problems caused by human and animal wastes. In-formation is now inadequate to understand the bio-physical and biochemical relationships that occurduring residue decomposition.
Radioactive substances in the land result fromfallout after nuclear explosion, from.power reactorsfor power or propulsion, and from other sources ofmanmade radioactivity. Considerable research isbeing conducted qn the fate and effect of. radio-
34
45
nuclides in terrestrial systems on such biologicalprocesses as behavior, food production, succession,migration; and reproduction. Studies are continuingto determine more precisely the effects of radiationon biological populations including man.
Mineral and organic junk and urban refuse are ablight on the landscape. Studies are underway toimprove the technology for sanitary landfills and toimprove the opportunities for recycling.
t
Refuse from mining and milling operations anddenuded land resulting from strip mining contributeto the deterioration of land quality. R. & D. in thisfield involves the recovery of valuable materials frommining and milling operations and the revegetationof strip-mining,sites to improve esthetic quality, toprovide habitats for wildlife, and to provide addi-tional areas for recreacional use.
With increasing pressure on land for the disposalof various wastes, problems will become more severe.R. & D. efforts in the future must he geared to solu-tions of problems before they become severe. Thus,it is critically important that a national land policybe developed in terms of local, regional, and nationalplanning. Only through such a concentrated effortcan the quality of our land be maintained.
ANALYSIS
The pervasive public concern about environmentalquality extended to the land after initially expressedconcern regarding the deterioration of air and waterquality. Today there are standards governing air andwater quality, but no standards have been developedfor land. Historically, water has been the preferredsink for the disposal of wastes. Increasing restrictionson pollution of water mean that increasingly moreattention will be given to land for the disposal ofwastes. Land has a finite capacity to absorb andassimilate wastes. Thus, it is important to establishguidelines and develop standards soon, so that theinsult of pollution to the land can be kept to a mini-mum. For example, sewage sludge and urban refusecontain heavy. metals. Repeated applications to landmay result in heavy metal accumulation to the pointof phytotoxieity.
The potential for increasing deterioration of landquality was well recognized by President Nixon inhis February 8, 1971 message to the Congress on en-vironment. In that message he urged the develop -ment of a National Land Use Policy. Such a policy isvital for wise land use in the future. Particularlyimportant is a policy for regional planning. Attitudesand objectives of local and State governments oftenare not the same. This has often hindered regionalplanning in the past and will do so in the futureunless some common objectives and goals areestablished.
Land pollution problems of the past centeredprimarily on sediment, erosion, salinity, and forestand crop residues. As technology increased, a shiftoccurred to pesticides and animal wastes as land
pollutants of primary concern. These will continueas problems for the foreseeable future. Recently,there has been increasing concern about heavymetals, such as mercury, lead, and cadmium. Al-though the R. D. specifically directed towardheavy metals is small, other work on them includedwithin the classifications of industrial wastes, solidwastes, and pesticides is substantial.
Requirements for fertilizer management systemsthat will keep water pollution to a minimum willincrease with time. The question of obtaining sus-tained maximum production without causing enrich-ment of waters remains to be solved. The factorsresponsible for enrichment of runoff waters must beidentified and evaluated.
The problem of disposal of urban wastes will in-tensify in the future if the pattern of increasinglygreater urbanization continues. Assuming that itdoes, additional research is needed to determine thevalue of municipal compost for increasing crop yields,maintaining turf, and reclaiming or stabilizing barrensoils; its value as a soil amendment, the capacity ofthe soil to accept large volumes of compost withoutadverse effects, and the views of compost users con-cerning the value and problems relating to compostuse.
Integrated efforts among diverse scientific disci-plines are needed to solve land pollution problems,which are expected to become more severe in thefuture. Because the capacity of the land to acceptand assimilate pollutants is finite, increasinglygreater attention must be given to recycling. Thevariety of land pollutants is diverse, their physicaland chemical properties are diverse, and their effectson soil, surface and ground water systems, air, andthe biota are diverse. Thus, the solution of problemswill require a fully integrated, interdisciplinaryeffort.
There is increasing appreciation for the conceptthat no element of the environment is independentfrom the others. If that concept is accepted, the valueof using mathematical and physical models and asystems approach to the solution of problems be-comes self evident. In many eases, the fundamentalinformation on which modeling and systems analysisare based is not yet available. However, completeinformation never will be available, there are merelyrelative degrees of adequacy. Thus, the lack of spe-cific bits of information should not deter an acceler-ated effort in modeling and systems analysis. Alldisciplines and techniques should be brought to bearon what is now a difficult problem and has the poten-tial for becoming more serious in the future.
46 935
Primary emphasis in the future should be placedon those pollutants that represent a potential hazardto man's health. Secondary consideration should begiven to those pollutants that adversely affect man'swelfare and his environment. Implicit in these pri-mary and secondary considerations is the fact thatour society does not permit tradeoffs in terms ofhuman health. Where man's welfare or the environ-ment is concerned, however, the benefits and risks ofgiven practices must be weighed so that societyrealizes the greatest good at the least cost. To followthis broad definition of priorities will require a con-tinuing analysis of land pollution problems. What is
36
46 47 ak
not known to be a health hazard today may becomeknown as one tomorrow.
An attitude of environmental concern throughoutsociety has been long awaited. Our concern must re-main rational and progressive. The environment in-cludes not only air, water, and land, but also thebiological organisms, including man, that occupy thethree media. Such a broad definition requires thatour future activities be designed for the improvementof total environment. We cannot permit an overlyprotective attitude toward one component of man'senvironment if other components are adversely af-fected in the process.
r.
Understanding, Describing,and Predicting the Environment
a
The objectives of Federal R. & D. activities in thisarea are to provide the required understanding of theenvironment to permit man to fully utilize his en-vironment and natural resources without degrada-tion or destruction and to maintain good quality andesthetics. This requires a broad understanding of theenvironment, including climate, ecological processes,the effects of man, and a multitude of other interre-lated factors. Predicting qualitative changes in theenvironment requires even more detailed knowledgeof critical factors and processes and may requiremathematical or physical models and long experi-ence. Understanding, describing, and predicting theenvironment are all necessary to permit proper en-vironmental management.
The areas that have been included are ecology andrelated research, environmental observation andmeasurement to describe and predict weather andoceanic activities, impact of environment on man,locating and describing natural resources, surveys todescribe the physical environment, and weathermodification.
The levels of support for this area have increasedfrom $199.49 'million in fiscal year 1969 to $249.99million in fiscal year 1970, and to $323.52 million infiscal year 1971. These funds are broken down byagency in table 6 (p. 39) and summarized in figure 6(p.38).
ECOLOGY AND RELATED RESEARCH
Summary
Ecology is a broad subject; it may be used to in-clude research in many areas or may be restricted asin this categorization. In a report entitled, "Advanc-ing Scientific Understanding of Natural Plant andAnimal Communities," published in 1968 by theOffice of Science and Technology, the total Federal
CHAPTER 6
effort in ecological research, surveys, and educationwas estimated at $175 million for fiscal year 1966.The 1971 survey by the Office of Management andBudget, Special Analysis Office, showed an estimateof $99 million for fiscal year 1971. However, in thisreview of the programs, deletion of total facilityconstruction costs and other factors considerably re-duced the estimates to $41.50 million in fiscal year1971.
Ecological research supported by Federal agenciesincludes basic studies on scientific understanding ofnatural plant and animal communities. This involvesfundamental processes operating in and affectingplant and animal communities, impact of the com-munities on man, and the impact of man on thecommunities. Research is supported on comprehen-sive study of ecosystems that includes detailed stud-ies of watersheds or other units of selected biomes.This research is included as part of the internationalbiological program that is emphasizing the study ofthe biological basic productivity of various naturalcommunities. The biomes being studied comprehen-sively include the grasslands, the deciduous forest,the tundra, the desert, the coniferous forest, andthe tropical forest biome.
Much of the Federal research in ecology involvesstudy of the effects of development projects and otherprograms conducted by the various agencies. Thisresearch includes studies on the effects of dams,dredging, changes of coastal areas, offshore engineer-ing, transmission lines and highways, and wastewaterfacilities. Special studies are conducted on the eco-logical aspects of forest and range ecosystems as abasis for formulating management principles and cul-tural practices, particularly with multiple uses con-bidered. Research includes the ecological effects offire, wind, temperature, precipitation, overgrazing,and man's activities. Studies on the autecology oftrees and range plants are conducted in relation tocontrol of insect and plant diseases and for better
48 et%37
4r
TABLE G.-Summary of funding for understanding, describing, andpredictingthe environment
rmorch awl divehopment by carious Federal agencies, fiscal years 190-71
(Figures in millions of dollars]
Agency and fiscal yearEco logY
andrelated
research
Environmentalobservation and
measurementto describe and
predict weatherand ocean
Impact ofenvironment
on man
Locating and
describingnatural
resources
Surveys todescribephysical
environment
Weathermodification
Total
1969 3.30 2.00 0.20 3.301970 4.20 2.30 .20 0.701971 5.80 2.40 .20 8.40
USDA:1909 3.81 .00 4.74 0.44 9.891970 4.17 1.00 5.31 .45 10.93
9 1971 6.48 1.02 5.87 .52 13.89DOC:
1909 19.70 1.90 1.30 22.901970 22.90 1.90 1.40 26.201971 35.50 2.00 1.40 38.90
1909 .40 8.59 .90 9.891970
1971
.70
.so13.87
13.41
3.50
4.7018.07
18.61DID1:
1909 4.10 1.69 28.09 1.04 4.70 40.221970 4.00 1.98 31.82 1.83 4.80 44.431971 14.90 2.00 32.17 .2.00 6.50 49.66
DOT:1969 3.00 3.001970 2.30 2.301971 3.50 3.50
HEW:1969 27.30 27.301970 23.60 23.001971 24.60 24.60
NASA:1969 30.80 11.10 4.00 .18 46.081970.. 30.00 40.10 3.40 .20 73.701971 31.40 71.10 4.40 .14 107.04
NSF:1969 10.80 10.01 2.30 2.30 1.00 2.70 29.111970 12.01 11.70 2.30 2.40 2.75 3.00 34.761971 14.32 17.00 2.80 2.90 7.00 4.50 48.52
SI:
1969 2.90 1.00 1.70 0 5.001970 6.70 .40 2.00 .20 9.301971 7.50 .40 2.30 .20 10.40
Total all agencies:1969 25.31 74.69 31.50 46.23 8.54 13.22 199.491970 31.78 84.15 28.10 79.63 10.08 16.25 249.991971 41.50 103.22 29.90 112.04 15.60 21.26 323.52
produCtivity and management practices. Studies arecarried out on various native and introduced speciesof insects, animals, and plants, and endangeredspecies. Basic studies are supported on determiningtaxonomy of plant and animal species, and their dis-tribution, abundance, and fluctuation in numbers.Ecosystem studies are being carried out in relationto human population increase. Studies on protectednatural areas are conducted to determine the presentcomposition of plant and animal communities to serveas baselines and benchmarks to measure and moni-
for the effects of increased population, pollution,and changes in the environment.
Analysis
Ecological knowledge is presently too limited andtoo infrequently applied to generate the political andsocial action required to resolve the serious environ-mental problems facing us. Ultimately, understand-ing the processes of renewability of resources under-lies successful management of all ecosystems. An
39
intensive program of technology assessment. is neces-sary to determine ecological and environmentaleffects of man's technology. A systematic program ofen V ironmental assessment is required to establishbaselines, assess the state of ecosystems, and changes,
The trend today is toward increasing ecologicaland environmental It. & D. to help resolve the seriousenvironmental problems facing us. An urgent require-ment is to obtain accurate ecological and environ-mental data that require much greater supportbased on incomplete data. The trend in expendituresfrom 1969 to 1971 has been an increase from $25.31to $41.50 million.
The priority of the ecological R. & D. programs ishigh based on statements by executive, legislative,and consultative groups. More funding support,however, has been given to action programs for im-mediate remedies to problems than to R. & D. inecology.
Major present and future problems include thefollowing: (a) Ecological and environmental goalsand objectives with identified priorities need to beestablished. (b) Accurate baseline ecological and en-vironmental data are urgently needed. Quantitativecensus and surveys of sensitive and vulnerable popu-lations of certain plants and animals should be con-ducted to provide an early warning system. (c) Theproblems of ecology and environment are continuallychanging. Short-term, long-range, and second-orderproblems must be considered. (d) The complexity,change, multidisciplinary nature, and frequentlycritical data gaps make analysis of ecological datadifficult. (e) An intensive program of technologyassessment of environmental impact is needed todetermine the rate of extraction of resources andreturn of wastes.
Integrating efforts and team approaches are abso-lutely essential in ecological studies to be able todevelop a predictive capability. The complexity ofecosystems and the multidisciplinary character re-quire large numbers of personnel working closely withintegrating and system approaches. Nongovernmentgroups such as The Institute of Ecology have beenproposed that could be of great value in helping solvemany of these problems. Environmental R. & D.studies over wide areas require standardization oftechniques, measuring devices, units, and method-ology of analysis. The international Biological Pro-gram biome studies and the NSF regional environ-mental systems programs are an integrating influence.
Modeling and system approaches are essential toadequately measure, describe, and understand eco-systems and the environment. Both mathematical
40
51
and physical models are being used to design experi-ments and to be able to understand ecosystems suffi-ciently to make predictions for management. Thesystems approach is essential to design experiments,to collect required data, and to handle and analyze it.In the International Biological Program, a level ofintegrated research using mathematical models andsystems approach in studying biomes has been at-tained that can be considered a significant break-through. Multispectral remote sensing could con-tribute greatly to ecological studies using systemapproaches.
With the diversity of Federal agencies with someoverlapping responsibilities, there is a potential foroverlap that should be reviewed regularly. A compre-hensive review of ecological research is required toproperly evaluate the R. & D. effort and itseffectiveness.
Gaps in R. & D. exist not only from lack of suitablesupport., but also because of limitations in our capa-bility to measure, lack of instruments and techniques,and especially, not knowing the critical questions tobe studied. A gap in baseline data exists because ofour lack of accurate knowledge of the taxonomy, dis-tribution, and abundance of the flora and fauna.
ENVIRONMENTAL OBSERVATIONAND MEASUREMENTTO DESCRIBE AND PREDICTWEATHER AND OCEAN ACTIVITIES
Summary
R. & D. programs include eight Federal agencieswith an expenditure of 8103.22 million in fiscal year1971. This is indicative of the extensive influence ofclimatic and marine environmental influences on abroad range of human activities. The major objec-tives are to understand the main problems of theatmosphere and ocean, to comprehensively describeand monitor these environments, to attempt predic-tion to avert environmental deterioration or cata-strophic phenomena, such as severe storms and lossof life and property, and to permit proper manage-ment of marine resources.
The weather R. & D. programs include studies tomeasure and understand atmospheric processes anddynamics; simulation of their characteristic behaviorand phenomena; and theoretical modeling.. Thesestudies will further the understanding of atmosphericprocesses necessary to develop capability for bothshort- and long-term weather prediction.
Research is carried out on cyclones, thunder-storms, and tornadoes to help in detecting, forecast-ing, and modifying them. Aeronomy studies are car-ried out to measure solar radiation at high altitudesand its effects on the earth's climate and atmosphericchanges, heat balance, and effects of solar storms.Satellites are being used to measure atmosphericcomposition, circulation, and turbulence of the at-mosphere, wind velocity, fronts, jet streams, cloudcover; to detect severe weather; and to issue appro-priate warnings. Effects of weather are being studiedon transportation, agriculture, forest fires, andphenology.
The marine environmental activities of the FederalGovernment have been described in a recent publica-tion, "Federal Plan for Marine Environmental Pre-diction Fiscal Year 1972," published by NationalOceanic and Atmospheric Admininration (NOAA)in February 1971. The programs in this area are de-signed to gain a better understanding of the marineenvironment and associated phenomena necessary todevelop and to use the resources of the oceans andcoastal zones. These programs include integratedmonitoring, marine prediction including timely warn-ing of hazardous environmental conditions, andassessment and predictions of the distribution andabundance of living marine resources. A systems ap-proach has been developed for marine weather pre-diction. Studies are underway on the importantsea-air interaction involving energy and materialsexchanges. Studies are also carried out on waveactions and their effects, thermal structure, coastaland ice dynamics, shore protection, and flood damageprotection. Research is supported on movement ofelements through the marine environment, throughthe marine food chain, and on their ultimate fate.Remote sensing techniques are being used in thestudy of sea state conditions, oceanic phenomena,such as upwelling and ocean currents, and locatingfish schools and marine pollution.
Studies are sponsored on morphology, structure,and sedimentary processes of the continental shelfand of dispositional and tectonic processes occurringin the deep ocean basins. Shoreline reaction andchanges produced by winds, waves, tides, storms, anddepositions are being studied. Research is conductedon circulation of water, solids, and solutes in estu-aries and lagoons and inflow of fresh water.
Analysts
R. & D. is carried out by eight Federal agencies.The budget has increased from $74.69 million in
fiscal year 1969 to 5103.22 million in fiscal year 1971.Most of the increase is due to the development ofsatellite observation programs.
Support for research on the atmosphere has notincreased significantly during the past few years.Emphasis is needed in several areas including re-search to: (a) Understand the global distribution andlong-term trends of the air composition and proper-ties for pollutants of manmade and natural origin inrelation to climatic change. (b) Understand the oceanconstitutents, properties, and processes likely to in-fluence climatic change. (c) Understand atmosphericmotions, needed to improve prediction of localweather forecasting. The development of remotesensing of the atmosphere is important in this area.(d) Understand the global atmospheric and oceaniccirculations and interactions to extend useful rangeof prediction in the 1- to 2-week period range.
Federal support of aeronomy has been slightlydownward in the past few years. Most work in thisfield is conducted in-house, although considerable usehas been made of special foreign currencies in sup-porting research overseas. While this program has notheretofore been directed toward environmentalquality programs, the data and knowledge that havebeen obtained concerning the upper atmosphere willprovide a baseline for measuring changes broughtabout by man's use of this region of the environment.There will be an important need for increased empha-sis on predicting and measuring environmentalchanges that may be brought about by increasedoperational activities in this region, or by experi-ments involving the release of chemicals. Plans arebeing developed within NOAA for a modeling of thetotal solarterrestrial environment, including ulti-mately a modeling of the interface between the upperand lower atmosphere. Similar modeling of the be-havior of atmospheric stirms and molecules and theirinteraction with incoming radiation is underway.These will constitute important areas of emphasiswith regard to environmental quality on a long-termbasis.
Traditionally remote sensing, for example, radar,has played an important role in aeronomy. This roleis expected to increase with the availability of-newtools such as laser spectroscopy. Most data have beenobtained from comparatively local regions. Increasedemphasis should be given to the use of satellites as aplatform for data acquisition on a global basis forassessing climatological changes in the upper atmos-phere resulting from man's activities.
The Federal Plan for Marine Environmental Pre-diction, fiscal year 1972, published by NOAA in
41
February 1971 is an excellent summary of Govern-ment marine environment activities and plan:;. Toaccomplish the goals set, expansion of rekwantR. & D. now in progress is recommended. This recom-mendation fits closely with that of the presentanalysis.
Federal R. & D. is being focused on the develop-ment of automated systems for obtaining marine,physical, chemical, and biological data. Studies areincreasing on the major ocean current systems. Inaddition, there is an expanded effort to identify thenature and extent of secondary ocean circulationsand to ascertain their relationship to the adjacent.major current systems. There is also a continuingeffort to develop new and major improved techniquesfor predicting physical oceanographic phenomena,such as sea state, mixed layer depths, and stormsurges. There is a definite trend toward extramuralresearch.
There are insufficient resources allocated to de-scribing circulatory and diffusion patterns in estu-arine and coastal waters. This is also true to somedegree of the R. & D. effort in developing mathe-matical and physical models of estuarine circulation.There is also insufficient attention to the acquisitionof data to develop mathematical models for predict-ing biological phenomena.
The present program is fairly well balanced. Thereis a current deficiency in the deployment of a dataacquisition system to obtain physical, chemical, andbiological data. However, plans are being developedto remedy this in the near future. There is an urgentneed to concentrate on problems associated with theestuarine and coastal zones.
Pilot studies and experiments are needed in estu-aries in which a total resources of the variousagencies hallfiV SNAC responsibility in this area aremerged into on,:", cmcerted effort. There is a need todevelop an integrated marine environmental moni-toring system in which the resources and capabilitiesof appropriate Federal agencies are utilized.
Preliminary modeling techniques are used to pre-dict tides and salinity incursions in lower estuariesand also to predict sea state and storm surges. Thereis an urgent need by a wide variety of users forknowledge of the future state of the marine environ-ment. Mathematical modeling is considered an idealmethod for meeting this requirement on a systematicand timely basis. Longer time series data are neededto improve the accuracy of the model output.
There are some gaps in the monitoring of oceanicparameters and in the conduct of land-sea-air inter-
action experiments.
42
& 1). in the future should be focused on (1)monitoring the marine environment and (2) develop-ing prediction techniques for estuaries. major currentsystems, sea state, breakers and surf, sea ice, andmarine biology. Further analysis is urgently neededon the physical, chemical, and biological aspects ofestuaries and coastal water areas.
3
IMPACT OF ENVIRONMENT ON MAN
Summary
Man is shaped to a great extent by his environ-ment. This includes his physical nature, mentalhealth, culture, institutions, and even his survival.R. & D. studies are supported on the effects of en-vironment on man and his physical surroundingsand the modification of man's immediate environ-ment. in different climatic conditions. Research also
undertaken on the effects of environmental changeson man caused by human destruction and modifica-tion of environments.
A major part of the program is to determine whatchemical, physical, or biological factors in the en-vironment are likely to affect man's well being, tolearn how these factors operate, and to provide thescientific basis for development of adequate controlmeasures. Of great importance is the research oneffects of agents acting in low concentrations overlong periods, threshold and delayed responses, detec-tion of subclinical symptoms, and defense mecha-nisms for enhancing resistance.
Research is also undertaken to determine theeffects of environment on man with regard to hiscapability to operate under a wide variety of climaticconditions, and to provide adequate clothing, food,shelter, and other materials to permit, him to with-stand severe environments.
The effects of today's climatic changes on manare being studied as well as that in historical timesusing archaeological methods.
Analysis
R. & D. on the impacts of environment on man isbeing studied by four Federal agencies with $31.50million in fiscal year 1969 and $29.90 million infiscal year 1971. The subjects of industrial and occu-pational health and safety are not included in thisreport. These subjects must be considered in analyz-ing the R. & D. in this area. The effects of chemical,
physical, and biological factors in the environment.must he considered in developing control measures.Of special importance are the effects of those agentsacting in low concentrations over long periods of time.The effects of climate on man and man's modilicat ionof his immediate environment are being studied aswell as the effects of environmental changes causedby human activities and changes of the environment.
Evaluating the amount and adequacy of coverageof research and development in such a broad area isdifficult. Insufficient data are available on the effectsof various environmental contaminants, such as theeffects of low levels of DDT, mercury, cadmium, andother chemicals, especially over lifetimes orgenerations.
Other areas requiring investigation are the effectsof crowding of human populations with the resultingpollution, social, and other stresses. Also required isthe development of planning systems for maintainingor enhancing environmental quality in urban, rural,and neighborhood environments.
The degree of coordination between differentagencies in this subject area is difficult to evaluate.Use of modeling and systems approaches are beingattempted in urban and rural living areas.
LOCATING AND DESCRIBINGNATURAL RESOURCES
Summary
R. & D. programs for locating and describingnatural resources are being carried out by four Fed-eral agencies with a budget of $112.04 million in fiscalyear 1971. These programs do not include actualgeological surveys, soil surveys, timber surveys, andother natural resource surveys, but include theR. & D. required for improving exploration conceptsand techniques for locating new resources, or betterevaluation of known and potential resources. Im-proved methods of survey, such as development ofmultispeetral remote sensing including use of aircraftand satellites and ground truth verification studies,are being developed rapidly for surveys of mineraland oil resources, water resources, forests and range-lands, soils and nutrients. In addition to methods forsurvey and inventory of natural resources, research isconducted to monitor the changing conditions ofresources including snowfall accumulation, flooding,range and forest degradation, including fire, insect,and disease outbreaks, effects of natural disasterssuch as hurricanes, and the rate of utilization of nat-
ural resources by man. More accurate maps are beingproduced permitting. greater accuracy in assessingnatural resources and their changes. Research isaimed at a better understanding of the basic proc-esses that control the occurrence and movement ofminerals and water. Methods are being developed tomore accurately assess the future needs and trendsin use of natural resources and of alternative uses ofresources.
Analysis
Federal support of R. & D. for locating and de-scribing natural resources has risen from $46.23million in fiscal year 1969 to S112.04 million in fiscalyear 1971. This increase is due principally to experi-ments on the earth resources technology. satellitesby NASA and some from the planned Earth Re-sources Observation Systems of the Department ofthe Interior: As stated in appendix 4, there are nocasts of satellites, or launch vehicles included in these;budget figures.
Large quantities of imagery data will require opti-mum sampling procedures and automation of read-out, storage, and retrieval of natural resource in-formation. An urgent problem appears to be thedevelopment of techniques for integrated muhire-source inventories to supersede the single-resourceinventories nbw made at different times. Such tech-niques would facilitate better multiresource manage-ment of the public lands and other large ownershipsthat is hampered by lack of in-place multiresourcedata. This applies especially to forest, range, mineral,and water resources.
Another urgent need is to expand research on theinventory of energy and mineral resources of thecontinental shelf.
Large amounts of funds are necessary to the con-duct of multispeetral sensing experiments in dataacquisition to serve a variety of discipline interests.This is compared with the relatively low funding ofother essential research such as in data analysis andinterpretation.
Although experimental remote sensing programscan yield extensive information to assist in naturalresources survey and environmental management,developing the great potential of these systems shouldbe given high priority, as well. While some applica-tions have already been made by using satellites,much basic research is needed on interpretation ofground truth and significance of spectral signaturesfor interpretation before the potential of remotesensing with satellites is fully proved.
4 %t sal43
.lodeling of natural processes has limited applica-tion in locating and. describing natural resources, butthe systems approach is essential in developing thefull capabilities of remote sensing. Systems develop-ment is also critical to the automation of storing andusing nat ural resource data.
SURVEYS TO DESCRIBE THEPHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
Summary
R. & 1). on surveys to describe the physical en-vironment. is being conducted by live Federal agencieswith a budget of $15.60 million in 1971. The programsinvolve research on the causes of earthquakes, moun-tain building, volcanoes, generation of tsunamis, andcontinental shelf morphology. Research indicatesthat the earth has large surface blocks or plateswhose interactions appear to be responsible forearthquakes and other instabilities of the earth'scrust.. Research is being carried out to accuratelylocate these unstable areas, to determine stresses, andto develop earthquake predictive capabilities. Seismicrecording instruments are being improved to in-crease accuracy of earthquake location and datahandling.
Studies are sponsored on morphology, structure,and sedimentary processes of the continental shelfand of depositional and tectonic processes occurringin the deep ocean basins.
Analysis
R. & D. on earthquakes, volcanoes, and continentalshelf morphology has increased from $8.54 millionin fiscal year 1969 to $15.60 million in fiscal year1971. Research on earthquakes appears to be pro-gressing as a result of increased understanding of thebasic mechanisms involving interaction of large sur-face blocks or plates. Predicting earthquakes in thefuture appears promising. No research was reportedon subsurface thermal measurements and potentialuse in heat pumps for supplying required heatingand cooling. This may be supported under other pro-grams not relating to environmental quality.
No major overlaps were apparent. Coordinationbetween Federal agencies appears effective. Althoughno modeling concepts were reported, they appear tooffer real promise in the earthquake prediction.
44
reir. .63..)
WEATHER MODIFICATION
Summary
Weather modification R. & 1). is being conductedto improve knowledge of precipitation phenomenaand to develop practicable techniques for controlledmodification of normal precipitation patterns. Asthis knowledge increases, the probability also in-creases of our capability to augment, redistribute, oralter the character of precipitation on a scale ofnational significance. The Federal weather modifica-tion program includes precipitation modification, fogand cloud modification, hail and lightning suppres-sion, and severe storm modification. The researchprogram is directed to developing an understandingof the atmospheric water processes and applying it tothe development of techniques to solve problemscaused by the behavior of atmospheric water. Theseproblems include floods, droughts, hail, fog, lightning,hurricanes, and severe storms.
Analysis
The Federal weather modification program is awell-coordinated program involving seven Federalagencies with some joint projects. The budget. in1969 was $13.22 million and in 1971 was $21.26million.
This program has made considerable progress.The state of knowledge and operational readiness isgreater in some areas than in others, however, certainbeneficial results can now be achieved.
A recent study by the Interdepartmental Commit-tee for Atmospheric Sciences (ICAS), a standingcommittee of the Federal Council for Science andTechnology (FCST), identified several areas where anational weather modification program may be ofvalue to man's continued existence on this globe.These areas include precipitation management forwater resources, reduction of damage from hail,lightning, and violent storms, and improvement ofvisibility in .fogs.
Major scientific discoveries or "breakthroughs"are not necessary to achieve an operational weathermodification technology. The basic premises havebeen generally verified and the remaining techno-logical gaps identified. What is needed now is a firmcommitment to the magnitude of development tasksinvolved in forming the practical and useful toolweather modification can be. Much remains to belearned of the basic. meteorological processes thattake place in the atmosphere, but the major thrust
now needs to be in extensive applied research coupledwith associated research into the complex legal,social, economic, and natural environmentconsiderations.
Close coordination among all interested agenciesis maintained through frequent conferences, ex-changes of experimental data and results, commonsharing of some equipment, facilities, and computerprograms, participation in joint experiments, andmembership on various interdepartmental commit-tees whose function is coordination of Federal activi-ties in the atmospheric sciences. The establishment ofspecific cooperative multia.gency efforts to resolvecertain critical problem areas that impede the appli-cation of weather modification technology are needed.
The establishment of adequate mathematicalmodels to describe and forecast the reaction ofweather systems to weather modification applicationsare now under development and show considerablepromise of providing this universal capability soon.Improved methods of evaluating the results of modifi-cation are expected to emerge from these basicmodel studies. Through mathematical modeling oflarge-scale circulations, the effects of long-term in-advertent modifications of the atmosphere by manwill be simulated. However, increased emphasis
should be played on benchmark measurements, andresear(.11 into this 31)(1 of weather modifu.ation.Support for the establishment of it national deposi-tory for weather modificat ion data is also needed.
Weather is a product of the atinosphere. itself atotally essential resource of mankind. The relativelynew science of weather modification is one with thepotential for avast economic and social gains forhuman life. All Federal agencies engaged in weathermodifiratiuu activities have the goal of manipulatingthe weather to bet ter suit human goals and needs.
Alan has been inadvertently modifying the atmos-phere for years, by spewing forth great amounts ofcontaminants, exhausts. and heat without discrimi-nation, aml until recently, without concern for theeonsequenves. The National Academy of Sciencescited this problem in a recent report, and said that"now is the time for au increased effort on a nationalscale in the fields of weather and climate modifica-tion. * * * It is important that the advances inresearch and development go forward with opera-tional efforts and that new understanding of theatmosphere be quickly translated into operationalmethods which may benefit the whole of society."The Federal weather modification program is makinggood progress toward that goal.
Protecting and Enhancing
the Environment
SUMMARY
The objectives of Federal R. & D. activities de-scribed in this chapter are to provide the scientificbasis for actions which will: (1) Permit enjoymentand use of designated renewable resources withoutunacceptable impairment, and (2) lead to increasingthe utility or value of such resources. Five majorresource categories are recognized: Rural and wild-land environments, fisheries and wildlife, recreation,urban and suburban environment, and water re-sources. An additional category, environmental sys-tems, which relates to all the others, is also included.Total expenditures in fiscal year 1971 were $57million, of which fisheries and wildlife resources ab-sorbed the major proportion (60 percent). Activitiesrotating to water resources, and to urban and ruralenvironments combined, each represent about 18percent of the total. The breakdown of the fundingby agency for fiscal years 1969, 1970, and 1971 isgiven in table 7 (p. 48) and summarized in figure 7(p. 47).
Analysis of Environmental Systems
This research involves a comprehensive approachto understanding the total complex of interactionsbetween various technological activities and all thecomponents of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.Its purpose is to provide regional resource plannersand developers with a reliable prediction systemthat will permit them to identify environmentalproblems in advance and take steps to prevent theiroccurrence.
Fisheries and Wildlife Resources
R. & D. activities considered here are those con-cerned with protecting and enhancing the recreation,sporting, and esthetic enjoyment and commercial
46 57
CHAPTER 1
aspects of fish, birds, and animals. The continuedrenewal of our diverse and plentiful fish and wildliferesource is heavily dependent upon how skillfullytheir supporting aquatic and terrestrial ecosystemsare managed. A major effort is aimed at acquiringknowledge of biological characteristics and require-ments of oceanic and fresh water sports fisheriesresources, and in understanding their relationshipsto their physical environment. Impacts of varioustypes of manmade disturbances upon the aquaticenvironment and their consequences to fish popu-lations are under study. Considerable research isalso carried out on the distribution, life cycles, mi-grations, and natural enemies of important. species.Other experiments arc conducted on the persistence,detoxification, and cycling of chemical contaminantsthrough aquatic ecosystems. Fish hatchery manage-ment and rearing methods are also being improved.
Wildlife research activities center strongly on man-agement of the native habitat, with particular em-phasis on the effects of timber harvesting activities.Considerable effort is also devoted to the study ofbig game on western rangelands. Other researchemphasizes knowledge of the environmental require-ments of waterfowl and other migratory birds.Principal emphasis has been on game animals andbirds: plans for the immediate future call for moreattention to nongame species, particularly those inthe threatened or endangered category.
Recreation Resources
R. & D. activities are concerned with the pro-tection and management of recreation resources, andwith determining how they can best be planned andand developed to adequately serve public needs andto provide continued and increasing use withoutdeterioration. Techniques are developed for pro-jecting demands for various types of recreation ac-tivities. The potential contributions of recreation
.7
4
7
TABLE 7.-Summary of funding for prol(cling and enhancing the environment research and developmentby various Federal agencies, fiscal years 190-71
(Figures in millions of dollars'
Analysis of
Agency and fiscal year environmental
systems
Fisheries
and wildliferesourees
Recreation
resources
Rural and
wild land
enviro ttttt ent
Urban and
surburban
environment
Water
resources Total
USDA:1969 1.95 1.46 6.50 4.61 5.75 20.27
1970. 2.22 1.55 6.78 .93 6.12 21.62
1971 2.33 1.60 7.03 5.63 0.15 23.34
DOC:1969 14.22 14.22
1970 15.16 15.16
1971 13.15 13.15
Dad:1909 17.30 .10 .83 0 4.04 22.27
1970 17.20 .10 .91 0 4.79 23.00
1971 19.10 .10 .97 .45 5.97 26.59
DOT:1969 0
1970 .65 .65
1971 .75 .75
HUD:1969 .77 .77
1970 2.00 2.09
1971 3.68 3.68
NSF:1969 0 0
1970 3.07 3.07
1971. "ieff .11 .11
Total all agencies:
1969 0 33.47 1.56 7.33 5.38 9.79 57.53
1970 3.07 34.58 1.65 7.69 7.69 10.91 05.69
1971 .11 34.58 1.70 8.60 10.51 12.12 67.62
resources to the economy and quality of living inrural areas are being analyzed. Closely related studiesare finding ways of making outdoor recreation re-sources more available and better suited to the needsand interests of low-income groups. Research oncompatibility of outdoor recreation and other landand water uses provides the basis for multiple usemanagement prescriptions. Management guidelinesare also being developed and tested which will mini-mize adverse environmental impacts resulting fromhigh-density recreation use. Although neglected inthe past, increasing attention is now being given todetermining the motivations, interests, and attitudesof people toward outdoor recreation activities andopportunities in order to assure a more rewarding-and enjoyable experience for all. Greater emphasison social and economic aspects of outdoor recreationis planned for the future.
Rural and Wild Land Environment
Practical and effective methods are being de-veloped for managing land and vegetation for socially
48
desirable objectives, as well as for the production ofmarketable commodities. This includes establish-ment, culture, and protection of windbreaks andshelterbelts in the Great Plains; modification offorest management systems to make timber har-vesting compatible with the preservation of estheticvalues; and the use of trees and ornamental plantsfor highway beautification and safety, screening ofmanmade landscars and eyesores, and similar pur-poses. A major effort is directed at the rehabilitationof strip-mined areas, mine waste embankments, andother situations where the land surface has been dis-figured by industrial activities. Safe and effectiveways of protecting scenic values of forests and otherrural landscapes from fires, insects, and diseases areunder study. Limited research is being conducted onrural land use planning for better resource-use allo-cation. More attention will be given to this importantproblem in the next few years. New and economicallysound approaches to appraising intangible environ-mental values as a basis for land-use decisions willalso receive more study.
Urban and Suburban Environment
The objectives of this research an, to find ways ofimproving the livability, efficiency, and attractive-ness of urban and suburban centers through betterland use and planning, construction practices, na-tural resources management, more accessible recre-ation opportunities and open space, and more effec-tive use of vegetation. Improved strains of orna-mental trees, flowering shrubs, and turf, which raybetter able to withstand the unique stresses associ-ated with urban environments, are being developedand tested. The design and layout of transpOrtationsystems are being approached from the standpointof greater compatibility with overall environmentalobjectives as well as for Unproved efficiency. Waysof translating a variety of available environmentalinformation sources and modes into forms useful tourban planners are being explored. Other researchis establishing a sound basis for the location anddesign of open space areas in expanding urban andsuburban developments.
Water Resources
The Nation's fresh water resource is an importantand highly prized component of our environment,as well as a critical element of our industrial anddomestic life. This resource is continually renewedthrough precipitation, but too much of what wereceive is allowed to dissipate through lack of goodresource management. R. & D. activities consideredhere are those designed to reduce evapotranspirationlosses, induce greater infiltration and ground waterstorage, and in other ways make more efficient useof the annual supply. Rational and intelligent ma-nipulation of vegetation, use of soil amendments,and .careful scheduling of agricultural activities havesubstantial effects on the hydrologic cycle. Researchis now underway to find ways of translating knowl-edge and experience into management systems whichwill have predictable beneficial impacts on stream-flow and ground water recharge. Modeling proce-dures and computer programing arc being utilizedfor developing quantitative projections of the hydro-logic performance of watersheds under given man-agement regimes. Land and vegetation treatmentsare being developed which do not create undesirableenvironmental side effects. Other important researchinvolves describing and quantifying impacts of ur-banization, highway systems, and irrigation projectson water yields. Institutional constraints to better
water-use policies are being examined. l'ossibilitiesof upgrading or renovating waters impaired by in-dustrial use are being explored. Undesirable effectsof major water-development operations are Icingevaluated to find ways of minimizing deleteriousconsequences.
ANALYSIS
Study of recreation resources protection and en-hancement has emphasized physical problems suchas measurement of use, site deterioration, and re-source manarment. The need for a better under-standing of recreation user attitudes and preferencesas a basis for resource planning and development isnow being recognized. In recent years there has beena trend in fisheries and wildlife research away fromconventional biological studies in favor of moreemphasis on the effects of pesticides on reproductionand other life processes. This is likely to continue inthe future. Research on wildlife, reflecting neAs ofand pressures by sportsmen, has been heavily domi-nated by work with game animals and birds. Thereare indications that more attention will be given inthe future to nongame species, particularly thosethat are in a threatened or endangered status. Theoverriding urgency of water quality problems islikely to prevent any significant acceleration of re-search in the water resource activities reported here.In fact, some of the USDA efforts on water resourceaugmentation are now being reprogramed to prob-lems of water quality.
Some research in urban and rural problem areas isof long standing and is obviously designed to improvequality of living. However, most of the activitiesreported are either of recent origin or represent inci-dental spinoff from research conducted primarily forother purposes. The fairly new HUD and DOT pro-grams which have increased from $0.30 to $1.60million in the last 3 years suggest an increasingrealization that learning how to bring concepts ofbeauty and esthetics into urban planning is an im-portant subject for research. R. & D. activities inthe urban-rural areas reported by the Departmentof Agriculture are mostly mission-oriented, and con-tributions to environmental enhancement docu-mented in this report are to a considerable degreethe result of "indirect" research. This does not impairtheir usefulness or diminish their importance. How-ever, if environmental needs and benefits were theprimary rather than the incidental motivation, the
49
research might be more effectively planned andbetter staffed. All four Departments now engaged inurban and rural environment research, state theirintent to give more attention .to these needs. Itappears that there will be greater "direct" effort.allocated to important urban-rural problems in thefuture.
R. & D. programs reported in other sections ofthis report include numerous projects whose resultswill contribute to the enhancement of water resourcesand the improvement of environmental quality inurban and rural areas. Thus, it is not possible tomake a meaningful evaluation of program balancebetween problem categories.
A serious imbalance exists between the size of therecreation research program and the complexity andmagnitude of the job to be done. Outdoor recreationactivities represent a $30 billion business, which ismaking rapidly accelerating demands and impactson the resource. Outdoor recreation is becoming in-creasingly essential to the health, welfare, and enjoy-ment of life of all segments of our population. Thepresent level of support ($1.70 million) for researchfalls far short of what is needed to provide the es-sential knowledge and technology to protect, de-velop, improve, use, and enjoy this resource. Becauseof the critical nature of the problems it is particularlyimportant that allocation of the limited resources beguided by well-considered priorities. Part of thepresent effort can and should be reoriented to focuson some of the more critical and basic social andeconomic questions now receiving little or no at-tention.
Fundamental to the planning of a well-balancedresearch program is the question of prevention orcorrection. Should emphasis be on learning how toanticipate, predict, and avoid environmental impair-ment? Or should the main effort be to develop tech-nology for correcting damage which has already oc-curred? The answer is obvious where disasters havealready happened or are imminent. But it is rathereasy for a research program to become overly com-mitted to. brush fires. Failure to give adequate at-tention to underlying causes and processes of en-virnmental degradation may result in crises thatarc much more costly and more difficult to correct.Except for fisheries and wildlife activities, the pro-grams reported seem to lack carefully. planned andbuilt-in balance between what are essentially long-term projects aimed at preventing and shorter termprojects aimed at correcting environmental problems.This may be particularly true of some aspects of theurban and rural environment programs which seem
50
to reflect a response to pressures and crises ratherthan a careful evaluation of problems and assignmentof priorities.
The study of environmental problems, particularlythose relating to urban, rural, and wild-land con-ditions, requires involvement of many disciplinesfrom the physical, social, and biological sciences.The unique talents and contributions of engineers,meteorologists, sociologists, landscape architects, hy-drologists, ecologists, systems analysts, and otherspecialists are required to adequately understand,and to develop technology to solve complex environ-mental problems. To be most. effective, however,these skills must be carefully integrated and orga-nized into multidisciplinary teams. Only in this waycan interactions of plants, animals, weather, soil andgeology, and man's needs and activities be observed,measured, and evaluated. For this kind of an inte-grated approach to be fully developed and utilized,much closer coordination will be required amongagencies having responsibilities for different. aspectsof the same problem. Such coordination must gobeyond the cycling of memoranda of understandingand statements of intent through the various agencyhierarchies. Officials responsible for program planningmust identify needs and opportunities for multi-disciplinary research and must insist that. projectleaders work with their counterparts in other agenciesat early stages of project development, and thatjoint, thoroughly integrated planning documents beprepared.
Much available information on resource protectionand enhancement is not being used. More consciouseffort ii,needed to bring existing knowledge tegetherand to synthesize it into management prescriptions.Mathematical modeling is a versatile and powerfultool for this purpose if used with shill and ingenuity.This approach also can be employed to good ad-vantage for resource impact evaluations where manyenvironmental variables must be plugged in to pre-dict effects of land use or treatment. Modeling pro-cedures also can be adapted to the sophisticatedsocial studies needed to develop a better under-standing of people's attitudes, reactions, and moti-vations with respect to outdoor recreation and urban-rural environment.
Analysis of the information submitted did notreveal any significant overlaps or duplications inprogram activities. The DOI and the DOC havecommon interests and objectives in their investi-gations of pesticide effects on fish and the cycling ofchemical contaminants through aquatic habitats.However, DOC is primarily concerned with estu-
aline and oceanic environments while DOI is princi-pally preoccupied with fresh water, lake, and streamhabitats. .The respective responsibilities of USDAand D01 for fish and wildlife research are welldefined and programs are closely coordinated. Whatis of more concern to the Committee than possibleoverlaps is the necessity for more coordinated plan-ning, already referred to. More effort is needed inthe future to insure better integration of researchefforts and a reduction in the amount of fragmentedand unrelated studies.
No major gaps, in the sense of.significant areas ofresearch completely untouched, were identified. How-ever, there are numerous hnbalances that should becorrected and important problems that are receivingonly token attention. The most serious deficienciesidentified are as follows:
1. A much stronger socioeconomic basis for plan-ning, developing, and managing recreation resourcesis needed. Problems dealing with peopletheir be-havior in, attitudes toward, and needs for outdoorrecreationare infinitely more difficult than physicaland biological problems and have had little Federalfunding support. Most of the limited amount of goodresearch has been done by a few universities.
2. The limited amount of research on threatenedand endangered bird and animal species needs to beexpanded. Considerably more work should also bedone on habitat requirements of nongame bird andanimal species to enhance opportunities for theirenjoyment through so-called nonconsumptive use.Some reprograming of funds and manpower fromresearch on game animals and birds should be con-sidered if new funding is not available.
3. More effort should be directed toward develop-ing practical methods of managing aquatic eco-systems, perhaps at the expense of some of the morefundamental but low priority biological research, ifnecessary.
4. Most urban and suburban environments arenow generally recognized by city planners as beingcultural relics, which fail to meet even minimumstandards for an acceptable quality of living. Forrenewal projects, urban expansion, and new cityprograms to rise above characteristic metropolitanblight, much in-depth research is needed to providesocially and aesthetically sound design bases forreshaping urban and suburban landscapes. Thiseffort should include not only obvious aspects, suchas provision for parks and other open space, but
also for study of the integration of transportationsystems, architectural modes, and land-use allo-cations. Parameters fok measuring existing urbanand suburban environmental quality and its rate ofchange should be established. Critically needed alsoare methods for identifying significant environmentalfactors and for evaluating between proposed etiviron-mental management alternatives.
5. Research on augmenting water resources bythe manipulation of reg,etation, particularly phreato-phytes in the Southwest and high elevation foreststands in the Rocky Mountains, has produced agreat deal of useful knowledge. High priority shouldnow be given to applying this knowledge to theformulation of vegetation control prescriptions onan operational basis to determine overall costs andbenefits, and to establish the reliability of wateryield increase predictions.
6. Studies of the impacts of major water develop-ment projects should be extended to include overallecological effects. For example, little is known of theinfluence of huge impoundments in mountainousareas on subsurface waterflow patterns, wildlifepopulations, microclimate, and ecosystem dynamicsof adjacent slopes.
7. "A continuing dynamic program of land useplanning" was called for by the Public Land LawReview Commission in its recent report. Legislationfor a national land-use policy is almost inevitable.A stronger scientific base for land-use classification,both urban and rural, is needed. This requires abetter understanding of land-use capabilities, abilityto withstand various types of impacts, and the inter-actions of different combinations and levels of uses.Also lacking and badly needed by land-use plannersand decisionmakers are procedural guidelines forcalculating: intangible amenity values for assigningproper priority to them.
8. The in-depth study of selected environmentalsystems, as affected by the entire complex of man'sactivities, has not received adequatesupport.
9. Finally, a great deal of the R. & D. activitiesreported here could benefit by more penetratinganalyses of the problems themselves and a betterdefinition of priorities established on the basis ofspecified criteria. The resultant programs shouldaccurately reflect priorities, establish attaimblegoals, and provide for a more orderly and systematicdevelopment of knowledge that can be integratedinto total problem solution.
Special Studies
ALTERNATIVES TO THE USEOF PESTICIDES
Biological methods of control offer excellent oppor-tunities as alternatives to the use of pesticides. Re-search in this field includrs the search for and de-velopment of pathogens, insects, and higher formsof life, such a .9 fish, for the control of weeds. Forthe control of insects, research is conducted on path-ogens, predators, parasites, attractants and repel-lents, and radiation techniques to induce sterility.
Cultural methods of control are those that havebeen practiced historically in agriculture. They in-clude such practices as crop rotation, crop-pestcompetition, cleaning fence rows, timed planting toavoid a pest, and water management for crops suchas rice. These methods still constitute a significantpart of pest control, but will seldom accomplishcontrol objectives of themselves.
Mechanical control is also a historical method ofpest control. As with cultural control, mechanicalcontrol is a significant part of pest management, butit does not usually afford adequate pest control ofitself.
Breeding for resistance to pests has been mostsuccessful for the control of plant diseases andnematodes. The development of resistant varietiesis the most important means by which yields havebeen increased without dependence on pesticides.There are only a few cases where a crop has beenbred to provide resistance to a specific insect pest.Breeding programs are never ending. They requirethe continual development of new varieties to permitthe rapid introduction of new genetic stock whenresistance to a given pest is brokdn by the pestspecies. Thus, breeding for resistance cannot be donein anticipation of a problem. It can only be doneafter the problem is known.
Fundamental biology is essential for an under-standing of pest control by whatever method. De-tailed life history studies and physiologic profiles
52 (-a
CHAPTER 8
offer the basic knowledge of pests that is used inthe development of specific control practices.
The trend today is toward a greater emphasis onbiological and other nonchemical methods of controlrather than the use of pesticides. The shift in empha-sis has arisen in large measures because of publicconcern about the pollutant effects of pesticides.Despite an increased R. & D. in nonchemical methodsof control, the need for regulated use of chemicalswill continue.
Biological methods by themselves are unlikely toprovide adequate control for very many serious pestsin the foreseeable future, and the need for chemicalcontrol will continue. However, there is promise forthe further development of integrated control usingcombinations of biological, cultural, mechanical, ge-netic, and chemical methods. This approach can sub-stantially reduce the amount and frequency of chemi-cals used and in some cases may actually replacethem.
For about 20 years after World War II, R. & D.on chemical pest control expanded rapidly. With in-creasing concern for the environment, a shift tononchemical methods has occurred. The present bal-ance in USDA between chemical and nonchemicalmethods of pest control, about 40:60, is consistentwith the need for pest control in the future. Thepresent thrust is to develop integrated control prac-tices wherever possible so as to minimize the use ofchemicals. Biological and other nonchemical methodsof control are extremely effective and striking whenthey work. However, the hope for adequate controlof most pests in the foreseeable future without theuse of some chemicals is not realistic. Examples ofthe need for continued use of chemicals are thevastly increased incidence of malaria in Ceylon afterthe use of DDT was stopped and the damage causedby the gypsy moth in the United States after termi-nation of control programs using DDT.
Integrated pest control has been talked about formany years. The concept is sound and should be put
into practice. True integrated pest control wouldrequire the close cooperation of scientists from vari-ous disciplinesentomology, plant pathology, weedscience, ecology, and fisheries and wildlife biology.At the present time (1971) such scientists are segre-gated, for the most part, by organizational barriers.The breakdown of organizational barriers would notnecessarily result in the close cooperation needed forsophisticated research on integrated control. Narrowscientific disciplines have been established for manyyears. The shift in educational emphasis on bothundergraduate and graduate levels from narrow tobroad concepts will probably be necessary beforethe interdisciplinary barrier can be effectively over-
. come.Modeling and systems approach have not been
widely used in pest control. Mathematical modelinghas been used extensively in population biology andcould be adapted to pest control problems. Remotesensing offers exciting possibilities. It is already pos-sible to detect certain crop diseases and insect depre-dations by means of remote sensing techniques beforethese diseases and depredations are apparent to theeye. Remote sensing also could be used to plotweed infestations, especially those of aquatic weeds.There appears to be a reasonable potential for usingremote sensing to determine when certain weeds aremost susceptible. The latter possibility may bepractical only on noncultivated areas. A systemsapproach to pest control is essentially equivalent tointegrated control. Its use and utility have alreadybeen discussed.
A serious gap is the lack of detailed knowledge onfundamental biology of species and their interre-lationships. Overlap is a far less important problem.
Attention in the future should be focused on inte-grated control. Concurrently, fundamental biologyshould be emphasized and proceed apace with thedevelopment of more refined control methods.
Table 8 (p. 53) summarizes the funding of R. & D.pertaining to alternatives to the use of pesticides forfiscal years 1969, 1970, and 1971 by each of theFederal agencies involved in such research.
NOISE
Summary
Several Federal agencies are involved in R. & D.concerned with noise as an environmental pollutant.Noise abatement and control R. & D. may be cate-gorized in terms of the medium which the noise
TABLE g.SOMMary Or funding for alt misfires topesticides ri search am? derriopnnnf by various
fiscal wars 19';9-71
(Figures in millions of dollar(
the IISs. ofOf/111MS,
Agency and fiscal yearXoneltemical
nestcontrol
CSDA:1969 32.051970 33.64
1971. 37.74CE:
1009 0.201970 .301971 .30
NISF:1909 .831970 .801071 .90
Total all agencies:1069 33.081970 34.741971 38.04
pollutesair, land, or water. Of the three, the pro-gram in airdevoted to the control of aircraftnoiseis by far the largest.
The noise pollution programs for each of the mediamay be described in terms of programs to reducenoise levels at the source or to reduce noise levels atthe receptor by altering the noise propagation char-acteristics. An effort independent of the medium isthat to determine the effects of noise on humansand their response to noise.
The information reported pertaining to noise hasbeen divided into the following categories: Air,human effects, land, and water. The funding for eachof these categories for fiscal years 1969, 1970, and1971 is shown in figure 8 (p. 54). Table 9 (p. 55)summarizes the funding of each of these categoriesby each of the Federal agencies involved in R. & D.pertaining to noise.
The major funding efforts are centered in DOD,DOT, and NASA. Research emphasis has been placedon aircraft propulsion system noise and its suppres-sion. Programs include quiet engine design, fan tests,nozzle configuration, supersonic jet noise, rotatingblade noise, vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL)and short takeoff and landing (STOL) noise, pro-peller noise, reconnaissance aircraft noise, duct tech-nology, and internal jet noise suppression. Sonicboom is being studied from the point of view of itsgeneration and propagation as functions of configur-ation, flight path, and atmosphere. Research to re-
t.t. 53
64
veme...w
.wee.w
.w.w
.wee.tee:w
ww
mcnm
wx9x9.:9;9:;;;;;;;;;;;
duce received noise through altered landing flightpaths is also being carried out.
The DOT's National Bureau of Standards carriesout a fundamental program on noise measurement.methods and standards, including research on humanresponse to noise, such as the anngyance value ofdifferent noises.
Two Fe0. rltl agencies reported an R. & D. effortinvolving, noise in water media. This combined mini-mal effor,' 366,000 for fiscal years 1969-71 andrepress tt ;Ilan 1 percent of the total environ-mental noise program. The grant-supportedbasic rest-arch on sound propagation has not beenfunded since fiscal year 1969. The DOT's R. & D.was sponsored by FAA and concerned the pene-tration of sonic boom energy into the ocean (com-plete; )r. June 1970) and an investigation of under-.water coustic effects caused, by atmospheric sonicbooms.
Four Federal agencies reported R. & D. progremsthat hag' been ca:egorized as noise an humaneffrets. ink caie.:..,7 included approximately 4 t-,8 percent of the tt. tai noise B. & a effort.
TABLE 9.-Summary of funding for noi research anddevelopment hp various Federal agenc,t fi:;-fl years
1909 -71
IFIAlrea i, rrillitn a of dollars)
A 0:my and%oral year
HumanAir elects Land up, e. Total
nun:I 0.05 0.10 2.31
191r.. ...... .18 .51 .02 4.711971 1.02 .00 .60 2.82
DOT:1000 .98 .57 .03 2.481070 1. .44 .15 0.04 2.561971 1.23 .04 .46 1.73
'(3.01)HEW:
19091970
.05
.10, .05
.101971_ .20 .2C
HUD:1900 .12 .121970 .08 .081971 .10 .10
NASA:1960 . 13.12 .70 13.881970 - 10.63 .72 11.351071 13.77 .70 14.47
NSF:1069 .03 .03 .061070_ .11 .04 .151071 .10 .05 .15
Total allagendas:
1969 15.39 2.33 1.15 .03 18.001070 - 16.85 1.77 .25 .08 18.951971 -- 16.72 1.54 1.18 .05 19.47
'Supplemental appropriation to FAA.
Emphasis has included physiological effects ofcontinuous noise exposure, impulsive noise, infra -sonics, noise and performance, acceptability of air-craft noise, personnel protection and communication,frequency resolution, hearing loss susceptibility, andnuisance and annoyance factors of noise exposure.
Analysis
Noise is an unwanted, undesirable sound withoutvaluta Noise is an environmental pollutant-a wasteproduct generated by man and machinery. Noisepollution is considered by some to be on the verge ofreaching a serious level and the awareness that noiseis a significant factor in the degradation of environ-mental qt:::iity is generating It. & D. aimed atcontrol. Noise can lie a hazard, an annoyai-...c, anda nuisance. It can directly :Ind indirectly affectman, plants, animals an.?4, :4tructores. The Noise Pol-lution and Abatement ._7. t.,f 1970 (title IV, Clem,Air Ametulnent:i Act of 1970) focused attention onnoise as a pollutant and established the requirementthat a full and complete investigation and study ofnoise and its effect on the public health and welfarebe undertaken. In September 1968, the FederalCouncil for Se,.nce and Technology identified andrecommended a of needs its report "Noise-Soie:.! Without Value" which this analysis showshave been met only in part.
Although ::everal Federal agencies arc involved insome aspect of noise pollution R. & D., the majorityof the funding effort as reported is centered in DOD,DOT, and NASA. As would be expected, therefore,these programs are almost exclusively directed to-ward aireaft noise-its reduction, control and hu-man effects and response thereto. NASA expendsapproximately 70 percent of ell funds reported fornoise R. & D. within the Federal agency programs.Average Federal funding for Noise R. & D. . fiscalyears 1969 and 1971 was approximately $21 to $25million per year.
LIthough the Federal Government has identifiedand if implementing R. & D. programs, reeds andgaps rema;.n. There is a need to develop guidelinesfor modifwm.ion and possi!)le retrofit of earrent air-craft.. There is a need to dovellp noise certificationfor ..host takeoff and landing {STOL) and vertical
rind landing (VTOL) aircraft. The develop-ment, of international sonic boom analysis and impactstudies is proceeding. Operating procedures for air-craft noise abatement and refined guidelines forcompatible land 17,:e planning need to be developed.New experimental approaches are underway to visu-
6655
alize and analyze the complex phenomena involvedin jet noise generation.
A need exists to conduct noise measurement,analyses, and information distribution to assist trans-pollution system planners and operators.
Similarly, noise measurement and analysis ofambient, noise levels in remote wildlife areas to de-termine impact of noise on wildlife is underway.
Transportation system noise measurements inmetropolitan areas have been initiated to gatherdata that will be used to validate simulation modelspreviously developed.
An investigation of truck tire noise as a follow-onto the current automobile tire noise investigation hasbeen undertaken.
A program wherein highway noise enforcementproblems could be examined to determine areas ofpossible refinement and develop innovative methodsof noise measurement to assist local officials in en-forcing State vehicle noise codes within urban areas.
Noise reduction prG,, ams designed to demonstrateeconomic means of abating noise generated by exist-ing transportation vehicles should be developed.
A program to demonstrate economic and tech-nologically feasible methods of attenuating noisetransmissions generated by vehicles operating onhighways or other guideways or both is in partunderway.
A complete inventory of current truck noise per -.formance should be taken, and noise reduction kitsshould be developed. These efforts could be used asthe first step in the demonstration program on re-ducing truck noise.
Mathematical models of transportation noise re-duction and attenuation are being refined.
Area-wide planning studies to consider the causes,trends, and the impact of aircraft noise on peopleand communities near airports should be expanded.The purpose of these studies would be to formulateapplicable alternative policies that may be adoptedto guide land use development in a manner com-patible with forecast noise levels.
Long-term studies of psychological and physio-logical effects of noise on man need to continue.
Over the years little has been done to demonstratemeans of abating noise generated by vehicles on ourhighways, hence, little has been accomplished byway of actual noise reduction, and many argumentsprimarily of an economic nature have been madeagainst attempts at State and local highway noiseenforcement programs. In addition, the need formass transit vehicles to supplant the individual autoin congested urban areas will be taxing a substantial
56
but diffused body of knowledge regarding the designand construction of acoustically acceptable mass-transit systems. It is, therefore, necessary in apriority fashion, to design and develop efforts todemonstrate the effectiveness of current and ad-vanced state-of-the-art noise reduction as applied tosurface transportation vehicles. This effort couldalso explore in a more cursory fashion the economicimpact of such noise abatement technology inpractice.
Initial effort should be aimed at demonstrationprojects for the most populous vehicles involved inthe areas of largest community annoyance. As prog-ress is made on the vehicles presently creating themost noise, other vehicles will begin to evolve as themost troublesome, hence, warranting demonstrationprojects of those vehicles in turn.
It is anticipated that the results of these vehicledemonstrations would permit and become the basisfor progressively more stringent State highway noisestandards. This, in turn, could provide the impetusfor the inclusion of the technology developed withinthis research area as routine in the design and manu-facture of vehicles.
Systematic research and demonstration evaluationprograms should be supported with the intention ofproperly assessing current practices and developingnew and innovative methods of attenuating noisetransmission away from transportation rights-of-way. Specific areas to be explored are noise barriers(capable of being added to existing roads and de-signed into new roads), absorbent materials on re-taining walls and abutments, roadside terrain con-touring and planting trees and other vegetation,traffic flow control devices, and other design features.
In addition, techniques to aid highway noise en-forcement could be developed to permit such enforce-ment programs close to urban residential areas andon highways employing noise abatement features.
The results of this research area would provide adirect input to State and Federal highway plannersas well as State highway law enforcement organi-zations for immediate application within State en-vironmental programs.
A continuing program of research into the funda-mental aspects of noise generation and propagationshould be supported as a source of new and moreeffective concepts of noise abatement theory andtechnology. Future development and demonstrationprograms would be able to draw on these concepts toinhibit the escalation of transportation noise in oursociety. While some efforts will pertain to scientificinvestigation of a generalized nature with such broad
potential application as to preclude identification ofthe research with specific transportation vehicles, itis anticipated that end results of all of the researchwould have specific application to transportationnoise abatement and that such applications will befully postulated.
Contributions of noises from interstate highway,airport, and major transportation terminal to overallambient noise levels in urban areas should be furtherdefined by building upon further measurements.Refined measurements would be made in accordancewith a detailed plan formulated to ensure that suffi-cient data will be obtained to permit a factoralanalysis.
Studies and analyses should be conducted to de-termine the feasibility of monitoring urban noise ona continuing basis to further identify contributionsmade by transportation vehicles. Based upon thesemeasurements, demonstration programs of urbannoise level monitoring could be initiated.
Analytical and mathematical models previouslydeveloped should be refined on a continual basis toprovide more useful analytical tools for urban plan-ners, vehicle manufacturers, and roadway builders.
Interrelated noise information services need to beprovided in order that research and advisory infor-mation can be made available to appropriate Stateand local officials to assist in the establishment andenforcement of noise standards, planning, construc-tion, and maintenance activities.
Little attention has been focused upon the effectsof noise in water. With the concern of the Nationfor the possible effects of sonic booms on trans-oceanic flight paths, there should be cause for morescientifically based data on the effects of noise andoverpressure on various forms of marine life.
R. & D. is still needed to determine the hearingdamage from different noise sources. ContinuingR. & D. is required in human response to low-frequency noise, personnel protection, communi-cation, and subjective responses to aircraft noise.
There would appear to be little if any overlap orduplication among the Federal agencies involved innoise control. Duplication could possibly exist inadapting the state-of-the-art from one noise sourceto another that is not completely dissimilar. It isalso possible that R. & D. indirectly related to noisepollution control could be utilized in a more directmanner than is now apparently the case. It is alsopossible that R. & D. facilities and expertise in eachFederal agency involved in noise control could bejointly used to a greater extent through interagencyagreement and cross-funding.
RADIATION
Summary
R. & I). in the field of ionizing and nonionizingradiation is directed toward obtaining a completeunderstanding of the source, transport processes,physical, chemical and biological effects, singly or incombination with other pollutants on receptors inall media.
The information pertaining to radiation has beendivided into the following categories: Evaluation ofeffects, measuring and monitoring, prevention andcontrol, and transport and fate. The funding in eachof these categories for fiscal years 1969, 1970, and1971 is shown in figure 9 (p. 58). Table 10 (p. 59)summarizes the funding of each of these categoriesby each of the Federal agencies involved in R. & D.pertaining to radiation.
Evaluation of effects allows a better understandingof the immediate and long-term effects of exposureto ionizing and nonionizing radiation. A large part ofradiation effects research is conducted at the cellularand molecular level in search of mechanisms ofsomatic and genetic damage and repair. These basicstudies are highly relevant to the assessment of causeand effect of other toxic agents such as chemicalpollutants.
Instrument development to measure and monitorradioactivity is an important part of this program.About $10 million is devoted each fiscal year (1969-71) to this effort, which involves the AEC, DOD,EPA, and HEW. This program supports several otherFederal activity assessments of environmental radi-ation control and is a prerequisite to interpretationof radiological effects. Improved analytical tech-niques of greater sensitivity are being developed andinvestigated for application to a broad range ofenvironmental problems.
Prevention and control technology R. & D. re-ceived the least funding of the categories addressedin this analysis. About $5 million for each fiscalyear 1969-71 were identified. R. & D. devoted toimproving the collection, handling, treatment, anddisposal of radioactive wastes have been importantparts of this program. Studies are also underway todevelop procedures to reduce strontium-90 fromnuclear fuel reprocessing plant aqueous effluents.
The AEC expended more than 95 percent of thefunds allocated to all Federal agencies for R. & D.purposes. A substantial part of the work on transportand fate of radionuclides is funded by the AEC andaccomplished by other Federal agencies. Interest intransport and fate studies stems from the fact that
.aa
ALVA V AV 57
,
TABLE 1011. --Summary of funding for radiation research and
development by various Federal agenciis,jitwatyears 1969-71
(Figures in millions of dollars]
Agency andfiscal year
Evalun-tineof
effects
Measuring..:i
monitoring
Proven-t ionand
control
Trans-portandfate
Total
AEC:1969 40.08 8.72 5.08 13.89 68.07
1970 40.33 9.57 4.87 15.91 70.70
1971 39.59 9.37 5.12 15.11 09.19
DOD:1969 0.90 .20 .03 1.15
.1970 .82 .01 .83
1971 .82 .01 .83
EPA:1969
1970 .28 .54 .02 .27 1.11
1971 .78 .59 .03 .90 2.30
HEW:1969 2.55 .70 .65 .35 4.25
1970 2.09 .85 .CR .28 4.50
1971 2.78 .79 .70 .40 4.07
NSF:1909 .22 .22
1970 .29 .29
1971 .32 .32
Total all
agencies:
1909 44.43 9.62 5.73 14.51 74.29
1970 44.14 10.96 5.57 16.70 77.43
1971 43.97 10.75 5.85 10.80 77.37
radioactivity may be introduced into the environ-ment in many ways. The ability to understand themechanism by which radioactive materials movethrough the natural environment is of paramountimportance to this Nation and internationally. Fromthese studies, it should be possible to predict reliablywhere and how rapidly such radioactivity will betransported. Approximately $16 million annually hasbeen devoted to this R. & D. effort during fiscalyears 1969-71. In addition to the AEC program,research is being supported by the DOD, EPA,HEW, and NSF.
It would also appeal that the funding level forprevention and control technology is low when com-pared with the level of effort in other areas of workreported.
Although few Federal agencies reported R. & D.efforts currently underway in the nonionizing radi-ation area, some work is being accomplished involv-ing microwave and laser exposure effects and stand-ards development.
Urgently needed epidemiological studies on ioniz-ing radiation should be undertaken. Low-level radi-ation exposure studies on young developing tissuesare required. Along similar lines, fetal and organ
sensitivity research efforts un humans and animalsare necessary to provide knowledge that is still notavailable.
In nonionizing radiation, health effect studies andthe development -of measurement techniques areurgently required to assess the potential hazards ofmicrowaves, UHF and VHF radiation, and radiofrequencies in the general environment.
Analysis
The AEC is responsible for almost the entireFederal program of R. & D. related to radioactivity.Some mission-oriented work is being accomplishedby several other Federal agencies, including theDOC, DOD, EPA, and HEW.
R. & D. is still necessary to reduce the dischargesof radioactive material to the environment. In-creased research on the biological effects of low-levelwadiation is required to further investigate the ade-quacy of existing standards. Investigations are stillneeded to assess transport and fate of radionuclidesthrough the land and water environments. Althoughland-disposal techniques are acceptable alternativesto ocean disposal, this area must receive additionalemphasis in light of President Nixon's recently an-nounced national policy on regulated ocean dumpingand proposed legislation currently before Congress.
POPULATION
The Distinction Between Population Research
and Environmental Research
This report discusses the ways in which popu-lation factors (current numbers and distribution ofpeople in the United States, historical trends, andprojections) seem likely to affect the quality of ourphysical environment. In particular, the Committeehas attempted to identify Federal R. & D. activitiesthat specifically relate the growth and distributionof population in the United States to the pollutionof the air, water, and land-pollution that directlyaffects our health and the esthetic quality of ourlives.
At the outset, the reader should be warned againstthe pitfalls involved. There is a popular but grosslyoversimplified idea that the best way to control en-vironmental pollution is to reduce population growthas rapidly as possible and to stabilize the populationat some optimal level. Some observers have sug-gested that this_level should be even smaller than
59
the present U.S. population of 205 million. It is truethat a growing population may aggravate our en-vironmental problems simply because an increasednumber of people will consume Inure goods andgenerate more wastes. However, while precise dataare frequently lacking and estimates vary with spe-cific pollutants and the specific vector (air, water,land), pollution ia the United States has increasedmuch faster than population. The bulk of the in-crease in pollution must be attributed to our use ofthe Nation's economic abundance for industrial andtechnological development and to individual con-sumption, disposal, and behavioral patterns.
While population growth per se is thus not themajor contributor to environmental pollution in theUnited States, the increasing concentration of ourpopulation in metropolitan areas does have profoundand often adverse effects, both on urban areas andon rural aro* which over the past decades havebeen continuously losing population.
In addition to the distracting noise levels andfrustrating congestion that seem to characterize mostof urban life in America today, the pollution of thewater and air and the accumulation of garbage, junkautomobiles, and industrial wastes in metropolitanareas are all too visible and familiar phenomenagiving rise to increasingly loud cries of public outrage.The high concentrations of population in inner citiesand the suburban rings surrounding them have astheir concomitant a concentration of effluents as-sociated with the general affluence and the highlevels of energy use and product consumption Amer-icans enjoy.
It should be made clear that attempts to influencebirth rates or to reverse the ongoing concentrationof population are no substitute for direct and sus-tained efforts at reducing per capita pollution of theenvironment, disposing of unavoidable waste prod-ucts, and systematically altering existing technologyso that our waste products are less hazardous toman and other living species.
. The Commission on Population Growth and theAmerican Future was established in March 1970 andis scheduled to submit its final report to the Presidentand to the Congress in March 1972. Among otherthings, the Commission will consider whether or notthere should be established a policy aimed at popu-lation stabilization, the ways in. which populationstabilization should be achieved and maintained,asWell as the demands for jobs, housing, schools,transportation, and other amenities that are likelyto be imposed by the additions to our existing popu-lation which can be expected between now and the
60 71OS'
turn of the century. At present the U.S. Governmenthas no official policy for controlling either populationgrowth or population distribution. Obviously, thereport of the deliberations of the Commission willbe important to those agencies concerned with en-vironmental planning and environmental policy.Ilowever, for reasons pointed out. above, the recom-mendations of the Commission cannot be reasonablyexpected to solve our very real environmentaldilemmas.
With the enactment of the Family Planning Serv-ice and Population Research Act of 1970, the FederalGovernment has committed itself to a policy of pro-viding family planning .services for poor people de-siring such services. In addition, the act provides forinformation and education efforts to the generalpublic about existing methods of contraception andwhere the necessary services, devices, and materialscan be obtained.
Irrespective of the overall impact on populationtrends in the United States, the act itself does notconstitute nor is it intended to constitute a popu-lation control policy, let alone a policy to enhanceour control over environmental pollution. It does,however, provide for an expansion of populationresearch, parts of which in the behavioral and socialsciences may be related to (but are not synonymouswith) research and development efforts on environ-mental quality.
The Importance of Demographic Data
for Environmental Purposes
While demographic research per se is not a sub-division of environmental research and development,it is necessary to underscore the need for accuratedata about existing status and historical trends inregard to both population size and distribution. Suchaccurate data are the basis for improved projectionswhich environmental planners and policymakersmust rely upon in arriving at their own projectionsof total pollution load, resource depletion, and eco-logical impact. The activities of the National Centerfor Health Statistics in collecting and analyzingbirth, death, marriage, and divorce data coupledwith the decennial census and related activities ofthe Bureau of the Census provide the best existingquantification of several key variables in the scien-tific study of man in relation to his environment.These descriptive demographic data have such multi-ple uses; encompass so many social concerns, and
are used by so many Federal agencies that theirimportance is somethnes overlooked in problem-oriented task forces, and .their future availabilityand excellence may unwisely be taken for granted.
In periods of budgetary austerity there is a dangerthat we will cut back unwisely on the support ofimportant descriptive activities such as those of ourgeneral statistical agencies in favor of "targeted"research on problems of urgent public concern. There-fore, environmental specialists, along with otheraction-oriented agencies and groups, must recognizethat it is in their own self-interest to advocate con-tinuing Federal support of these general demo-graphic activities. Without these statistics, many oftheir own necessary calculations will become impos-sible and projections will become increasingly un-reliable.
Definition of Pertinent Research
This report includes only population research re-lated directly to domestic environmental quality andincludes specific details on only those research proj-ects that explore the impact of population factorson the pollution of air, water, and land. The Com-mittee sought to identify as completely as possiblefederally sponsored or conducted research on (1)population size (growth) as it affects environmentalquality; (2) population distribution and density asit affects environmental quality; and (3) the relation-ship of population characteristics to per capitacontribution to physical pollution of the environment.
It is necessary to apply strictly construed criteriain identifying population research relevant to en-vironmental quality. To do otherwise wotcLobscurethe focus of the overall report by including virtuallyall demographic research, contraceptive developmentactivities and a wide array of fundamental repro-ductive biology, operational research on the deliveryof family planning services, factors affecting familysize perferences and many other types of studies.
Sources Reviewed In the Search for Federal R. & D.
Population Environmental Interrelationships
The major published sources for Federal popu-.lation research are:
The Federal Program in Population Research.Areport to the Federal Council for Science and
Technology prepared by the ad hoc group onpopulation research, U.S. Government PrintingOffice, July 1, 1969.The Federal Program in Population Research.Inventory of population research by Federalagencies during the fiscal year 1970, preparedby the Center for Population Research, NationalInstitute of Child Health and Human Develop-ment, U.S. Government Printing Office, De-cember 31, 1970.Population Growth and America's FlammAninterim report prepared by the Commission onPopulation Growth and the American Future,U.S. Government Printing Office, March 16,1971.
Federal Research and Development Activities Concerned
With Population Environment Interrelationships
Only a small number of Federal research projectswere found whose avowed purpose was to relatepopulation factors to environmental quality. Oneseries of efforts now underway is sponsored by theCommission on Population Growth and the AmericanFuture. Under contract with the Commission, Re-sources for the Future will conduct studies on thebasis of which they "will advise the Commission asto what patterns of population growth and distri-bution would be consistent with rational use of re-sources and the environment, as well as how theNation might accommodate increasing numbersand/or density of population without exacerbatingexisting resources and environmental. problems."Among topics being investigated by Resources forthe Future, the following seem particularly germaneto population/environment interrelationships:
Developing a conceptual framework that wouldseparate demographic factors from other de-terminants and provide a basis for assessingthe sensitivity of environmental quality andresource demands to these factors. In addition,the framework will seek to isolate effects due topopulation growth and those due to populationredistribution;The implications of population growth anddistributions for several types of pollutionair,water, and land pollution. Waste disposal andbyproducts of energy consumption will be in-vestigated to illustrate how population growthmight play a role in each of these types of pol-lution; and
61
The resource and environmental consequencesof various changes and technology and/or insti-tutions as they modify the impact of populationgrowth.The implications of population growth anddistribution on future recreation demands andresources.The implications of population growth for futureenergy demands and resources.
In support of these efforts, Resources for theFuture is expected to allocate at least 30 man-monthsof professional staff time and to contract outside itsown organization for five research projects costingan average of $5,000 each.
As part of its efforts in civil works, the Army Corpsof Engineers has supported at Harvard Universitythree related studies costing a total of approxi-mately $100,000 which attempt to relate populationfactors to environmental impact. These are asfollows:
"A comparative study in resource analysis meth-ods." The study compares 60 methods of ana-lyzing water resource projects including landuse and ecological effects, population growth,and population distribution."A systems analysis for planning a multiple useof control water areas." An investigation ofecological impact from recreation- orientedwatersheds. Recreation needs are quantified,and, given the reservoir location to satisfy theseneeds, the impact upon the ecology is measured."A study of resource use in urbanizing water-sheds." The study includes "***a model con-structed to enable planners to evaluate quicklythe damaging impact of urbanization (andchanging land uses) on the runoff characteristicsof a river basin."
These were the only Federal projects found whichrelated population factors to their effects on environ-mental quality. The Commission on PopulationGrowth and the American Future has asked someAmerican scientists to prepare reviews and specu-lative papers on population/environment. These arediscussed below in connection with environmental/population research needed.
Department of Agriculture
The Population Studies Group in the EconomicResearch Service is particularly interested in rural-urban demographic trends. Some of the projectscarried out under the auspices of the Agriculturefield stations produce population-related data for
62
el
V".to3
small areas, which may be helpful to agencies w-sponsible for environmental control activities in thoseparticular areas.
Department of Commerce
The Census Bureau perform:4 special analyses andstudies under contract to various Federal agencies,including many agencies with environmental re-sponsibilities. This shows the expwssed need forsound demographic data in planning and mountingprograms to control pollution and enhance environ-mental quality. The decennial census of population,the MMus of housing, and the census of manufacturesalso provide an essential data base for dealing witha variety of environmental concerns.
Environmental Protection Agency
EPA undoubtedly will be interested and involvedin research effort:: that view population factors asindependent variables and various types of environ-mental pollution as dependent variables. However,no such studies have been identified as underway byEPA at the time of the present review.
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare
The National Center for Health Statistics collectsand analyzes birth, death, marriage, and divorcedata. These data are keystones in comprehendingand projecting population trends in the UnitedStates. The Center for Population Research in theNational Institute of Child Health and Human De-velopment has launched an extended social scienceresearch program in population. Particularly relevantto environmental concerns is the fact that the Centerfor population Research is attempting to stimulateand is prepared to support competent research onthe ecological and environmental impact of popu-lation growth and of urban and industrial develop-ment coincident to population changes.
National Science Foundation
The Division of Social Sciences and Human Re-sources of the Research Applications Directorate isone that can potentially support some kinds of com-plex research on the interface between human popu-lation .problems and environmental problems. Inaddition, both the ecology and social science researchactivities within the Research Directorate of the
National Science Foundation might logically involvethe same human population-environment interface.
State Department 'Agency for Internation Development
The Agency for International Development has alarge research effort in population and family plan-ning which also addresses itself extensively to therelationship between population factors and eco-nomic development in the less developed countriesof the world. However, pollution control has notbeen a major emphasis of tlw population researchprogram of AID and since the program is orientedexclusively toward nonindustridized foreign coun-tries it is not directly applicable to domestic environ-mental protection efforts.
Commission on Population Growth and
the American Future
The Commission, which has a 2-year mandateterminating with a final report in Mardi 1972, isfor the time being the key Federal group addressingitself specifically to population-environment inter-relationships. Its ongoing research efforts on thistopic were described earlier in this chapter and thefinal Commission report should provide useful find-ings and suggestions for research crucially neededon this topic.
Other Federal Agencies
A number of other Federal agencies use populationdata for their varied responsibilities but do not cur-rently have major research and development pro-grams focusing on population-environinent inter-relationships per se. The Corps of Engineers' civilworks, The Department of Housing and UrbanDevelopment, the Department of the Interior, andthe Department of Labor need population data forplanning their activities, many of which can affectenvironmental quality.
Research Needed on Population-Environment
Interrelationships
The pervasive and complex problems involved ineither population or environmental phenomena re,quire sustained and systematic scholarship and re-search to improve our comprehension of these im-portant subjects. When the interfaces between popu-
lotion phenomena and environmental phenomena areconsidered, the intellectual and scientific challengesinvolved become greater than ever.
The Commission on Population Growth and theAmerican Future discussed sonar of these challengesin chapter :3 of its Interim Report dated March 16,1971. The Commission observes in its report that"to consider population growth or concentration asthe root calls(' of our Nation's social and environ-mental ills is clearly simplistic ***rapidly rising levelsof per capita consumption and technological mis-management appear to contribute more to environ-mental pollution than does a gradual rise in totalpopulation." However, they acknowledge, "eventhough population growth is not the primary causeof environmental deterioration, it may well magnifyproblems arising from the way we use our resourcesand technology." For this reason, the Commissionreport says, "economists and ecologists have beenenlisted by the Commission to determine the effectson the environment of population growth, techno-logical change, and changes in demand resultingfrom greater affluence."
With respect to the distribution of population, theCommission report notes "a large city might actuallybe better able than small communities, to affordecologically sound solutions to many environmentalproblems. So simply redistributing the populationmight. not solve many of the population-relatedproblems we face."
There is a need for valid data and greater under-standing about the synergistic effects of economic,technological, demographic, and other social factorson environmental quality. In addition to the workbeing undertaken at the request of the Commissionon Population Growth and the American Future,the Center for Population Research, the NationalInstitute of Child Health and Human Development,has publicized its ability and eagerness to supportmeritorious and innovative research that promisesto shed light on the population-environment; inter-facea subject about which there is currently farmore controversy than reliable .knowledge. Theirrequest for research proposals states: "The inter-relations between population, technology, and in-dustrial development are in particular need of clarifi-cation to guide the formulation of policies withreference to environmental quality."
A number of scholarly papers have appeared inScience on the relationship between population andenvironmental quality and one theme of the De-cember 1970 meetings of the American Associationfor the Advancement of Science was population-
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03
environment interrelationships. Both the scientificcommunity and the Federal Government are be-ginning to delineate some of the practical and theo-retical issues on which research is needed. Suchresearch will probably require heavy investments ofFederal dollars in the near future because of the
644.
complex nature of the phenomena to be examined,the variety and number of scientific and technicaldisciplines that will have to be involved in such in-vestigations, and the high degree of expressed publicconcern about the environmental ills that threatenand disturb us all.
Air Quality
Funding of R. & D. pertaining to air quality forfiscal years 1969, 1970, and 1971 is reported in table3 (p. 19).
EVALUATION OF EFFECTS
Atomic Energy Commission (AEC)
In addition to the effect of radioactivity (describedin the special studiesradiation section) the AECresearch program addresses the effects of waste heatfrom power generation and usage on the environment.In a cooperative effort with NSF at St. Louis, theeffects of waste heat and air pollution on urbandiffusion and on precipitation are underway.6
Department of Agriculture
The objectives of USDA's research program are(1) to determine physiological, biochemical, andpathological effects of air pollutants, singly and incombination, on growth and productivity of fieldcrops and horticultural plants; (2) to devise methodsfor protecting plants from air pollutants, includinguse of genetic, chemical, and cultural control; and(3) to find methods of assessing the efficiency ofplants in removing air pollutants. Results includethe development of facilities for assessing the re-sponse of plants to air pollutants. Some resistantplants have been identified. Studies have also in-vestigated the effects of ozone and ethylene.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by USDAfor evaluation of effects during fiscal years 1969-71are as follows:
1969 1970 1971
1.31 1.38 1.44
APPENDIX 1
Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare
The Carcinogenesis area of the National CancerInstitute carries out a continuing program of animalbioassay for the assessment of environmental hazardresulting from chronic exposure to a variety of airpollutants. Under study at this time in animalsystems are a variety of polycyclic hydrocarbonsand related heterocyclic compounds found in urbanatmospheres, tobacco smoke and smoke condensates,asbestos, metal oxides, and a number of other air-borne dusts.
To carry on this program, it has been necessaryto establish a resource for the production and char-acterization of fine particles having a high degree ofpurity and physical uniformity.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by HEWon evaluation of effects during fiscal year 1969-71are as follows:
1060 1970 1971
0.20
Department of Transportation
0.34 0.23
DOT is investigating the effects of exposure ofpeople to concentrations of aircra:t engine emissionswith respect to physiology, discomfort, or annoyance.Also studied are the effects of various concentrationsof such emissions and fallout of particulate matteron property. DOT has also initiated a research pro-gram to provide standards for environmental qualityin the areas near airports. Future plans include theimplementation of operating standards based on theresearch conducted.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by DOTOn evaluation of effects during fiscal years 1969-71are as follows:
'Funding for this AEC program has been included in thetotals listed in the special studiesradiation section of this 1868. 1970 1971
report. 0 0.05 0.24
tAw-.4
t
65
r,
Environmental Protection Agency
EPA's research program on the effects of thecommon air pollutants was reported by the AirPollution Control Office. The objectives of thisR. & D. are to determine the impact of air pollutionand air pollution control on man and the environ-ment and to provide the scientific basis for airquality criteria and standards for the major airpollutants.
Among other accomplishments, EPA research inthis area has contributed to the scientific and tech-nical base from which air quality criteria reportshave been developed for sulfur oxides, particulates,carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and other majorpollutants. Criteria documents form the basis forair quality standards.
In fiscal year 1971, the Agency is conductingR. & D. on the effects of air pollutants, either singlyor in combination, on livestock, vegetation, the foodchain, and selected natural ecosystems. Severalstudies on the effects of. air pollutants on economi-cally important materials, such as paints and rubber,are in progress. The social and esthetic impacts arebeing studied. Two reports on odorous compoundsand visibility will be prepared. Several reports onthe economics of air pollution, such as the cost ofclean air, cost to industries, and control by in-centives, are to be completed in 1971.
Studies are also being conducted on the effects ofSO., CO, particulates, NOR, oxidants, hydrocarbons,and trace metals, singly and in combination. Re-search on chronic exposures to low levels of thesecontaminants and studies to determine the thresholdlimits for short-term exposure are also being con-ducted.
A 5-year plan to delineate the air pollution aspectsof urban transportation planning activities is beingdeveloped. Guideline documents concerned withroadway design and alternative transportation sys-tems will be issued in fiscal year 1971 to assist citytransportation planners in minimizing mobile sourcepollution.
Under the Community Health Effects Surveillance(CHES) program the following will be accomplishedin fiscal year 1971: Feasibility studies to determinethe most sensitive indicators of health status ofpopulations; extension of the CHES program intothree additional cities; continued surveillance ofhealth status of exposed population in relation toparticulate air pollution levels; and continued col-lection of baseline data of health in New York City
66
to study the effect of improving air quality in futureyears.
Future work in this area will include research onthe environmental effects of pesticides and traceelements. Several studies of
willeconomic effects of
air pollution on materials will be pursued, and anin-house laboratory capability in this area will 1wdeveloped. Other research will include studies ofodors, visibility, and the behavioral effects producedby air pollution. Eleven additional industry cost.studies will be initiated in fiscal year 1972. Ad-ditional work will be conducted to determine thehealth effects of air pollution. A cooperative effort.between DOT, EPA, and HUD on urban and trans-portation planning will be underway in fiscal year1972.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by EPA onevaluation of effects during fiscal years 1969-71 areas follows:
1969 1070 1971
8.00 8.70 8.45
National Science Foundation
As a part of the NSF General Ecology program,a pilot study is underway to determine the levels ofSO., and 03 that produce observable changes in thephotosynthetic rate of .white pine, chosen because ofits high sensitivity to aeon. NSF is also studyingthe effects of air pollution on weather. Of particularinterest is a project in the highly polluted St. Louis,Mo. area, where the climatic effects of air pollutionare being analyzpd through support from the Na-tional Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) andthe program Research Applied to National Needs(RANN).
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by NSFon evaluation of effects during fiscal years 1969-71are as follows:
1969 197Q 1971
2.24 2.40 2.71
Tennessee Valley Authority
TVA is participating financially with Edison Elec-tric Institute, Bituminous Coal Research, and otherson a research project directed toward obtainingfundamental knowledge of the physiological effectsof sulfur dioxide and related steam plant pollutantson experimental animals.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by TVAfor research into the effects of air pollution during
fiscal year 1969-71 are us follows:
1969 1970 19710.02 0.02 0.02
MEASURING AND MONITORING
Atomic Energy Commission
The AEC conducts a worldwide air and precipi-tation sampling system, and in cooperation withDOD, conducts a high altitude sampling programfor fallout radioactivity. The data are needed in thedevelopment of improved general atmospheric circu-lation and long range fallout models. Measurementsof sulfates, water vapor, ozone, HNO3, ammonia,etc., have been recently added to the high atmosphereprogram, and stable metals to the surface program.'
Department of Commerce
The current program of DOC research directlyrelated to measuring and monitoring techniques forair pollutants includes a number of projects relatedto particulates. For example, a project is being con-ducted to develop a simple method for determiningsize distribution of airborne particles by light scatter-ug. Other research is aimed at developing standard
reference samples for airborne particulates. Studiesof the photochemical reactions of SO2, singlet 02,and 03, as well as the thermodynamic properties ofair mixtures, are also underway.
Future DOC research in this area will include agreater number of projects leading to new standardreference materials (SRM's) to be certified andissued by the National Bureau of Standards foron-site instrument calibration by the user. Otherresearch on SRM's will be stepped up in anticipationof control programs for aldehydes, mercaptans, fluo-rides, polynuclear aromatics, trace metals, and heavymetals. New projects also will be initiated on atmos-pheric corrosion of metals and on the use of thecorrosion fine of metal wires as a means of measuringpollutant concentrations rapidly and cheaply.
Also reported in this section are some 40 DOCprojects in analytical chemistry, humidity measure-ment, and measurements of properties of gases andrates of reaction, which are indirectly related to air
Funding for this AEC program has been included in thetotals listed in the special studiesradiation section of thisreport.
pollution control in that they represent contributionsto the state of the art in the fields they represent.These projects account for $4.4 million of the totalfunds reported for fiscal years 1969-71.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by DOCon measuring and monitoring during fiscal years1969-71 are as follows:
1969 1970 19711.65 1.74 1.84
Department of Defense
DOD conducts air filtration studies indirectly re-lated to the measuring and monitoring of air pol-lution. For example, kits and devices arc developedin the chemical defense program to detect the pres-ence of chemical contamination of the air.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by DODfor measuring and monitoring during fiscal year1969-71 are as follows:
1969 1970 1971
0.02 0.03 0.09
Department of the Interior
DOI's Bureau of Mines is conducting fundamentalstudies on the chemical and physical properties ofcoal to provide support data for applied R. & D.programs. Spectroscopic, X-ray, microscopic, andpetrographic studies are being conducted to gainadditionai information about the nature of coal andcoal products.
To promote more efficient burning of coal in powergeneration, newly developed techniques are beingused to study the minerals contained in coal andthe transformations that these minerals undergoduring combustion. A nuclear device employingCalifornium-252 is being developed to monitor thesulfur content in a moving stream of coal leavingthe preparation plant. Research has also includedthe study of over 160 different world coals that wereashed in an oxygen plasma and the resulting un-altered mineral residues analyzed for their individualmineral constituents.
Future research in this area will include furtherchemical and physical studies of coal to obtain moreinformation on the nature of coal and how it behavesduring various preparation and utilization processes.Spectroscopic, microscopic, X-ray, and other ana-lytical techniques will be employed.
The Bureau also conducts research related tomeasuring and monitoring gases and dust in mines.
Wit67
Portable devices are being developed for measuringnoxious gases and float dust in mines. Handheldmethane meters, of the required accuracy and pre-cision, have been found practical. Other quick-recording devices for noxious gases are in the labora-tory stage of development. Devices developed in thisprogram must be inexpensive, safe to operate inpotentially hazardous atmospheres, and capable ofprMiding rapid and accurate readings. Future plansinclude the construction of prototypes of the devices.Evaluations are to be made in mines to determineperformance characteristics.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by DOI onmeasuring and monitoring during fiscal year 1969-71are as follows:
1969 1970 1971 -
0.40
Department of Transportation
0.80 1.40
Research is being conducted by DOT's FederalHighway Administration to gain a fuller knowledgeand understanding of the air pollution problem andits scope for various highway and highway-relatedsituations. An example is a study of highway tunnelventilation in which pollutants are being measuredto determine conformity with analytical models, toestablish tolerable limits for satisfactory use, and todevelop means of attaining acceptable limits withconsideration of purification and recirculation of theair in the tunnels instead of expulsion into the sur-rounding atmosphere.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by DOT onmeasuring and monitoring during fiscal years 1969-71are as follows:
1989 1970 1971
0 0.15 0.33
Environmental Protection Agenoy
EPA's research in this area was reported by theAir Pollution Control Office. The three programs inthis section can be classified as relating to ambientair quality, instrumentation studies, and mobilesource standards.
The objective of the EPA research program relatedto measurement of ambient air quality is to assessthe air quality of the Nation in terms of specific airpollutants and their sources through a combinedeffort of Federal, State, and local surveillance net-
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works and a federally coordinated informationservice.
In fiscal year 1971, for example, a project is beingconducted to determine the ambient concentrationsof newly defined pollutants. Studies are also beingmade to enable the measuring of ambient levels ofpollutants under special conditions such as thosefound around smelters, near airport terminals, or incanyon situations.
The objective of the instrumentation studies pro-gram is to assure the timely availability of theinstrumentation and analytical techniques requiredin support of Federal, State, and local programs forall major pollutants.
Current programs include research on several ad-vanced instruments and methods, such as atomicemission fluorescence, infrared devices, spectroscopy,particle light scattering, and laser absorption formonitoring acetylene, ethylene, allergens, ozone, sul-fur oxides, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, beryl-lium, chlorihe, hydrogen chloride, asbestos, mercury,and additional trace metals.
Improved techniques are being provided for as-sessing urban atmospheric conditions by completingdata reduction techniques for thermasonde use, as-sessing atmospheric thermal stability, and demon-strating an acoustic doppler radar system for remotemeasurement of wind and turbulence.
In fiscal year 1971, instruments will be field-testedfor ambient air monitoring of ozone, particulates,H2S, gaseous and total fluorides, total sulfur, CO,methane, asbestos, and pesticides. The necessarydesign and performance criteria are being developedfor prototype field instruments to measure remotelystack emissions of particulates, nitrogen oxides, andsulfur oxides. Sensors and monitors will be evaluatedfor source measurement of sulfur dioxides, nitrogenoxides, particulateS, and fluorides.
The comparative testing of available stationarysource monitors for CO, CO2, 02, and sulfur oxidesand manual methods for sampling stationary sourceemissions for particulates and SO, will be completedin fiscal year 1971. Technical assistance also will beprovided for the application of a craft mill sulfurgas analyzer.
A single multichannel analyzer to analyze exhaustgas for carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydro-carbons, and nitrogen oxides is being constructed.Sampling and analysis techniques for particulateemissions in auto exhausts, techniques for reactivitydetermination, and more sensitive techniques fornitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons,and particulates in exhausts from power plants are
being' surveyed and evaluated. Studies to developchromatographic methods for rapid analysis ofbenzo-a-pyrene and 6 to 12 polynuclear arenes arealso underway.
Future EPA research in this area will ho aimed atfurther developing the instruments designed in fiscalyear 1971, and at least eight other techniques forhigh priority pollutants named in national ambientair quality standards and national emission stand-ards. The feasibility of measuring total atmosphericpollution by using ground and coorbiting satellite-borne electromagnetic energy receivers and sourcesalso will be demonstrated. An operational prototypeacoustic doppler system will be developed, and theconstruction of a second generation radiometricthermasonde will be initiated. Prototype field instru-ments for remote measurement of sulfur dioxide,particulate, and nitric oxide from stationary sourceswill be developed.
The objectives of research related to mobile sourcestandards and procedures are applicable to all newmotor vehicles for the 1972 to 1975-76 model yearsand to have fully implemented compliance, surveil-lance, and inspection systems that will insure thatall motor vehicles produced, domestic and foreign,meet applicable standards at the time of productionand maintain acceptable emission performance levelsthrough the entire life of the vehicle.
Current research is aimed at identifying andquantifying particulate emissions originating fromlead and unlead fuels, brake linings, clutches, andother nonmetallic materials. Gaseous emissions fromlight aircraft are being measured and odor-causingspecies in diesel exhausts are being identified. Otherresearch aims to characterize the physical nature ofparticulate emissions from commercial aircraft.
Future EPA programs in the mobile source arearelate to the development of methods for analyzingparticulate emissions from lead and unleaded fuels.Major pollutant measurements on six classes of off-highway vehicles and the identification of odor-causing species in gas turbine engine fuel also willbe completed.
In fiscal year 1972, the following programs will bedeveloped: A project to collect and evaluate infor-mation on driving patterns in six metropolitan re-gions, a mass emissions test procedure applicable togasoline-powered heavy-duty engines, an improvedevaporative test procedure for hydrocarbons, andprocedures for inspection testing by State agenciesof light-duty vehicles.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by EPA onmeasuring and monitoring during fiscal years 1969-71
arc as follows:
1969 1970 1971
2.80 5.60 7.74
Wien& Aeronautics and Space Administration
7..''ASA's research in this arm is inostly related tot..o development of instrumentation. For example,a portable q0 sensor using infrared dispersion anda spectroms.ter is being developed. Also, a massspectrometer has been developed to measure gasnavies containing H2, N2, total hydrocarbons, and170.:oh.8 Another study to develop a hybrid sensor,which con is of a mass spectrometer and selectivecolumns from a gas chromatograph, is underway.NASA is also developing an inexpensive analysisand identification system for particulates. This sys-tem is to N used in conjunction with an existingnetwork of 20 air-monitoring stations in Cleveland,Ohio..Instruments utilizing optical lidars and lasersare being d, /eloped.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by NASAfor measuring and monitoring during fiscal years1969-71 are as follows:
1989 1970 1971
0.20 0.17 0.62
National Sdeoce Foundation
NSF research in this category pertains to thecontribution of solid waste to air pollution and in-cludes fundamental combustion studies of solids andgases and photochemical and gaseous chemical re-actions; movement of small particles in flow fields;studies of electrostatic precipitation of solids fromgaseous streams, and development of analytical tech-niques for trace element contaminants. For example,reactions of carbon monoxide in a competitive flamesystem are being investigated. The thermal degra-dation of cellulosic materials is being studi_d to de-termine free radical intermediates formed duringcontrolled pyrolysis of carbohydrates.
Techniques for studying the kinetics and chem-istry of solid decompositions at surfaces at very lowdecomposition rates are being developed. Researchrelated to the 'development of analytical methodsincludes the use of atomic absorption spectroscopy.
NSF research on measuring and monitoring meth-ods also includes research applied to national needs
Mention of trade names does not imply recommendationor endorsement by the Federal Government over othersnot mentioned.
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(RANN) studies of the movement of all forms oflead through the environment and the effects ofmercury on the environment. Another long-rangeresearch program is underway to investigate thecontent and variability of COAin the atmosphere.Other gases, such as 112, C114, and CO, also arcbeing measured. A mechanism for the formation ofthe stratospheric sulfate aerosol is being developed.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by NSFfor measuring and monitoring during fiscal years1969-71 are as follows:
1969 1970 1971
0.84 1.38 1.86
PREVENTION AND CONTROL
Corps of Engineers
The CE program in prevention and control in-cludes R. & D. aimed at designing and constructingan incinerator that will be used to burn the driftcollected in New York harbor. The project includesthe design and fabrication of an overfire air pit-typeincinerator to meet air pollution abatement stand-ards and requirements.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended for pre-vention and control by CE during fiscal year 1969-71are as follows:
1969 1970 1971
1.31 0.25 0.04
Department of Agriculture
USDA has reported a major program to avoid orminimize air contamination by pesticides. Moredefinitive methods of application, and improved,low-volatile formulations of currently available pesti-cides are being investigated. As a result. of this pro-grim, low-volatile herbicides have been produced.Application of pesticides by brushes, as a foamformulation, or by special equipment that catchesand returns runoff to the spray tank have also beenestablished as usable.
Research to determine the effectiveness of burningcrop residues as a method to control plant diseases,insects, and weeds is in progress. To reduce theneed for burning crop residues, highly selectivechemicals for use as defoliants, desiccants, andgrowth modifiers have been developed. Future workwill continue to stress the development of methodsfor pest contra! other than burning of crop residues.
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Other USDA programs are attempting to identifyand control gaseous components from animal wastesthat cause odor.
A USDA progriun to determine the relationshipof soil erosion to air pollution also has been reported.The result should facilitate prediction of potentialrates of erosion by wind for varying soil, vegetativecover, field width, and barrier design conditions.
An extensive USDA program to develop controlsfor the prevention or reduction of diseases thatdamage or destroy shelterbelts is in progress. Theobjective of this program is to protect and maintainadequate shelterbelts and thereby reduce air pol-lution by soil particles. Research includes a varietyof projects to control forest diseases that damageshelterbelts and to reduce growth loss and tree mor-tality resulting from damage by insects. Other proj-ects to develop better strains of shelterbelt treesthrough genetics and to maximize the effectivenessof shelterbelts in reducing wind erosion and pro-tecting crops are in progress.
The USDA has also reported an R. et D. programto produce straight defect-free trees to reduce wastein primary manufacture. Related USDA projects inforest products utilization are attempting to elimi-nate smoke from wood burners and odors from pulpmills. Increased uses of pulping wastes and improvedpulping methods are being sought to reduce theburning of wood wastes and the odors from pulpingwastes. Potential nonpolluting pulping reactionsbased on oxygen rather than sulfur have beenscreened. Data required for the use of wood residuesas ruminant roughage have been developed.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by USDAfor prevention and control during fiscal years 1969-71are as follows:
1969 1970 1971
2.59 3.07 3.25
Department of Defense
The Department of the Air Force conducts re-search to characterize and quantitate the combustionproducts from incinerating solid waste includingplastics. The Air Force also conducts various otherprojects indirectly related to preventing air pol-lution. For example, the primary concern of the AirForce with respect to jet engine exhaust.smoke hasbeen its relation to enemy detection of smoke trails.In 1966 a development action was initiated for theF-4 aircraft. Research efforts to reduce the F-4smoke from the. General Electric J79-15/17 engine
appear to have been successful in laboratory tests.Combustion system design techniques to increase thecombustion efficiency of turbine engines at low powersettings are being investigated. Other investigationsto reduce exhaust emission include (1) fundamentalstudy with experimentation to determine whetherfuel modification, such as introduction of catalystsand absorbers, is feasible for reduCing the level ofNO, emissions from turbine engines and (2) thedetermination of the optimum concentration of pro-posed fuel additives. An integral part of reducingemissions is the development of a system with mini-mum human involvement for the direct, real timemeasurement of CO, CO2, NOR, C,1-1 from turbineengines.
The Department of the Army is developing lighterweight and higher performance engines for vehicles,aircraft, and stationary power units. Efforts to im-prove efficiency have also resulted in more completecombustion and reduced exhaust emissions. Proto-types have been completed and tested on vehicleengines using a new type of combustion chamber,which is a hybrid between spark- and diesel-typeengines. The continuous combustion of a swirlingignition process has been shown to reduce exhaustemissions to meet 1975 standards set by EPA.Studies are also underway to improve turbines toincrease efficiency and decrease emissions. Visiblesmoke was virtually eliminated from an aircraftturbine engine, and methods for analyzing the chem-ical constituents of engine exhausts were developed.
The primary aim of another Army R. & D. pro-gram is to improve liquid hydrocarbon fuels so asto reduce undesirable emissions.
Techniques are also being developed by the Armyto reduce emission of NO., 502, and particulatematter from military power plants. Good resultshave been obtained 'using a water spray scrubbingtechnique. The resulting waste water is processedthrough sewage treatment plants. Short-range. plansare for completing work on reduction of NO andSO2. Long-range plans depend on the nature andscope of R. & D. efforts by industry and otherFederal agencies.
The Department of the Army also conducts re-search indirectly related to air pollution control. Forexample, in order to reduce the chances for enemydetecti6n, the Army is developing propellants formissiles, rockets, and artillery projectiles that gener-ate less smoke than present propellants. A laboratorysystem .to simulate gun propellant smoke and flashwas recently completed and is now being tested.Contaminant content of propellant exhausts is being
reduced to improve conditions for electrical andoptical sensors on missiles and rockets.
The Army is also developing fuel cells and highenergy density batteries to improve efficiency ofgenerators and to provide energy sources with higherreliability and higher ratios of energy to weight andenergy to volume. Fuel cells that indirectly usehydrocarbons have been developed at the 0.5- and1.5-kilowatt levels. The hydrocarbons are thermallycracked to produce hydrogen for use in the fuel cells.Significant progress is also being made on metal-air,organic electrolyte, and improved energy densitybatteries. Short-range plans are to continue effortsat approximately the present level. Long-range plansare to use hydrocarbons directly in inexpensive fuelcell systems.
The Department of the Navy has reported re-search aimed at preventing and controlling air pol-lution from aircraft. One Navy program is investi-gating the feasibility of using modified fuels to reducesmoke from ainilanes. Various burners for J79, TF41,and TF30 engines are being tested. The Navy alsoreported a project to develop a water spray deviceas an economical method for reducing smoke atfirefighting schools. Incinerators for classified ma-terials were developed.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by DODfor prevention and control during fiscal years 1969-71are as follows:
1969 1970 1971
8.24 7.30 7.43
Department of the Interior
The DOI programs reported in this section areexclusively those of the Bureau of Mines. Many ofthe activities of DOI in this area are directly coordi-nated with EPA through interagency transfer offunds.
A program to remove pyritic sulfur from coal isin progress. Various approaches being investigatedto remove pyrite include the use of a centrifuge toseparate pyrite from coal in a water medium andselective grinding, followed by air classification andelectrostatic methods of removal. A novel techniquebeing explored takes advantage of the wide differ-ences in dielectric properties of coal and pyrite toselectively heat pyrite at microwave frequencies andthus enhances its susceptibility to conventional mag-netic separation. Another project studies ion-exchange methods for removing deleterious mineralsfrom lignite before combustion. Future work will be
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emitinited to inipmve these removal techniques andtests will be extended to other coals.
Research on removal of SO, and NO, front stackgases is also pursued. In SO, control r( :search, alalsiratoly investigation of the Iturean's anunoniainjection 1)1111!('SS Ilan been coniph`t(4 it('Varell in-volving SO, sorption by copper oxide impregnatedinto an alumina support has been conducted. In-vestigations also have been made of the effect ivencssof low-cost materials for SO, control in stack gases,such as red mud, nalicolite, and trona., Research onNO removal luis been carried out using severalcatalysts including NiO, which has been found to bethe most effective.
Further research on the ammonia injection processand additional study of the copper oxide-aluminasothent removal of SO, are planned. Research willbe continued on the mechanism and kinetics of SO,or NO sorption or both on red muds and trona.Au index of ores and waste products will be compiled,based on their relative potentials for SO, removal.A survey of metal oxide catalysts for treating NOwill be continued.
DOI is also conducting a program to reduce toxicemissions from internal combustion engines. Cu -rently the work is being expanded to improve thesafety Sf diesel engines operating in undergroundmines. The aspects being examined are toxicity,explosion, and fire potential of the fuel, and thepossibility of igniting methane by incandescent ex-haust products. The objectives of future researchon internal combustion engines are to recommendfuel formulations, operating parameters, and aux-iliary devices that will reduce undesirable emissionsto tolerable levels.
DOI is also conducting studies on the availabilityof fuels that meet air pollution control requirements.Studies have been, conducted on the availability ofcoal. Investigations of petroleum and natural gasresources have determined the factors that affectultimate recovery and supply, enabling forecasts tobe made of future petroleum and natural gas avail-ability. Research also has been conducted to .en:courage production of fuels that involve less-pol-lution of the atmosphere than coal. Future plansinclude appraisals of coal-producing areas where coalis mined underground. Costs of the development andutilization of petroleum and natural gas resourceswill be estimated.
Of the $18.4-million R. & D. program reported byDOI in this section, the Department has indicatedthat $12.9 million could be considered indirectlyrelated to pollution control but relevant to air
quality. The following summaries include those proj-cts so designated.
A program is in progirss to develop chemicalprocesses alternative to roasting Of sulfur on.s. An-other program aims to recover elemental sulfur fromtypical smelter gases. The process dull has receivedmajor attention involves selective absorption of SOin a solution of an organic acid and its salt andsubsequent reduction with hydrogen sulfide to formelemental sulfur.
A major 1)01 program on the gasification andliquefaction of coal is in progress. Gasification workis directed chiefly toward development and demon-stration of a process to produce a synthesis gassuitable for catalytic upgrading into pipeline gas.A hYdrogasification process to produce low-sulfurchar, as well as pipeline gas, is being developed. Afixed-bed pressure gasifier, using caking coals withoutpretreatment, was operated with various types ofcoals.
Research is also underway to develop more effi-cient utilization methods for mineral resources. Mag-netohydrodynamics (MILD), for example, offers apotential means to generate electrical power moreefficiently than in conventional powerplants. In theMHD combustion tests, virtually complete removalof sulfur oxides in the combustion gas has been ac-complished and 99 percent of the seed materialregenerated. A vortex MHD generator is being oper-ated to show its efficiency and a two-stage combustorprogram is just getting underway.
The burning characteristics of bituminous coal,chars, and lignites are being studied in test furnacesto determine the effect of variations in primary,secondary, and tertiary air combustion efficiency andformation of SO2, SOS, NO,, and organic acids whenburning coals of various ranks. Research is beingconducted on development and application of newknowledge on combustion processes that cause depo-sition and corrosion on boiler heat transfer surfaces,resulting in costly shutdown of powe-generatingunits.
The Bureau of Mines is also conducting researchon coal incineration, pyrolysis, and utilization ofsolid wastes from combustion. Among objectives ofthis work are the utilization of byproduct wastesfrom mining, treatment of coal to remove pyritesand other sulfur-bearing constituents, and develop-ment of alternate methods of combustion so as toreduce formation of fly ash and other solid wasteresidues. Studios on utilization of fly ash and stripspoil. have shown results. Chemical and physicalstudies haVe yielded information on the nature of
coal and the bearing that this information has onpreparation and utilization processes.
Solid waste resources surveys are in progress. Theprogram includes identification of waste-disposalproblems, development of guidelines for proper dis-posal of wastes, identification of minentl resourcesavailable from present and future accumulations ofsolid wastes and development of methods for re-covering useful materials from such wastes. Forexample, a survey that established the magnitudeand kinds of dusts generated has been completed ofthe iron and steel industry. Future studies will in-clude inventories of mineral wastes. Secondarysources of copper throughout the Nation also willbe studied to determine the potential for utilizingmore of the copper currently being discarded asscrap.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by DOIfor prevention and control during fiscal years 1969-71are as follows:
1969 1970 1971
4.98 5.58 7.88
Department of Transportation
DOT is conducting R. & D. to reduce air pollutionfrom aircraft. Other projects to develop low-pollutionbus engines and to test devices for reducing exhaustemissions from buses are in progress. Two types ofsteam engines are being developed in this program.
Various DOT projects that would contribute indi-rectly to air pollution control also have been reported.Of the $12.7 million research program described inthis section, $10.2 million has been classified asindirectly related. These activities include developingan electrically propelled rail vehicle and designingand relocating rail yards. A considerable researcheffort is also being conducted to investigate tunnelingtechniques for subsurface transport systems. DOTis also funding the development of an environmentalcontrol handbook for engineering and design stand-ards to improve underground rapid rail systems.
Funds (in millions of dollars) by DOT for pre-vention and control during fiscal years 1969-71 areas follows:
1669 1970 19712.60 6.23 3.89
Environmental Protection Agency
The $33.9 million research program in preventionand control technology reported by EPA's Office of
Air Programs for fiscal year 1971 represents thelargest single dollar investment of any program in-cluded in this report.
One of the major EPA efforts is the AdvancedAutomotive Power Systems Program (AAPSP) whichis designed to stimulate the automotive industry toindependently develop the most promising candidatesystems, while the Government continues a FederalR. & D. program through to demonstration of se-lected systems not actively pursued by industry.
The leading candidate is the gas turbine. Theindustry has considerable past experience with thissystem and is attempting now to solve the technicalproblems that have limited its application to theautomobile. These problems include high NOR, poorfuel economy, and high cost to produce. For thiscandidate, the AAPSP will devote considerably in-creased research effort to solving these problems.For example, multiple and alternate technical ap-proaches to solving the high NO problem will bemade to industry through the competitive contractaward mechanism. Achievement of practical solu-tions to the technical probletn hopefully will stimu-late the auto industry companies to "pick up" thistechnology and apply it in their own ways to auto-mobile designs. Thus, properly applied stimulationin this -manner will not require that the GovernmentAAPSP program assemble and demonstrate the gasturbine as a system to achieve program goals.
To better insure success of the AAPSP, two enginesystems new to the program will be added in fiscalyear 1972: The stratified charge engine and thediesel engine. Recent developments have clearlyindicated that these systems offer the potential ofachieving virtually pollution-free emissions and re-placing the conventional internal combustion engine.Early demonstrations of newly developed conceptsfor these engines will be made during calendar year1971 and decisions then will be made whether toproceed with further development under Govern-ment funding in the program.
An extensive conventional mobile source programis also in progress. The objective is to minimize pol-lution from conventional motor vehicle and off-highway engines by proving the feasibility of emis-sion control devices under development in the privatesector, evaluating alternative fuels and fuel additivesystems, and conducting supplemental applied re-search.
Engines and accessories modifications are beingstudied. These include continuation of two experi-mental programs designed to establish high efficiencyremoval devices for particulates; verification of car-
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buretor design requirements for reduced emissions;determination of best materials for construction anddesign configuration of a thermal reactor for hydro-carbon and carbon monoxide removal; selection of aprime nitrogen oxides control system candidate forexperimental evaluation applicable to internal com-bustion and diesel power plants; continuation Ofemissions performance studie.4 for a stratified chargeengine; and continuation of a coordinated effort withFAA in gaseous emission controls for aircraft.
To develop control techniques, .the following willbe accomplished.in fiscal year 1971:
Evaluation of studies on new control techniques,including fuel composition changes.Thorough dynamometer and road testing to de-termine exhaust emission, performance, andeconomy.The rendering of technical assistance to otherFederal agencies.The fleet-testing of control devices for dieselodor and smoke control.
Efforts in this area will be expanded in fiscal year1972 to derive experimental data on low-cost retro-fitdevices for existing civilian and military vehicles andoff-highway equipment. Testing emphasis will shiftto techniques with apparent capability of surpassing1975 standards, and a study on effects of fuelscomposition on vehicle emission performance will becompleted.
The development of control technology for sta-tionary sources of air pollution represents anothermajor EPA effort. The objective of this program isto define control technology research needs withrespect tO significant industries, major pollutants,and classes of control devices, and to maintain ag-gressive research, development, and demonstrationprograms to insure an adequate control technologybase for standards implementation. The financialand technical capacity of private industry will bedrawn upon in this effort to the fullest extent possible.
To control sulfur oxides, a major program includesthe demonstration and testing of the limestoneprocesses-dry limestone injection, limestone wetscrubbing, limestone modified fly ash utilization, andthe complementary R. & D. programs.
The detailed construction, design, and test pro-gram development for a prototype coal-cleaningplant is to be completed in fiscal year 1971. Differenttechniques for removing pyritic sulfur and ash fromcoal are being examined. Sulfur recovery from coal-cleaning wastes is being studied.. An investigation todetermine washability characteristics of the principalU.S. coal beds is continuing. This program is coordi-
nated dirc.ttly with DOI activities by interagencytransfer of "unds.
Two cosponsoml demonstration plants for theremoval of sulfur oxides, the Monsanto ('at -Ox and'Magnesium Oxide Wet Scrubbing, will reach theadvanced stages of construction in fiscal year 1971.A smokeless coke oven eharging demonstration proj-yet cosponsored with the American Iron and SteelInstitute and cosponsored contract studies with thewood pulping industry are beginning in fiscal year1971. A system to demonstrate the feasibility offiring refuse mixed with powdered coal at an electricutility station is being designed.
Planning studies will be initiated in fiscal year1971 for the paint and varnish and secondary alumi-num smelting industries. The annual updating ofthe R. & D. plans for sulfur oxidei: and nitrogenoxides and the R. & 1). planning study for par-ticulates will be published in fiscal year 1971. AnR. & 1). planning study for lead, hydrocarbons, andfluorides will be initiated. A special study to developa supply-demand model for sulfur is in progress.
Other current projects include the development ofauthoritative handbooks for fabric filters, electro-static precipitators, and wet scrubbers. Studies andevaluation are continuing on afterburners and pack-age sorbers, odor control, and incineration. Severalcombustion techniques, including catalysis, fluidizedbed, flue gas recirculation, staged combustion, fuelmodulation, and standard burner modification, arebeing investigated.
A feasibility study to determine the minimumparticle size resolution of the holographic techniqueand laboratory methods developed for monitoringselected species in the alkaline-metal scrubbing proc-ess will be completed in fiscal year 1971. Studies ofthe characteristics and control of nitrogen oxides,coal desulfurization, and gas-cleaning processes arcunderway. Pilot tests are continuing on the aqueousscrubbing, regenerable char, absorption process re-covery system. The technical feasibility of fluidizedbed combustors to control sulfur oxides and nitrogenoxides from fossil-fuel burning industrial and utilityboilers is being evaluated.
Data acquisition and analysis will be completedin fiscal year 1971 for the Large Power Plant EffluentStudy, (LAPPES), Keystone Plant, to evaluate theeffectiveness of natural precipitation for power plantplume washout and resulting ground-level effects.
In fiscal year 1972, further evaluation and studieswill continue on control deVices. Projects to char-acterize fabric filter bag structure and operating.parameters will be completed. Two studies to up-
grade electrostatic precipitator performance will heconcluded. Implementation of R. & D. plans forwet scrubbers will be started. Handbooks for after-burners and package sorbers will In provided. Lab-oratory testing of several scrubbers systems for odorcontrol Will be concluded and prototype designs foron-site studies will be complete. Design principles forincinerator overfire mixing will he confirmed.
Research in the area of catalysis and modified coin-'bastion kinetics will be extended in fiscal year 1972.Techniques showing promise will be evaluated forapplication to larger scale commercial and industrialheating units. Future work in sampling and analysiswill include investigation of the capability of theholographic technique for fine particulates, provisionfor analytical support to major flue gas-cleaningprojeCts underway, and completion of the characteri-zation of particulate air pollutants emitted fromfossil-fuel combustion.
Field trials of modified combustion techniques forcontrol of nitrogen oxides in utility size boilers willbe underway in fiscal.year 1972. A sulfur behaviorstudy and a molten iron/coal combustion feasibilitystudy will be concluded. A sodium-based sorbentprocess evaluation will be completed. Pilot testingof aqueous ammonia' scrubbers will be finished. Theconstruction of a regeneration system pilot plant willbe initiated. An additional flue gas-cleaning pilotstudy and three fossil-fuel conversion pilot investi-gations will be initiated.
Future research also will include data acquisitionfrom two powerplants in the LAPPES project tostudy the transport and diffusion of plumes fromtall stacks in mountainous terrain and to determineclimatological data for plant siting. Demonstrationand testing of the limestone processes will continuein fiscal year 1972. 'The dry limestone test programwill be completed, and a report issued. A 2-yearlimestone wet-scrubbing test program at the TVAsite and the 12-month test program at Key West,will be initiated.
In fiscal year 1972, the construction of a prototypecoal-cleaning plant will be completed and test pro-gram operations will begin. The examination of twophysical methods for removing pyritic sulfur andash will be completed. A feasibility determinationon a combustor and sulfur recovery process fromcoal-cleaning waste will be concluded. Investigationswill continue to determine washability character-istics of the principal U.S. coal beds. Experimentaltest programs will be underway at the two flue gasdemonstration plants. The coke oven chargingdemonstration will be completed. Four to six new
projects under cost-sharing arrangements with in-dustry will be initiated. The construction phase willbe completed and test operations begun for a demon-stration grant on the feasibility of firing refuse mixedwith powdered coal at an electric utility station.
A major contributing factor to air pollution is theproblem of reducing solid waste by open burning orincineration. The F.P. Office of Solid Waste Manage-ment, therefore, has reported an extensive programto improve incinerator technology to meet air pol-lution standards, increase volume reduction, andlower incineration costs.
Vortex and high temperature incinerators havebeen evaluated. A small mechanically stoked, rotarygrate incinerator for communities with less than25,000 population is being demonstrated.
Future work in this area is expected to receiveincreased emphasis. A prototype pyrolysis unit maybe demonstrated and evaluated. A fluid bed com-bustor, which may provide more complete combus-tion and lower costs, is presently in a developmentstage.
FundS (in millions of dollars) expended by EPAfor prevention and control during fiscal years 1969-71arc as follows:
1909 1970 1971
17.77 20.48 34.20
General Services Administration
The GSA dual-fuel program includes research andtesting of gaseous fuels for automobiles that willmake possible low emission operation. This workincorporates the conversion of conventional vehiclesto a system in which compressed natural gas, liquidnatural gas, or liquid petroleum gas can be used asa substitute for gasoline.
The program objective is to test and evaluate theeconomic feasibility, for commercial fleet operation,of the use of natural gas or liquid petroleum gas asalternate fuels that will meet the 1975 automotivevehicle emission standards.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended for pre-vention and control by GSA during fiscal years1969-71 are as follows:
1989 1970 1971
0 0.11 2.08
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NASA is conducting R. & D. aimed at preventingand controlling aircraft emissions. The present trend
86 n4i3 75
pbe
of advanced engines is to high temperatures andhigh pressure ratios. Smoking tendency and nitrousoxide exhaust emissions are worsened by an increasein pressure. A major part of the NASA experimentalwork, therefore, is conducted at high pressures, butthe results are applicable to current engines thatoperate at lower pressures. Experimental gas turbinecombustors are being tested to evaluate their overallperformance and their smoking tendency. Variousdesign features are being studied, which include vari-ations in air-entry ports and variations in the fuelinjection system. A study of the emission problemsof the typical turbojet/turbofan engine at idle willbe funded in fiscal year 1971.
Other NASA mobile source control R. & D. con-cerns automotive emissions. Thermal reactors foremission control are being tested. A device thatwould permit more accurate control of fuel/air rationin internal combustion engines isbeing developed.
NASA R. & D. related to controlling stationarysources includes a laboratory investigation of theeffectiveness of a magnesium dioxide and lithiumcarbonate bed for removing sulfur oxides, chlorine,and hydrogen halides.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by NASAfor prevention and control during fiscal years 1969-71are as follows:
1969 1970 1971
0.15 0.27 0.92
National Science Foundation
Within the NSF chemistry program, research is inprogress to find new oxidizing agents that can reactby an oxygen atom transfer mechanism, resulting inthe development of new oxidizing agents for hydro-carbons. Other studies include a development of im-proved methods for determining the sulfuric acidaerosol and sulfate particulates. The principal effortis directed toward the quantitative reduction of SO8and SO2. Some-Of these studies have the potentialfor affording new chemical means of controlling suchoxides in. an air environment through the ability ofmetal complexes to promote chemical reactions nec-essary for the conversion of oxides to less noxiousmaterials. Further studies are in progress on themechanism of ozonolysis.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by NSF forprevention and control during fiscal years 1969-71are as follows:
76
Tennessee Valley Authority
In addition to air quality studies leading to oper-ational control of coal-fired power plants TVA isconducting research to recover sulfur in useful form.from power plant stack gases.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by TVAfor research related tojwevention and control duringfiscal years 1969-71 aN as follows:
1009 1970 1971
0.18 0.17 0.17
TRANSPORT AND FATE
Atomic Energy Commission
The transport and fate effort of the AEC coversa broad range of research in the atmosphere, with afocus on processes that will allow improved under-standing of radioactivity, and assists in the AEC'smission of assessing the biological implications ofradiation.
The AEC has conducted a substantial effort overthe years aimed at describing diffusion and plumerise to modest distances from a source of radioactivesubstances. This effort is being shifted to inter-mediate and large distances in order to address theconsequences of very small concentrations of pol-lutants to large populations, and over long periodsof time. These populations reside in cities, and withnuclear power systems being sited close to majorcities, the AEC effort includes research on diffusionfrom point sources over changing rural-urban terrain.
The ability to estimate dose contributions throughfood chains depends on understanding the atmos-pherebiosphere interface. The net gain or loss ofnutrients, trace elements, and toxic materials in anecosystem, for instance, tics in closely to the behaviorof analogous radioactivity. Consequently, the studiesinclude programs in cleansing of air by precipitationand dry deposition, and resuspension back into theair of materials deposited earlier .°
Department of Transportation
Research is being conducted to better enable DOTto issue regulations that effectively reduce aircraftpollution and to insure that the standards are at thesame time technically sound and economically rear
'Funding for this AEC program has been included in the1969 1970 1971 totals listed for the AEC in the special studiesradiation0.45 0.32 0.56 section of this report.
87 a8
sonable. Projects include analysis of the pollutanteffects of aircraft ground opertions, engine emissiondissipation rates, and the el.'ect of engine emissionsat altitude.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by DOTfor transport and fate (luring fiscal year 1969-71are as follows:
1969 1970 1971
0 0.05 0.85
Environmental Protection Agency
EPA research on atmospheric processes was re-ported by the Air Pollution Control Office. The ob-jective of this research is to delineate importantphysical and chemical atmospheric processes alteredby the major air pollutants.
Research in this area includes validation of avail-able urban diffusion models. Other projects seek todetermine the relationship between air pollution andthe earth's radiation budget. Field and laboratorystudies are also conducted on atmospheric smog toevaluate the photochemical reactivity of pollutants.The fate of carbon monoxide arising from combustionsources, as well as the interaction and fate of par-ticulate pollutants in the atmosphere is also beingstudied.
Future research in this area will be aimed atbetter defining the photochemical reactivity of pol-lutants in the urban and rural atmosphere. Projectsto obtain information on predicting atmosphericlevels of air pollutants and the contribution of non-technologically produced carbon monoxide to airpollution levels will also be undertaken. The sulfurdioxide-particulate relationship in the atmospherewill be studied, and the aerosols formed in certainphoto-oxidative systems will be characterized.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by EPAon transport and fate during fiscal years 1969-71are as follows:
1989 1970 1971
4.80 4.70 4.20
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NASA's research in this area includes a variety ofprojects related to the dispersion and chemical trans-.
formation of air pollutants. F nple, one projectseeks to determine the in sms by which ultra-violet. radiation transfor rogen oxides into smogin the presence of hy( rocarbons. The objective ofanother pmject is to investigate the chemical kineticsof the dispersion of pollutants with primary emphasison hydrocarbons. Investigations are also underwayto determine the kinetics of smoke and nitric oxideformation under conditions found in aircraft gasturbine combustion systems and to determine' thedispersion and interaction of pollutants from airborneand ground sources in urban areas.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by NASAfor transport and fate during fiscal years 1969-71are as follows:
1969 1970 1971
0.10 0.12 0.16
National Science Foundation
NSF conducts research related to the transportand fate of a variety of air pollutants. In the pesti-cides area, the photolytic decomposition of chlori-nated hydrocarbons is being studied. Additionalwork will attempt to analyie the amount and fateof DDT carried by air currents from the area ofapplication.. Further, the NSF Atmospheric Science programis supporting analytical studies of air samples fromAntarctica, New Zealand, and Australia. Particulateand gaseous samples of halogens (I, Br, Cl) arebeing collected to study the effect of a large landmass on atmospheric gaseous halogen concentrations.This research may determine the north-south trans-port of air pollution to the extent that particulatematter of a northern hemisphere continental sourceis penetrating the Antarctic continent. Additionalstudies are being conducted to determine the contri-bution of African dust to the natural pollution ofthe atmosphere.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by. NSFfor transport and fate during fiscal years 1969-71are as follows:
1989 1970 1971
1.00 1.67 1.76
88 CO 77
Water Quality
Funding of water quality R. & D. for fiscal years1969, 1970, and 1971 is reported in table 4 (p. 104).
AGRICULTURAL POLLUTIONCONTROL TECHNOLOGY
Department of Agriculture
Plant residue wastes that are considered potentialwater pollutants are plant pathogens where water-borne organisms are found in water that is used forirrigation and that may serve to infect the soil orcrop on which it is applied. Plant nutrients and dis-solved organics that leach from plant residues andenter water courses through runoff are potentialpollutants. These materials have a potential foistimulating the growth of algae and other aquaticplants, leading to acceleration of the eutrophicationprocess. Increasing emphasis on environmentalquality demands better control of potential pollutionfrom crop and forest residues. Techniques have to bedeveloped to minimize production of undesirableforest and crop residues. Increased beneficial utiliza-tion of these wastes are being explored. Emphasis isbeing given to control methods and the selection ofplants and residues that may protect water qualityindirectly through stabilization of highly erodible
areas.Liquid wastes from processing raw agricultural
products represent a serious disposal problem, largelybecause of their biochemical oxygen demand (BOD).It is estimated that the pollution potential from thissource expressed in terms of BOD is equivalent tothat produced by a population of more than 168million people. The presence of salts, other chemicals,
and suspended solids in effluents compounds theproblem.
Several possible solutions to the problem of dis-posing of these waste effluents are being studied.Land disposal is being explored as a means of pre-venting effluents from directly contaminating receiv-
78 e
9$ 0;3-
APPENDIX 2
ing streams. Applications by sprinkler and furrowirrigation are being considered from the standpointof both beneficial crop production and simple disposaltechnique. Systems must be developed that considerthe variability in amount and composition of theeffluent produced, climatic conditions, and soil andcrop factors.
Efforts are continuing to improve processingmethodology that will facilitate disposal and mini-mize pollution hazards. Improved harvesting andprocessing practices need to be developed that will
reduce wastes and pollution hazards. More emphasisis being placed on byproduct recovery and utilizationas an economic benefit and a means of minimizingthe waste disposal load.
Land disposal is a logical method for absorbingprocessing plant effluents and improving the qualityof the resulting drainage water. Guidelines must bedeveloped for specific effluents. These guidelinesshould take into consideration the effects of climaticconditions, hydrologic, and soil characteristics of thedisposal area and vegetative requirements of thatarea.
In the United States an estimated 1.5 million tonsof livestock wastes are produced annually. Thesewastes represent a potential water pollution problembecause of their nutrient content, the occurrence andspread of pathogens, and the high BOD of thesematerials. Research directed at recycling these wastesinto the soil-plant-water-animal system is needed.Waste disposal systems will have to be integratedinto the overall planning and operational schemes forthese large livestock systems. Concern over plantnutrients in water involves the acceleration of theeutrophication process and high nitrate concentra-tions in drinking water.
Current studies are evaluating the effects of landuse, soil type; hydrologic conditions, climate, and soilmanagement factors on the movement of plant nutri-ents in the environment. Mathematical models arebeing developed to predict nutrient movement andto provide information for developing more effective
control practices. Other programs are aimed at in-creasing fertilizer use efficiency. Watershed manage-ment practices are being developed to minimizenutrient losses by leaching and by runoff and erosion.
More information is needed to evaluate the contri-bution of chemical fertilizers in relation to naturalsources. Processes involved in nutrient cycling inthese areas need to be identified and quantified.More specific information is needed on factors thataffect movement in soils and on chemical and biologi-cal transformations that take place before enteringa water course. The major source of phosphorus fromagriculeure uses is absorbed on sediments. Greaterdefinition of sediment-water equilibria is, therefore,needed to evaluate the potentially biologically activefraction. Effects of nutrients (soluble and undecom-posed organic matter) on the eutrophication processmust be evaluated.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by USDAfor agriculture pollution control technology duringfiscal year 1969-71 are as follows:
1969 1970 1971
5.22 6.41 6.62
Environmental Protection Agency
The objective of this program is the developmentand demonstration of technology for effective andeconomical control of pollution from agriculturalactivities, including forestry and logging operations,irrigation return flows, rural runoff, and animalfeedlots. Short term goals include significant progresstowards: Development and demonstration of effec-tive pollution control from animal feedlots; develop-ment of methods for treatment and control of waterquality degradation in irrigation return flows; ex-ploration and development of methods to minimizerunoff and pollution by agriculturally used fertilizersand pesticides; development and demonstration ofcrop management procedures to reduce runoff ofagricultural chemicals apd their effect on waterquality; and demonstration of technology for com-plete elimination of pollution from animal feedlotsthrough recycling of "waste" constituents.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by EPA foragricultural pollution control technology duringfiscal year 1969-71 are as follows:
1989 1970 1971
1.37 2.44 2.47
Tennessee Valley Authority
TVA is conducting studies of the relationship ofertilizer use and water quality. Water quality and
total runoff are now being measured on six water-sheds. Nutrient losses in small streams and tile drainson agricultural lands are being studied with the Uni-versity of Illinois.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by TVAfor research related to agricultural pollution controltechnology during fiscal year 1969-71 are as follows:
1909 1970 19710.03 0.03 0.03
INDUSTRIAL POLLUTIONCONTROL TECHNOLOGY
Department of Agriculture
Liquid wastes from food and industrial processingplants can be a serious pollution problem. Processingof animal and crop products produces liqt.id wastes,which have been estimated to equal the sewage loadfrom 170 million people.
Research is underway on process changes that willminimize pollution, and on recovery and use of by-products. Recent laboratory and pilot plant resultson "dry caustic" peeling of potatoes and other vege-tables, on pickling brines recovery, and on jheeEewhey recovery have been extended to industrial Beakby EPA demonstration grants, based on USDA re-search. Related work on poultry processing, soybeanoil refining, tannery wastes, and cotton textile wastesis underway.
In the manufacture of pulp and paper from wood,the great variations in grades and the hygienic re-quirements of fiber products severely limit the recycleand reuse of process water, resulting in a substantialwaste disposal problem. Nonpolluting, chemical de-lignification systems are being explored that will beapplicable to both pulping and bleaching processesand replace the sulfur and chlorine compounds usedin existing processes. New knowledge of the basicchemical reactions of the lignins and carbohydratesin wood is leading to further processing wastereduction.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by USDAfor industrial pollution control technology duringfiscal year 1969-71 are as follows:
1989 1970 19711.27 1.30 1.73
Environmental Protection Agency
The objective of this program is to develop anddemonstrate economical technology for the complete
90 le
control of industrial waste discharges. Immediategoals are the demonstration of best available treat-ment and control systems for wastes fro majorindustrial pollution sources, including th six largeindustries that use over SO percent of all industrialwater: metals, chemicals, pulp and paper, petroleum,coal, and food.
Demonstrations of new or improved systems forsignificantly reducing industrial waste have beenconducted for metal plating shops, steel mills, food-processing plants, pulp and paper mills, organicchemical plants, and petroleum refineries.
This program includes development of:Waste treatment and source control techniquesfor difficult-to-control industrial wastes.Pretreatment techniques for safe discharge ofindustrial wastes into municipal sewer systemsfor joint treatment. ,
High-efficiency treatment or control systems forall major industries.Closed-loop systems to eliminate industrialwaste discharges through reduction of water useand renovation and reuse of waste waters andbyproduct recovery.
Objectives of the program are:Demonstration of closed-loop systems to elimi-nate completely all industrial waste discharges.Development and demonstration of techniquesfor reuse of waste waters and recovery and reuseof "wastes" they now convey.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by EPAfor industrial pollution control technology duringfiscal year 1969-71 are as follows:
1969 1970 1971
9.01 7.36 0.00
MINING POLLUTION
Department of the Interior
The potential is being studied of desalting processesto treat acid mine drainage and to provide supple-mental supplies of fresh water for municipal andindustrial uses.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by DOIfor mining pollution. during fiscal year 1969-71 areas follows:
1969 1970 1971
0 0.04 0.00
91 Of"
Environmental Protection Agency
Research is directed to the elimination of waterpollution resulting from the extraction and prepara-tion of minerals, including coal, copper, other metals,oil, phosphate, rocks, sand, and gravel.
Primary emphasis has been on definition of themechanism of formation of acid coal mine discharges,evaluation and development of treatment processesfor mine drainage, and evaluation of new methodsfor sealing or "plugging" mines to prevent discharge.The evaluation of new mining methods and tech-niques to reduce polluting discharges has been initi-ated and is being accelerated. Section 14 of theFederal Water Pollution Control Act emphasizesfield-scale demonstration of methods and techniquesfor control and elimination of pollution caused bymine drainage. This program will place particularemphasis on the engineering and economic feasibilityand practicability of pollution control methods.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by EPAfor mining pollution during fiscal year 1969-71 areas follows:
1969 1970 1971
3.43 2.71 4.52
MUNICIPAL POLLUTIONCONTROL TECHNOLOGY
Environmental Protection Agency
The objective of this program is the development,evaluation, and demonstration of improved and lowercost technology and methodology for treating andcontrolling pollution from municipal severed wastes,storm sewer discharges, combined storm and sanitarysewer overflows, nonsewered urban runoff, and jointmunicipal industrial wastes. Iacluded in this programwill be development and demonstration of reliableand highly efficient waste treatment technology forremoval of phosphorus from sewage methods, otherthan separation of sewers, for control and treatmentof combined hewer systems. This program also in-cludes control of combined sewer overflows by maxi-mum use of flow control and retention.
Emphasis includes development and demonstra-tion of technology and systems for the removal ofbacteria and viruses, nutrients (especially nitrogen),and refractory organic wastes.
In-sewer treatment of municipal sewage and wastesfrom individual homes or small clusters of homeswill continue. Emphasis. will continue on the opera-
tion of municipal treatment systems at increasedefficiency and reliability, determining the effects ofindustrial wastes on municipal waste treatmentplants to provide criteria for assigning constraintson industrial waste loads. Determination will be madeof the pollution characteristics and impact of urbanstorm water discharges and development of applic-able means of control or treatment, or both, and de-velopment of means for controlling pollution fromnonsewered urban runoff.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by EPAfor municipal pollution during fiscal year 1060-71 areas follows:
1969 1970 1971
12.13 10.43 9.82
National Science Foundation
The application of hyperfiltration or reverse os-mosis methods which were developed for desalinationto a wide range of practical situations in which wastesmust be removed from liquids is being studied. Re-sults with wastes generated from fabric dyeing havebeen sufficiently promising for local development ofa working configuration. Techniques for the removalof poisonous metals are being emphasized. Researchprograms will also investigate the environmentalaspects of trace contaminants and the application ofadvance technology to urban engineering problems.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by NSFfor municipal pollution during fiscal year 1969-71 areas follows;
1969 1970 1971
0.35 0.35 0.43
OTHER WATER QUALITY PROBLEMS
Atomic Energy Commission
Funds (in millions of dollars) reportedly expendedby AEC for other water quality problems duringfiscal year 1969-71 are as follows:
1969 1970 1971
6.80 8.10 9.29
Corps of Engineers
The primary use of pesticides has been to combatthe growth and expansion of aquatic plants and theirimpact on navigable streams along the Gulf andAtlantic coasts. Realizing the detrimental effect of
pesticides on ecology, the (1 developed a researchprogram to combat plant growth and minimize theenvironmental impact in achieving this goal. Theprogram has two primary objectives: (1) To findherbicides that are the least harmful to the environ-ment and (2) to develop other techniques that willaccomplish the objective and 11( affect the environ-ment. Part 2 of the objectives is discussed in thechapter ent it led A/ter/Mires to the 'Ne of Pmicides.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by CE forother water quality problems during. fiscal year1969-71 are as follows:
19611 1970 19710.09 0.18 0.21
Department of Agriculture
Sediment is of concern in that it degrades waterquality for recreation, irrigation, aquatic life, andindustrial uses. It also serves as a carrier for otherpollutants, such as phosphorus and pesticides. Sedi-ment physically reduces channel Capacity of rivers,estuaries, streams, canals, and ditches; reduces stor-age capacities of lakes and reservoirs; and oftenmakes untreated water unsuitable for recharginggroundwater supplies. Agriculture land is the sourceof one-half of all sediment. Sources of erosion, orsediment production on land, must be identified andcontrol measures clveloped. Current studies are de-signed to provide better information on sedimenttrap efficiency as a guide in the development of im-proved reservoir design criteria. Significant attentionhas been given.recently to the role of sediment in thechemical and biological quality of the impoundedwater to deteriorate.
Information is needed on sedimentwater equi-libria to accurately define that fraction of traceelements, phosphates, or other materials that arebiologically active. Certain types of sediment mayactually remove phosphate from solution. Chemical,physical, and biological properties of sediment mustbe characterized in terms of their effect on overallwater quality.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by USDAfor other water quality problems during fiscal year1969-71 are as follows:
1969 1970 19712.12 2.11 2.18
Department of Commerce
Pollution abatement was initiated by the MaritimeAdministration as a result of 'coming into force of the
1954 International Convention for the Prevention ofPollution of the Seas by Oil by implementing nationallegislation (The Oil Pollution Act of 1961). The 19i4Oil Pollution Convention established a legal limit of100 p.p.m. for oil or oily mixtures discharged fromships within certain prohibited zones, generally 50miles from land. To meet the statutory and inter-national requirements, a program was establsihed todevelop equipment suitable for shipboard use to re-duce the oil content of oily bilge and ballast waterdischarges to within the legal limits.
Attempts to develop both oil/water separationequipment and instruments for detecting and moni-toring oil concentration have been taken. Methodsof measuring the concentration of oily water dis-charges are still being sought, with several approachesnow being considered.
A broad range of antipollution work has been un-dertaken toward the solution of problems in the fol-lowing areas:
1. Elimination of international oily dischargesfrom tankers.
2. Development of double-skin and high depthtanker dqpigns.
3. Survey and evaluation of port reception facili-ties for shoreside treatment of oily wastes, oilwater concentration, and interface detectorsystems.
4. Use of flocculents to aid in the separation of oilin oily ballast tanks.
5. Profile studies of oil concentration in ballasttanks.
6. Efforts to quantify ship pollutants other thanoil.
7. Studies of different approaches to oil and ballastloading of tankers.
8. Collision avoidance.Further plans will be directed toward solving other
ship generation pollution problems, such as sewage,galley and garbage grinder liquid wastes, trash andsolid wastes, and stack gases.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by DOCfor other water quality problems during fiscal year1969-71 are as follows:
1969 1970 1971
0.09 0.18 0.21
Department of Defense
The DOD is improving concepts, designs, and con-struction methods to minimize the effect of the con-struction facilities on the environment. These efforts
82
contribute directly to the abatement of water pollu-tion through control of soil erosion.
Research was undertaken to develop master plan-ning, design techniques, and improved maintenanceand disposal operations to reduce pollution frommilitary construction activities. Construction engi-neering laboratories are collecting and analyzinginformation on requirements, criteria, and state -of -the -art in antipollution aspects of militaryconstruction.
Funds (in millions of dollars) ekpended by 1)01)for other water quality problems during fiscal year1969-71 are as follows:
1969 1070 1971
0,07 0.07 0.13
Department of Transportation
This program is to develop techniques and equip-ment to control and clean up pollutant spills. Pastand current activity has been directed towards de-veloping these capabilities for oil spills. The oil spillprogram is approximately 40 percent complete. De-velopment of oil spill control equipment is in theexperimental prototype construction stage. Researchinto the fluid mechanics of oil films on the oceansurface and the hydrodynamics of floating barriersat sea was completed in support of the prototypedevelopment effort. Engineering research for oil re-covery systems, including analysis of sorbent ma-terials and engineering feasibility studies of variousharvesting concepts, is nearing completion. Develop-ment of high seas qualified recovery systems has beeninitiated.
Longer term R. & D. activity will be concernedwith providing similar control and cleanup capabilityto combat other hazardous pollutant spills.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by DOTfor other water quality problems during fiscal year1969-71 are as follows..
1060 1970 1071
0.41 3.61 2.50
Environmental Protection Agency
The objective of this prggram is the developmentand demonstration of technology and systems tocontrol, effectively an economically, pollution fromdiverse sources, c ding recreational activities,watercraft, construction projects, impoundments,salt water intrusion, natural pollution, dredging andland fill, and spills and discharges of oil and hazard-ous materials.
Major emphasis has been given to means of pre-venting and controlling spills of oil and hazardousmaterials, including demonstration of technology forcleaning oil-contaminated beaches, development ofprocedures for evaluating oil-treating chemicals, de-velopment and evaluation of techniques for detectingoil discharges, and development of first-generationtechnology for oil containment and removal.
Objectives include: Development. and demonstra-tion of effective methods to prevent, detect, contain,and clean up oil pollution; development of tech-nology and systems to preclude convenience dumpingof used oils; exploration of techniques to prevent andmitigate the effects of spills of hazardous materials;and development and demonstration of technology tocontrol and treat waste from watercraft, isolated re-creation areas, construction sites, and dredging andlandfill.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by EPAfor other water quality problems during fiscal year1969-71 are as follows:
1969 1970 1971
1.89 -2.77 10.83
National Science Foundation
Research relates to enrichment pollution of lakesand riversthe overgrowth of algae as a result of theaddition of excessive nutrients to natural water.Other research relates to the biogeochemistry ofheavy metals in both fresh water and the ocean.There is a definite and desirable trend toward thestudy of the biogeochemistry of heavy metals. Re-search is supported on sediment transport in streamsand rivers and sediment deposit in quiet water.Additional research concerns the basic processes ofsewage treatmentfiltration and sludge formation.
Studies of algal and rooted-plant overgrowth aresupported on understanding the natural processes,such as the feeding of herbivores, that will help con-trol aquatic plant populations.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by NSFfor other water quality problems during fiscal year1969-71 are as follows:
1989 1970 1971
0.88 0.75 0.82
SALINITY RESEARCH
Department of Agriculture
USDA is primarily concerned with the occurrenceof dissolved salts, metals, metal compounds, acids,
and alkalis in irrigation water, their accumulation insoils, and subsequent augmentatinn in drain outflowsfrom irrigated cropland in arid regions.
Current research is directed toward increasingirrigation efficiency to achieve better control ofsalinity in irrigated areas. Attention is also beinggiven to means of minimizing evapotranspirationlosses. Methods are being studied whereby naturalwater yields from surrounding areas can be increasedto dilute salt concentrations.
Additional research is designed to gain an under-standing of the physiology of salt tolerance in plants,and to genetically increase the salt tolerance of_ssistz--ing crops, thus permitting greater use of more salinewaters for existing crops.
New methods should be explored for disposing ofsaline drainage water to avoid degrading existingwater resources. Possible alternatives include desali-nation, evaporation basins, deep well injection, anddiversion to the sea or other saline water bodiessuch as the Salton Sea.
Where adequate good quality water is unavailablefor irrigation, methods should be developed for usingwater of impaired quality. This would include thepotential reuse of re;,urn flows. Greater efforts areneeded in the genetic development of more salttolerant crops.
Funds (in millions of &liars) expended by USDAfor salinity research during fiscal year 1969-71 are asfollows:
1989 1970 1971
1.35 1.42 1.51
Department of the Interior
Model studies and conceptual design of outfallsand intakes are designed to minimize the effects ofthermal and increased salinity discharge from diztilla-tion desalting plants. Intake studies are being investi-gated to determine the most effective and economicalintake structures and antifouling devices in order tominimize the amount of marine life present infeedwater.
Ecological systems of coastal and inland watersare studied to establish changes that may be broughtabout by introducing large volumes of waste brinefrom desalting plants. The synergistic effects of in-creased salinity and copper concentrations, togetherwith elevated temperature, will be studied.
The Office of Saline Waters is attempting to de-velop processes for converting geothermal brines todesalted water without deleterious side effects on the
environment. Process studies and tests will be con-ducted to determine methods of minimizing thermalpollution of the atmosphere, of recovering useful by-products that might otherwise lead to disposal prob-lems, and of disposing of wastes in an innocuousmanner.
At inland locations that have high solar evapora-tion rates, solar ponds can be used as a method ofbrine disposal. Related R. & 1). studies and testsinclude preparation of specifications for constructionof solar evaporation ponds.
A method of brine disposal in inland areas is ulti-mate disposal in deep wells. The technical considera-tions include the study of geological formations todetermine 1 heir feasibility for receiving large volumesof waste brine and the possible hazards of dumpingbrine into subsurface formations over long periods.
Dissolved salts in irrigation water, their accumula-tion in soils, and subsequent augmentation in drainoutflows from irrigated cropland in arid regions areof concern. There are about 30 million acres of irri-gated land in the 17 Western States. Salinity is apotential problem on about one-half of this acreage,and over 8 million acres have been adversely affectedby salt accumulation.
Current programs are directed toward increasingirrigation efficiency to achieve better control ofsalinity in irrigated areas and to means of minimizingevapotranspiration losses. Methods are being studiedwhereby water yields from surrounding areas can beincreased to dilute salt concentrations. l'hreatophytesare responsible for significant transpiration losses andcontrol measures are being studied. .
Consideration also must be given to the effects ofsaline water on crop production. Current programsare designed to evaluate the physiology of salt toler-ance in plants.
Irrigated arid agricultural lands will continue to beneeded in the future to meet demands for food andfiber crops. Where good quality water is not avail-able, soil -water -plant management systems must bedeveloped that will permit use of inferior qualitywater. Greater efforts are needed to develop soil-water-plant systems that reduce losses by evapora-tion and transpiration and that better control waterlosses through phreatophytes and seepage.
Where good quality water is unavailable for irri-gation, methods are needed for using water of im-paired quality. This would include the potentialreuse of return flows. Greater efforts are needed in thegenetic development of salt tolerance of living or-ganising. Where a possibility of agricultural waterquality impairment from industrial sources- exists,
more information will be needed on the impact ofcertain trace metals on both plants and animals.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by DOIfor salinity research during fiscal year 1969-71 are asfollows:
1969 1970 1971
1.60 1.70 1.57
THERMAL RESEARCH
Atomic Energy Commission
The R,. & D. supported on thermal additions in-clude the following:
Development of improved water temperaturepredictive techniques in streams, lakes, estu-aries, and oceans.Development of improved heat dissipation sys-tems for thermal power plants.Determination of the effects of siting large nu-clear powerplants on large bodies of water, andperformance of economic and social factors.Determination of the biological effects of tem-perature and temperature changes on variouswater systems; that is, in fresh-water streamsand lakes, in bay or other coastal environments,and in the atmosphere. Emphasis is placed onthe effects of sublethal temperatures and otherenvironmental stresses as they relate to the opti-mal growth of sport and commercial fish andsupporting ecosystems.Development of beneficial uses for thermallyenriched water for application in such fields asagriculture, aquaculture, and some industrialagencies.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by AECfor thermal research during fiscal year 1969-71 are asfollows:
1969 1970 1971
0.85
Corps of Engineers
1.49 3.25
The Civil Works study of thermal effects on riversand lakes has included monitoring temperatureregimes, thermal destratification, and water quality.Monitoring of temperature regimes is conducted pre-and post-impoundment in order to determine theproject's effect on ecological balance and the impact,of the regional environment. The thermal destmtifica-tion investigations have evaluated the use of air
diffuser systems or submerged wires on temperaturesin stratified lakes, effects of temperature change onwater quality and sedimentation, and structuralchanges that would allow downstream releases or re-leasing water from various levels of lakes and reser-voirs in order to offset thermal impacts.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by CE forthermal research during fiscal year 1969-71 are asfollows:
1969 1970 19710.19 0.20 0.21
Department of Commerce'°
NOAH of DOC is reported spending the followingamounts (in Millions of dollars) on thermal researchduring fiscal year 1969-71:
1969 1,970 19710.27 0.20 0.15
Department of the Interior
The DOI's Office of Water Resource Research isconcerned with the following pollution programs:Ecological impact of waste heat, heat dissipation,temperature distribution, and constructive use ofwaste heat.
Additional research emphasis is needed in the fol-lowing areas: The effects of temperature on the sur-vival growth, reproduction, and well-being of im-portant animals and plants in the aquatic ecosystem,and on food chain organisms; interaction effects onecosystem of temperature, dissolved oxygen, salinity,nutrients, and other factors; development of non-empirical stochastic temperature prediction models;development of three-dimensional mathematicalmodels for predicting temperature distribution; im-proving heat dissipation methods as alternatives toonce-through cooling; and constructive use of wasteheat; for example, in agriculture, in aquaculture, toenhance recreational quality of water, and for in-dustry and dwellings.
Research by the U.S. Geological Survey is con-cerned with describing the physical processes affect-ing water temperature and with defining some of thebiological effects of thermal pollution.. Research pro-
10 Expenditures on thermal research for the NationalOceanic and Atmospheric Administration, DOC; EPA; andTVA were obtained from the OST report "The Effects andControl of Heated Water Discharges" (November 1970).No direct input on funds spent or program descriptions wereobtained from the agencies themselves.
jects deal with heating and cooling at the a4-waterinterface, evaporation effects, mixing, diffusion,effects of urbanization on stream tentperatures, circu-lation in stratified lakes and cA uaries, inst rumenta-Hon and techniques for measuring water tempera-tures by continual monitoring and by remote sensing,and biological effects resulting from heated dischargesin an estuary.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by 1)01for thermal research during fiscal year 1969-71 are asfollows:
1969 1970 1.971
0.35 0.49 0.12
Environmental Protection Agency"
The objectives of the thermal pollution researchprogram are:
1. To improve the basis for developing and imple-menting thermal standards by determining theeffect of temperature cycles on the reproductionand life cycle of marine estuarine and freshwater aquatic life, fish and essential feed chainorganisms..
2. To improve techniques for the control of wasteheat through development of advanced coolingtechniques, power generation systems thatminimize waste heat, beneficial use of wasteheat and techniques for predicting temperaturepatterns in receiving waters.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by EPAfor thermal research during fiscal year 1969-71 are asfollows:
1969 1970 19710.83 1.75 2.S7
Housing and Urban Development
Most facilities for generating electricity burn fossilor nuclear fuel and in addition to electricity, theyproduce tremendous amounts of low-temperaturethermal energy, which, at present, is discharged intowater and atmospheric sinks. The discharge intowater has created concern for thermal stream pollu-tion that is bound to increase with power systemgrowth.
11 Expenditures on thermal research for the NationalOceanic and Atmospheric Administration, DOC; EPA; andTVA were obtained from the OST report "The Effects andControl of Heated Water Discharges" (November 1970).No direct input on funds spent or program descriptions wereobtained from the agencies themselves.
85
Demonstration of effective and economical controlof thermal pollution and beneficial use is now wastedheat. The preseneffort is concentrated on the analy-sis of an energy center for a new city.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by HUDfor thermal research during fiscal year 1969-71 are asfollows:
1989 1970 1971
0.10 0.10 0.10
National Scierre Foundation
Research 'support in thermal pollution is orientedto a broad program in all sciences and engineering.Support by the Divisions of Engineering, Biologicaland Medical Sciences, and Environmental Sciencesis specifically oriented to thermal pollution in water.NSF supports 90 grants in the area of heat transfer.Water and related problems in heat transfer researchinclude: The impact of urbanization; the mixing andtransfer processes for heated effluent in open chan-nels, rivers, lakes and oceans; the utilization of cityutilities for the discharge of power plant heat; andecological and physiological effects of thermal dis-charges on animals and fish.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by NSFfor thermal research during fiscal year 1969-71 are asfollows:
1969 1970 19710.74 0.89 0.90
Tennessee Valley Autherityn
The Tennessee Valley Administration is reportedas spending the following amounts (in millions ofdollars) on thermal research relating to water:
1989 1970 1971
0.24 0.42
WASTE TREATMENT ANDULTIMATE DISPOSAL
0.42
during fiscal year 1969-71 are as follows:
1969 1970 1971
:3.31 :3.10 3.44
Department of Defense
The Army is attempting to reduce water-pollutingeffluents from Army laboratories, testing facilities,munitions plants, and facilities of the Field Army.The following studies are being conducted to findbetter methods for decontamination of toxic wastesfrom Army facilities and test sites: To develop kitsfor detectinthe effectiveness of the decontaminationof water; to improve techniques for disposal ofsewage in cold regions; to recycle waste water in fieldhospital systems; and to apply tertiary treatment tosewage by exposing it to gamma radiation. It hasbeen shown that irradiation of sewage destroys al-most 100 percent of the microorganisms presentbefore tertiary treatment. A water recycling andwaste management system is now undergoing engi-neering and serviceability tests. Progress has beenmade in treatment of sewage in cold regions withouthaving to place the facilities inside heated buildings.
For treating photographic film wash water forreclamation, the Air Force is evaluating an electro-lytic technique to regenerate and reuse the photo-graphic bleach without introducing chemicals intothe process effluent. Treatment techniques for electro-plating waste will be studied. Work also will be ac-complished to develop air transportable sewagetreatment systems and the design criteria for sewageoxidation /stabilization ponds. Equipment des:gnedto process waste water up to near potable standardsfor reuse in showers, laundries, and others is to hedeveloped for contingency deployments. This neweffort is for the primary purpose of reducing _rawwater requirements but in areas where no shortageexists, pollution reduction could be a beneficialbyproduct.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by DODfor waste treatment and ultimate disposal duringfiscal year 1969-71 are as follows:
Atomic Energy Commission 1989 1970 1971
Funds (in millions of dollars) reportedly expendedby AEC for waste treatment and ultimate disposal
0.59 0.96 1.00
Expenditures on thermal research for the NationalOceanic and Atmospheric Administration, DOC; EPA; andTVA were obtained from the OST report "The Effects andControl of Heated Water Discharges" (November 1970).No direct input on funds spent or program descriptions wereobtained from the agencies themselves.
86
Department of the Interior
The environmental research program providesfundamental research for new approaches that canbe further explored in the engineering developmentprogram. The research program is broad-gaged in
97
scope and is broken down into major categories asfollows: Selective removal or addition of ions towater, scale prevention and control, iron and manga-nese removal, and pH control.
A multistage flash pilot plant was operated on thepolluted waters of the Hackensack River in NewJersey to determine the technical feasibility of thedistillation method of purification.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by DOIfor waste treatment and ultimate disposal duringfiscal year 1969-71 are as follows:
1089
0.09
1970 1071
0.11 0.13
Department of Transportation
Current work is centered on applied research forimproving sewage treatment processes and develop-ing sewage plants suitable for shipboard use to pre-vent water pollution by ship discharges.
Current and short-term activity is being directedtowards applied research insolids separation tech-nique, improved disinfection methods, procedures toaccomplish tertiary treatment, and development andfield ten of experimental treatment systems.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by DOTfor waste treatment and ultimate disposal duringfiscal year 1969-71 are as follows:
1969 1970 1971
0.10 0.11 0.30
Environmental Protection Agency
The objective of this program is to develop wastetreatment technology applicable to both municipaland industrial wastes. Immediate emphasis will begiven to cooperation with municipal pollution controltechnology program in concentrating efforts to con-vert emerging technology into rapid development tomaximally impact attainment of water quality stand-ards through federally aided construction of muni-cipal waste treatment plants.
Short-term goals include: Development of methodsfor effective and economical removal of nitrogen,development of methods for handling sludges andbrines from municipal and industrial waste treat-ment, development and demonstration of technologyfor waste water renovation and reuse, and develop-ment of systems, including automated systems, forreduction of cost and increase of reliability and effi-ciency in the operation of municipal waste treatmentplants.
The long-term goal is development of technologyfor the efficient and reliable treatment of all pointsource waste discharges to whatever level of quality,including potable water, required to meet waterquality standards.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by EPAfor waste treatment and ultimate disposal duringfiscal year 1969-71 are as follows:
1969 1970 1971
11.67 7.26 5.35
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Part of the challenge of long duration, mannedspace missions lies in the development of life supportsystems and equipment that can minimize largequantities of expendables; safely collect, process, anddispose of human waste, expendables, and food res:-due for possible reuse; and monitor and controlcontaminants. Some of the R. & D. to meet theserequirements may be applicable to water pollutionabatement. The technology developed may be dem-onstrated to be of importance to pollution control.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by NASAfor programs applicable to waste treatment and ulti-mate disposal during fiscal year 1969-71 are asfollows:
1969 1970 1971
0.70 0.98 1.28
GENERAL WATERQUALITY RESEARCH
Corps of Engineers
Under part of the civil works research program,data are collected in order to accomplish investiga-tion of the effects of CE's water resources projectson the ecological regime. This data collection effortincludes information on physical, chemical, and bio-logical parameters gathered at specified river stations,reservoirs, and coastal inlets and estuaries.
In addition to the data collection effort, CE isattempting to develop technology to assist in achiev-ing high standards of water quality. A major investi-gation is aimed at utilizing mechanical aeration ondeep multipurpose impoundments to prevent orlessen seasonal stratification and improving tempera-ture effects and the dissolved oxygen content ofstored and released waters. Further research isplanned on determining the energy requirements
necessary to completely mix the body of water andmaintain stability (luring the summer. A second re-search effort to improve the oxygen and nitrogencontent in water to preserve fish has led to the de-velopment of mathematical and hydraulic modelsfor the prediction of oxygen and nitrogen levels andevaluating design criteria and operation of spillwaysand outlets to minimize detrimental nitrogenconcentrations.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by CE forgeneral water quality research during fiscal year1969-71 tire as follows:
1969 1070 1071
0.10 0.14 0.87
Department of Commerce
The DOC's National Bureau of Standards is study-ing detection and measurement of trace organicpollutants in water, based on the use of aqueoussolutions on an inert substrate in gas chromatog-raphy. In principle, the method will be applicable toanalysis for a wide range of organic compounds orclasses and, where developed, will eliminate muchsample handling, concentration, extraction, etc.Future priority research areas will be fluid velocityand volume flow measurement, development ofstandard reference materials most needed for calibra-tion of analytical instruments, and development ofelectrochemical techniques for trace analysis and foranalysis of concentrated solutions such as raw in-dustrial wastes.
The Nashus River demonstration program for en-vironmental management attempts to demonstratethat by focusing and directing a concentrated, inter-governmental effort in one river basin and by usingmaximum available water quality management tools,water quality standards and reclamation of desireduses can be achieved in a near-optimum and efficientmanner.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by DOCfor general water quality research during fiscal year1969-71 are as follows:
1969 1970 1971
0.25 0.25 0.58
Department of the Interior
Identification of pollutants is being studied to de-velop faster, more reliable, and more sensitive meth-ods, especially for elements and compounds not
88
previously of concern, such as heavy metals and per-sistent pesticides.
Investigations are concerned with cliff:Ise sourcesof pollutants and transport and fate. A significantamount of research effort is devoted to the complexpathways and ultimate fate of phosphorous and to t hebiological concentration of persistent pesticides inthe food chain.
Studies on the effects of pollutants involve re-search on how a wide variety of pollutants affectbeneficial uses of water. Pollutants include excessorganic matter, pesticides, nutrients, and industrialwastes.
Research in waste treatment is directed at physi-cal, chemical, and biological methods of improvingthe quality of effluents and reducing costs.. Specialattention is given to reducing nitrogen, phosphorous,and pesticides; to reducing industrial, textile manu-facturing, and acid-mine wastes; and to adaptingsewage treatment, methods to animal feedlot wastes.
Water treatment research is aimed at treatmentmethods to make water supplies safe, suitable, andeconomic. Current research includes innovativemethods to remove undesirable elements (foam frac-tionation, synthetic flocculants, electrophoretic clari-fication); evaluation of disinfectants for viruses,desalination techniques, and virus removal by chemi-cal flocculation.
Water quality control studies include instreemaeration devices, decontamination of radioactivesubstances in mine wastes, destratification of reser-voirs to improve water quality, recycling water,reclaiming wastes, and productive use of wastes togrow forest and field crops and aquatic animals ofeconomic value.
Other program arms related to the quality of waterenvironment are as follows: Improving water re-sources system planning and management processes,conserving ecologic values in water resources plan-ning, and conserving estuarine water resources.
The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) operates aprogram to appraise the Nation's water resources andto assure that water information needed to managethese resources effectively is available. The agencyalso is charged with the responsibility to coordinatea national network for acquiring water data. Re-search by the Survey covers many parts of the watercycle, including water quality. In addition to re-search monies shown in this report, $5.20 million isbeing spent on monitoring and surveillance of waterquality, and about $26 million is being spent onwater resources investigations and data coordinationapplicable to the control of water quality.
S9
Considerable progress has been made by the USGSon developing analytica! techniques, and researchwill continue to stress ides tification of substances.
Considerably more effort is to be placed on analyz-ing organic compounds, materials sorbed by sedi-ments, and toxic heavy metals. Neutron activationanalysis has increased detection sensitivity. Morereliable continuous monitors are being developed.There is encouraging. evidence that some remote-sensing methods may be applied to water analysis,and these techniques are being studied further. Re-search continues on improving techniques for meas-uring and computing sediment transport.
Research is continuing to help understand thebasic processes, such as chemical reactions, mixing,sedimentation, erosion, aeration, and sorption, thatcontrol water quality. This is coupled with researchto develop a better understanding of larger hydro-logic systems.
Research on pollution by the Geological Surveyincludes several projects on the pollution of ground-water from deicing salts, landfills, septic tanks, injec-tion wells, and other sources. A major research effortrecently started by the USGS is concerned with sub-surface waste storage.
High priority will be placed on research, develop-ment, and demonstration projects on many aspects ofsurface and subsurface waste disposal. Research insuch areas as instrumentation, evaporation, limnol-ogy, a:td estuarine circulation also has application inunderstanding and solving thermal pollution prob-lems. This work has made significant progress to-ward such objectives as developing instruments torecord and telemeter thermal data and other informa-tion accurately, understanding the basic processes ofheat and vapor transfer at the air-water interface,understanding circulation and tidal flushing of baysand estuaries.
The Bureau of Reclamation is finding new andbetter ways to protect the quality of water resourcesso that available supplies are not rendered unfit foruse and so that environmental and ecological balancesare not violently upset.
Water quality control studies involve control ofsurface and ground water quality by such methods asreaeration of reservoir and river waters; better man-agement of ground waters, impoundments, andstreams; and determination of potential effects ofresidues of selected herbicides used for infestationcontrol. Reaeration studies will establish practicalmethods of treating large-scale reservoir releases tosafely increase the dissolved oxygen content of thewaters. Herbicide residue studies are made to deter-
mine t he fates of such residues in relation to met hodsof herbicide application. Research in predicting nu-trient and salt loadings en: hies the development ofevaluation procedures for determining, before pro-jects are built, the amounts of such materials thatwill be in t he return flows from the project and givesinsight into the treatments that will be required.
Funds (iii millions of dollars) expended by DOIfor general water quality research during fiscal year1969-71 are as follows:
1989 1970 1971
9.40 9.25 10.59
Department of Transportation
The Coast Guard is developing adequate methodsfor detecting the presence and sources of pollutantsspilled in the coastal ocean environment and navi-gable inland waters. This will provide informationconcerning pollutant behavior so that proper correc-tive action can be taken and will improve enforce-ment capabilities.
Past and current activity is centered on the develop-ment of airborne, all-weather sensors to detect, map,and quantify oil spills. Studies on ultraviolet, in-frared, visible, and microwave portions of the electrO-magnetic spectrum have been completed. Develop-ment of experimental sensor systems based on thisresearch is underway. Short-term R. & D. is directedtowards developing a positive method to identifythe source of an oil spill. In addition, research todetermine the routes and reservoirs of spilled oil is inprogress. Long-term work in this program will extendremote sensing, source identification, and forecastingcapability to include marine transportation-relatedhazardous polluting substances.
Punds (in millions of dollars) expended by DOTfor general water quality research during fiscal year1969-71 are as follows:
1989 1970 1971
0.20 0.35 1.20
Environmental Protection Agency
This program includes characterization and quanti-fication of sources and kinds of pollutants and theirinteraction with the water environment, develop--ment and demonstration of technology or systemsfor preVenting and controlling pollution from multiplesources such as accelerated eutrophication andthermal pollution, development and demonstrationof means for the control of pollution other than by
waste treatment, and an increased understanding ofthe socioeconomic, legal, and institutional aspects ofpollution.
Significant progress has been made in characteriz-ing the causes of accelerated eutrophication and inthe development of analytical methodology. Majorgoals include: Development of methods to controleutrophication aml restore degraded lakes; and de-velopment and standardization of methods to detect,identify, quantify, and trace water contaminants todetect impending problems, to assume compliancewith regulatory action, and to relate pollution dis-charge loads to receiving water quality. Specificprograms recently.authorized include: Lake restora-tion in which development is underway for methodsof controlling eutrophication by advanced wastetreatment, nutrient removal, weed harvesting, andchemical inhibition of algae. (This program will pro-vide for full-scale demonstration of these and othertechniques.) Great Lakes pollution control in whichinitial projects will be aimed at identifying andcharacterizing problem areas to be the subject offull-scale control demonstrations; and Alaska villagedemonstrations in which demonstration, includingthrough adaptation of temperate climate technology,of systems for provision of safe water, and controllingor eliminating water pollution in native villages ofAlaska.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by EPAfor general water quality research during fiscal year1969-71 are as follows:
1969 1970 1971
10.69 13.47 22.78
Tennessee Valley Authority
TVA carries on water quality research and de-velopment related to methods of controlling varioustypes of pollution or pollutional effects associatedwith river basin management. The following activi-
90.
ties are under way:1. Studies to determine the causes and effects of
reservoir eutrophication.2. Studies of rate of heat loss from water.3. Studies of the effects of heated water on aquatic
life.Funding (in millions of dollars) expended by TVA
for general water quality research during fiscal year1969-71 are as follows:
196 1970 1971
0.44 0.48 0.53
WATER QUALITY REQUIREMENT RESEARCH
Environmental Protection Agency
The objectives of this program are to provide thescientific bases for establishing improved waterquality standards for the Nation's waters and todevelop a capability for predicting the water qualityeffects of the many new substances being constantlyintroduced into the water environment.
Investigations have been focused on all water usesbut primarily on effects of pollutants on aquatic life,on the assumption that standards adequate to pro-tect this life will most likely also provide waterquality sufficient for other water uses. Research in-volves establishment of refined water quality criteriafor heavy metals, pesticides, petrochemicals, temper-ature and dissolved oxygen, complex industrialeffluents, and such specific chemicals as polychlori-nated biphenyls (PCBs) and Nitrilotriacetric acid(NTA).
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by EPAfor water quality requirements research during fiscalyear 1969-71 are as follows:
1969 1970 1971
4.05 5.49 10.38
Land Quality
tc.
Pollutants cannot be restricted to a single mediumsuch as land, water, or air. Pollutants in or on landmay be transported to water, or they may be carriedby wind currents or volatilized into the air. The ex-tent to which this occurs cannot be determined pre-cisely. Thus, arbitrary decisions had to be made onhow to classify the effects of specific pollutants. Forexample, animal wastes are considered in part in thediscussion of solid wastes and also under the specificheading of animal wastes. Despite the seeming dupli-cation, discrete elements of the total effect have beenseparated. There is no duplication in funds reportedin table 5 (p. 34).
R. & D. relative to pesticides has also been aproblem in classification. Considerable research isbeing conducted on the effects of pesticides on fishand wildlife, on domestic animals, and on the foodquality. For want of a better place to include suchresearch within the organizational format of this re-port, it is reported in this appendix. The readershould be aware, however, that such research doesnot relate specifically or exclusively to land quality.
This appendix is organized by pollutants of variouskinds that affect land quality. Under each pollutant,the activities of the various Federal agencies whohave R. & D. programs in that area are discussed.
ANIMAL WASTES
Department of Agriculture
Estimates indicate that animal wastes as voidedtotal about 1.7 billion tons annually. Suitable meth-ods for handling and disposing of these wastes toavoid water, and air pollution are needed toenhance environmental quality. There is a growingpublic concern about insects breeding in waste ma-terials and the danger of disease transmission
To maintain economically competitive positions,producers have had to specialize, automate, and in-
APPENDIX 3
crease the size of their operations. Specialization hasoften eliminated cropland that would otherwise beavailable for land disposal of animal wastes. Automa-tion has resulted in greater concentrations of live-stock. Currently, more than one-half of the wastesarise from these highly specialized, concentratedoperations. The percentage is increasing.
The general practice in poultry and beef cattleoperations is to allow the wastes to ac mulate forseveral months, with ultimate disposal 6. croplands.These disposal methods require better understandingof the reaction of manure in soil. Preliminary datasuggest that sugarbeet and corn yields were not re-duced by cattle manure treatments of 200 tons peracre per year. Above this rate, plant injury from saltsoccurred early in the season. In Arkansas, over 200head of cattle were lost from disorders associatedwith high nitrates when farmers put heavy applica-tions of poultry litter on forage crops.
Limited data on nitrate pollution of surface andground waters from a feedlot on a level site underlainby sandy soils and a shallow water table indicate thatdenitrification occurs. However, the amount of nitro-gen lost to the air is not known. The data suggestthat feedlots can be constructed so that manure willdecompose without polluting the surface and groundwaters.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by USDAfor animal wastes research during fiscal year 1969-71are as follows:
1989 1970 1971
0.49
FOREST AND CROPRESIDUES
0.60 0.92j
Department of Agriculture
Recent restrictions on burning of crop wastes,brought about by air pollution laws, have raised
91
4
questions about the biophysical and biochemical re-lationships that occur during residue decomposition.Agricultural scientists are aware that the knowledgeof management practices as they relate to residuedecomposition is very limited.
For example, because of lack of knowledge aboutresidue decomposition, no alterative methods havebeen found for the annual burning of residues fromsome crops.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by USDAfor forest and crop residues research during fiscalyear 1969-71 are as follows:
1969 1970 1971
2.36
HEAVY METALS
2.51 2.88
Department of Agriculture
A partial understanding has been attained of thereactions of metals such as arsenic, copper, zinc,mercury, and cadmium with soils. Some of thesemetals will become soil pollutants from agriculturaloperations, others from industrial sources.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by USDAfor heavy metal research during fiscal year 1969-71are as follows:
1969. 1970 1971
0.06
National Science Foundation
0.06 0.06
NSF has recently undertaken research on theeffect of biological processes on mercury and lead.The mercury study focuses on methylation of heavymetals by the anaerobic bacteria and is designed todevelop a general model of heavy-metal methylationthat may apply to a variety of heavy metals. This inturn may be of ultimate use in anaerobic wastetreatment. The lead study seeks to determine thesignificance of lead ingestion by migratory waterfowl,particularly from bottom-rooted plants that mayhave absorbed the heavy metal. The study may bearon the cycling of an important industrial pollutant.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by NSF forheavy metal research during fiscal year 1969-71 areas follows:
1909 1970 1971
0.10
92
0.10 0.50
INDUSTRIAL PROCESSING WASTES
Corps of Engineers
Research is underway to determine the ecologicimpact of depositing unpolluted dredge spoil on saltmarshes and to use spoil for developing man-mademarshes. Effect of these activities on water qualityis also being studied.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by CE forindustrial processing waste research during fiscalyear 1969-71 are as follows:
1909 1970 1.771
11.0:t
Department of Agriculture
Liquid wastes from food and other industrialprocessing plants can be a serious pollution problem.If liquid wastes contain high levels of organic ma-terials, the biochemical oxygen demand can reducethe oxygen level in reservoirs or streams to a levelthat, is lethal to aquatic life. Effluents that are highin heavy metals can be poisonous to aquatic life underanaerobic conditions.
Soil is an excellent disposal medium. Most organicsolids in processing wastes decompose readily in soils;however, inorganic compounds may accumulate tolevels hazardous for some plants. High plant uptakeof these compounds may be a hazard to man andanimals.
Wastes from industrial areas vary widely in theirchemical composition. For example, efflunts fromareas with food-processing plants have low levels ofthe heavy metals but high levels of dissolved organicmaterials. If the dry-caustic process for peeling pota-toes is used, the liquid wastes can contain high levelsof sodium. Disposal of these materials in soils on asustained basis can create serious physical problemsin the soil.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by USDAfor industrial processing waste research during fiscalyear 1969-71 are as follows:
1969 1970 1971
0.19 0.21 0.92
Tennessee Valley Authority
Restoration of surface-mined land is important inassuring an attractive environment and protectingland and water resources. Through research, demon-strations, and technical assistance, TVA works forthe restoration of all abandoned surface mines in the
Tennessee River basin and for the assurance thatreclamation is an integral part of future miningoperat ions.
Studies are conducted in cooperation with the U.S.Forest Service, the States, and with the miningindustry and landowners to discover better methodsof reclamation. Demonstrations established with co-operators show how substantial areas of strip-minedland can be restored to timber and wildlife produc-tion, that water can be controlled, that stream pollu-tion from acid and silt can he reduced, and that re-sults need not be costly and will begin to show in arelatively short time. TVA has proposed that a co-operative Federal-State-landowner demonstration ofthe development of orphan strip-mine lands beundertaken.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by TVAfor industrial processing waste research during fiscalyear 1969-71 are as follows:
1969 1970 1971
0.20 0.30 0.10
PESTICIDES RESEARCH
R. & D. programs related to the effects of pesticideson land quality are conducted by USDA, AEC, DOI,and HEW. Programs conducted by them includeboth basic and applied efforts.
Atomic Energy Commission
The AEC program on pesticides is conducted ex-tramurally. Two projects involve the study of DDTrecycling in terrestrial ecosystems.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by AECfor pesticides research during fiscal year 1969-71 areas follows:
1969 1970 1971
0.03 0.03
Department of Agriculture
R. & D. relating to land pollution by pesticides isconducted by USDA primarily to determine the be-havior and fate of pesticides in soil and to avoid orminimize solid contamination gy pesticides and theirmetabolites. An added activity is the disposal ofpesticides and their containers.
Mixing with soil increases the decomposition ratesof certain pesticides. Some pesticides are rapidly de-graded by soil microorganisms, others only inci-
dentally during the process of microbial decomposi-tion of organic matter. Chemical degradation occursrapidly or slowly, depending on chemical character-istics of the soil and the specific pesticide type in-voh,ed. NIost pesticides appear to be noninjurions tosoil microorganisms. l'estiiitle use schedules havebeen modified by substitution of less persistentpesticides, or by changes in dosage and timing,thereby reducing the pollution potential. Basic in-formation on combustion prodticts has permitteddesign of prototype incinerators for the safe andeffective disposal of waste and excess pest irides.
A better understanding. of the ultimate fate ofpesticides and their metabolites in soils is needed.Studies have been and are being conducted on themobility of pesticides in soil types ranging from sandto clay. Such studies are important in determiningthe potential for ultimate pollution of surface orground water by pesticides. Studies are also underwayon the microbial, chemical, and photochemicaldegradation of pesticides. Degradation pathways andrates of degradation have been determined for manypesticides. Research of this type is never ending. Asnew pesticides are developed, new research is essen-tial to determine their fate in the soil and their effecton the biota.
Virtually all pesticides in the soil are absorbed byplant roots to a greater or lesser degree. Thus, theirmetabolism in plants becomes a primary concern. Inaddition, some pesticides, or their degradation prod-ucts, may move into the soil from living plants orfrom the incorporation of dead plant material. Stud-ies are underway to determine the metabolism ofpesticides in plants and the identification of degrada-tion products.
Toxicologic data on livestock have been developedfor many pesticides. This information, together witlistudies of their fate and metabolism in plants and insoils, is useful in making adjustments to reduce orelim'nate effects of pesticides. Limited data on effectsof pest-control practices on wildlife have beendeveloped.
Information on domestic animals is partly trans-ferable to wild animals. Field tests of results fromlaboratories and small-scale plots arc needed to per-mit accurate recommendations for safe and effectivecontrol of economic pests under field conditions.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by USDAfor pesticides research during fiscal year 1969-71 areas follows:
1969 1970 1971
8.68 8.69 9.81
10493
Department of the Interioe
R. & D. programs conducted by DOI in the fieldof pesticides are oriented toward determining theireffects on fish and wildlife. The pollutants mayoriginate in land or in water and air. Particularattention is given to the persistent organochlorinepesticides and their interactio,, with other chemicalsin the environment. Many pesticides used in fish andwildlife management, such as piscicides, aquaticherbicides, insecticides to control disease vectors,lampricides, molluscicides, and various other animalcontrol agents, need to be more thoroughly investi-gated. These materials do not have a large volumeof use. Thus, the chemical industry does not have anincentive for their development. A good example isthe effort that will be required to generate data forregistration and establishment of a residue tolerancefor a lampricide needed to save the recreational andcommercial fisheries of the Great Lakes.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by DOIfor pesticides research during fiscal year 1969-71 areas follows:
1969 1970 1971
2.40 2.40 2.60
Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare
The medium polluted may be water, air, or land,or a combination. Pesticide research projects aredesigned to obtain data for developing criteria toestablish sound, acceptable standards of food safetyand environmental quality. Pesticide research is sup-ported to acquire information on the potential humanhealth hazards of these chemical agents and to evalu-ate pesticide control methods to obtain optimumeffects on target organisms with minimal hazards tonontarget organisms.
The National Institute of Environmental HealthSciences assesses the acute and chronic toxic effectsof pesticides in the general population, studies me-tabolism of pesticides and their conversion productsusing animal experimentation, and conducts studieson prediction of toxicity in man. The pesticides re-search program includes studies on the basic mecha-nism of action, detoxification, fate of pesticides,effects on reproduction, and analytical methodology.
The National Cancer Institute has a sizable pro-gram of chronic toxicity testing on pesticides whichis conducted by the carcinogenesis area. This ac-tivity is designed to identify those materials whichproduce carcinogenic effects in animals after pro-
94
longed exposure. In addition, extensive activities arecarried out in both the intramural and collaborativeresearch areas on tlib molecular events leading to thecarcinogenic state which bear on the problems ofpesticide toxicity.
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) re-search on pesticides is designed to support andstrengthen the establishment and enforcement ofpesticide tolerances. Chemical research on pesticideresidues in food includes chemical identity of theresidue; developing, improving, and validating analy-tic methodology; and occasional checking of thevalidity of data submitted in petitions.
FDA's biological research includes the physio-logical effects and metabolism of pesticides in biologi-cal systems and an evaluation of their effect& interms of toxic action; toxicity studies to determinesafe tolerance levels; and development of data on thedirect effect of pesticides on man.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by HEWfor pesticides research during fiscal year 1969-71 areas follows:
1969 1970 1971
0.10 5.30 5.60
PLANT NUTRIENTS
Department of Agriculture
Agriculture's primary commitment is to the pro-duction of adequate food and fiber for our needs.Production efficiency is enhanced by practices thatincrease the net return to the farmer per unit ofinput. The use of commercial fertilizer is an effectivemethod of increasing net return to the farmer. Mostoperators receive a good return for each dollar spenton plant nutrients.
Even though the use of nitrogen and phosphatehas increased tenfold in the United States during thepast 25 years, rates now used on most crops are belowthose needed for maximum yields. The knowledgeof soil fertility, accumulated over many years, giveslittle insight into surface- and ground-water pollutionfrom fertilizer use.
Attempts to assess the effluents originating onfertilized watersheds have been frustrating becauseof the difficulty of separating the fertilizer componentfrom the contamination from livestock, organic mat-ter, mineralization, and urban septic tanks.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by USDAfor plant nutrient research during fiscal year 1969-71
1O
are as follows:
1909 19711 1971
2.33 2.3S 2.60
SALINITY
Department of Agriculture
Waters used for irrigation contain from a fewhundred pounds to several tons of salt per acre-foot.Salt damage to soils and crops is a major problem ofirrigated agriculture. Soluble salts are increasing inwater used downstream as the irrigation of the Mid-west and West develops. On the Atlantic coast,supplemental irrigation is becoming a necessity forgrowers for vegetables and other high cash-valuecrops. Soil salinity of natural origin is also a problemin a large acreage of the Great Plains.
In 1960, a survey showed that 30 percent of theirrigated land contained enough salt to requireleaching for sustained production. Leaching can beaccomplished, but there is evidence that more wateris being used for this process than would be required.
Cropping, tillage, and mulching practices havebeen developed for minimizing the salinity problemsin the Dakotas. Very little is known, however, con-cerning the management of shale soils in Montanaand Wyoming.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by USDAfor salinity research during fiscal year 1969-71 are asfollows:
1909 . 1970 1971
0.76 0.80 0.85
SEDIMENT
Corps of Engineers
Sediment studies include the collection of sus-pended and bed load data, degradation data, aggrada-tion and delta formation, investigations of sedimenttransport, and basic laboratory studies. One majoreffort is an interagency project for measuring andanalyzing sediment load in streams and for develop-ing new sediment sampling equipment.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by CE forsediment research during fiscal year 1969-71 are asfollows:
1909 1970 1971
0.10 0.12 0.13
Department of Agriculture
In tonnage, sediment is still the principal pollutantin the world today. This problem arising from sheetand gully erosion, responsible for the establish-ment of the Soil Conse-vation Service.
On the order of 4 billion tons of sediment are car-ried away by runoff and streamflow each year in theUnited States. Sediment is usually a liability. Spe-cific efforts to reduce or manage its adverse effectsare usually required for water and related land re-source development.
Sediment yield from a watershed is a function ofthe amount of erosion in a watershed and the effi-ciency of the stream in transporting eroded materialaway from the watershed. Composition of sedimentsvaries widely. Methods for relating sedin-int quanti-ties and characteristics to source areas are lacking.The relationship between physicochemical propertiesof sediment and their influence on water quality andaquatic environments is unknown.
Methods for determining sediment yield by ob-taining the difference between erosion and depositionare not satisfactory. Sediment delivery ratio valuesdeveloped from reservoir surveys are expensive andprovide only crude estimates. The rate and quantityof movement in channel beds are generally developedfrom mathematical equations, which frequently givewidely differing results from the same set of condi-tions. Alternative methods for determining and pre-dicting sediment yields are being conducted. Thedevelopment and utilization of mathematical andphysical models to determine sediment source, dis-persion, and yield appear to offer promise.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by USDAfor sediment research during fiscal. year 1969-71 areas follows:
1909 1970 1971
3.03 3.15 3.37
SOLID WASTES
The solid wastes included in this section includeprimarily mining wastes, junk and urban refuse, andmunitions. Some agricultural wastes are alsoincluded.
Department of Agriculture
USDA is working jointly with DOI and EPA onmethods of recycling wood fibers present in municipalrubbish.
i)1106 95
Ways are being sought to utilize wood wastes de-veloped during logging and manufacture of woodproducts. Chemicals, paper pulp, particle board, andcattle feed! are potential solutions. Logging wastescan be minimized in southern pines by genetic selec-
oe tion to prOduce trees with straight stems and resist-ance to fusiform rust canker disease.
The development of methods and facilities forhandling, reclaiming, and disposing of farm animalwastes without environmental pollution is of para-mount concern. An oxidation ditch has been operatedone full cyclefrom startup to cleaning. Runofffrom open feedlots of varying slopes has been meas-ured and the pollution potential evaluated. Someinformation has been collected on the contribution ofanimal wastes to air pollution. Analysis of soil; Mowa level feedlot indicated only minor movement ofnitrates downward in the soil. Research is underwayto convert animal wastes to useful products. Return-ing manure to the land as fertilizer requires investi-gation, particularly the effect of heavy and frequentloading. Data are needed to develop limits for a widerange of crop plants.
Plant breeders of fruits and vegetables are select-ing for factors that will reduce processing wastes.For example, new tomato varieties developed formechanical harvesting have less processing waste.By processing tomatoes in the field with portableequipment, processing wastes can be left on the soilfor recycling after harvest is completed. Many proc-essing byproductti can be economically recovered anddirected to other uses.
Cycling of organic matter in soil produces by-products that ma; help control plant disease orga-nisms. Thus, recycling of crop residues may serve adual purpose.
Processing wastes, such as corncobs, grain straw,rice hOls, bagasse, and beet pulp, have been testedfor disposal on land. The maximum amounts thatcan be disposed of without injury to a succeedingcrop need to be determined for various soil types.Cultural practices may facilitate degradation.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by USDAfor solid oast:, research during fiscal year 1969-71are as follows.
1969 1970 1971
1.42 1.65 2.20
Department of Commerce
DOC is studying the degradation of polymers,corrosion of metals in natural environments, and the
96
chemical analysis of metal mixtures that are poten-tially important to the design of recycling schemes.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by DOCfor solid waste research during fiscal year 1969-71are as follows:
1969 1970 1971
0.10 0.20 0.20
Department of Defense
DOD is studying improved methods for disposalof such pollutants as deteriorated explosives andexplosive-contaminated waste from munitions plAnts.A new type of incinerator is being developed usingsand to dilute the explosive contaminant of wastematerial and to absorb any small explosions thatmay occur during incineration. Improved chemicalmethods of explosive disposal and lead azide degrada-tion are being studied.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by DODfor solid waste research during fiscal year 1969-71are as follows:
1969 0710 0.10 0.20
Department of the Interior
Junked cars are a problem of major importance.During 1969, 7 million cars were scrapped in theUnited States, and about a 20 million backlog stillawaits scrapping. The organic nonferrous constitu-ents are most easily removed by incineration. Inten-sive investigation is underway on the recovery ofindividual nonferrous components. A major potentialuse for auto scrap is as a reductant for nonmagneticiron ore. A method has been developed for the de-structive distillation of tires to produce gaseous,liquid, and solid fractions, all of which are market-able. A pilot plant for such an operation has beenconstructed. Attention is being given to finding otheruses for both the organic and ferrous fractions ofjunked cars.
Urban refuse collected by municipalities totalsabout 1 ton per capita per year. This refuse includesabout 11 million tons of ferrous scrap, 1 million tonsof nonferrous metal, and 15 million tons of glass,among other materials. A successful process has beendeveloped whereby incinerator residues are separatedinto iron concentrates, clean nonferrous composites,clear and colored glass fractions, and fine carbonace-ous ash.
Waste plastics can be converted by pyrolysis togases, oils, and char. Additional improvements are
needed in the separation process and in conversionto use products.,
During the past 30 years, over 23 billion tons ofsolid wastes have been generated in the UnitedStates by mineral and fossil fuel mining, milling, andprocessing. Over 7,000 square miles of land surfaceare essentially useless because of these barren wastepile ,. They are potential air and water pollutants.Stabilization of the waste piles to minimize pollutionof other media offers the only practical solution.Chemical stabilization is possible, but vegetativestabilization is more attractive and promising. Somemineral w:.stes can be recycled. Additional researchis needed on revegetation of waste piles and onutili7at ion of certain fractions that are now wasted.Particularly valuable are nonferrous metals such astitanium.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by DOIfor solid waste research during fiscal year 1969-71are as follows:
1989 1970 19714.40 4.90 4.59
Department of Transportation
DOT supports specific studies through the FederalHighway Administration with the specific objectiveof utilizing solid waste materials, such as fly ash, asconstituents of highway construction materials, andpossible recycling of highway-generated litter.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by DOTfor solid waste studies during fiscal year 1969-71 areas follows:
1969 1.970 19710.01 0.01 0.01
Environmental Protection Agency
Of the approximately 20,000 land disposal sites inthe United States, less than 6 percent meet minimalcriteria for sanitary landfills. Projects that affectland esthetics or improve its use are considered inthis program. The purpose of R. & D. is to increaseland value after its use as a sanitary ianofill. Feasi-bility has been demonstrated for use of abandonedstrip mines for sanitary landfills and for use of sani-tary landfill to prevent erosion. Above grade sanitarylandfills can be developed into recreational and otherpublic the sites.
Projects are being conducted to improve the tech-nology of recycling wastes and disposing of hazardous
materials. The Resource Recovery Act of 1970 callsfor four basic tasks: (1) Means of recovering ma-terials and energy from solid waste, recommendeduse of recovered material or energy, identification Ofpotential markets, and the effect of the recoveredproduct on these markets: (2) changes in currentproduct characteristics and production and packag-ing %Odell would mince the amount of solid %vaste;(i3) methods of collection, separatnm, and containeri-zation which will encourage efficient utilization offacilities and contribute to more effect ivc programs ofreduction, reuse, or disposal of wastes; and (4) alter-native methods of stimulating recycling. As a part ofthe effort on waste disposal, a national disposal sitesplan %a be developed in 2 years to accomplish thestorage and disposal of hazardous wastes.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by EPAfor solid waste research during fiscal year 1969-71are as follows:
1969 1970 1971S.19 8.99 11.40
National Science Foundation
NSF is involved in systems studies of solid wastedisposal. Emphasis is placed on benefit-cost modelsof waste disposal systems and di: posal of householdwastes.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by NSFfor solid waste research during fiscal year 1969-71are as follows:
1969 1970 19710.10 0.30 0.45
Tennessee Valley Authority
TVA does not expend funds for R. & D. in solidwaste disposal. They do, however, cooperate closelywith other agencies.
Following initial studies by TV1 in the earlysixties, the U.S. Public Health Service, in coopera-tion with TVA and Johnson City, Tenn., built ademonstration compost plant for treatment of muni-cipal garbage, refuse, and sewage sludge. TVA nowoperates this plant for EPA on a reimbursable basis.Results from the operation of this plant have in-cluded: (1) An economic evaluation of plant opera-tions for windrow composting as a method of disposalof solid wastes, (2) development of windrow designand composting time, (3) determination of pathogensurvival in composted refuse-sludge mixtures, and( demonstration of the uses of compost.
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RADIATION
Radioactive wastes are a hind p011utant of con-siderable significance. The R. & D. underway byAEC and EPA as it relates to land quality is dis-cussed fully in the chapter on special studies.
THERMAL
Research devoted to thermal pollution of landcould not be separated from other thermal pollutionstudies. Consequently, there can be no discussion orfiscal breakdown for the research being conducted.It is recognized, however, that much of the basicresearch being done on heat transfer by NASA, AEC,USGS, TVA, Office of Saline Waters, and otherFederal agencies could be applied to thermal pollu-tion problems on land.
OTHER (UNCLASSIFIED)LAND QUALITY RESEARCH
Department of Agriculture
Research on several programs affecting land qual-ity could not reasonably be classified elsewhere..These include studies to develop methods for con-trolling wind erosion by agricultural management
practices, vegetative co..er crops, and tree or cropharriers. Research is also underway to determine theeffects of vario'.is pollutants on manmade structuresand devices, for example the effects of siltation ondams and reservoir capacity.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by USDAfor other (unclassified) studies during fiscal year1969-71 are as follows:
0969 1970 1971
1.32 1.32 1.50
National Science Foundation
The research involves investigations of the break-down of materials such as lignins and the fixation ofvarious chemicals through the metabolism of micro-organisms. Fixation studies have dealt particularlywith iron, nitrogen, phosphate, and cyanide com-pounds. An understanding of biological processes inthe breakdown of chemical compounds or the meta-bolic uptake of chemical compounds is critical to themore pragmatic investigations of pollution problemssuch as those resulting from industrial, animal, andhuman wastes.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by NSFfor other- (unclassified) land quality research duringfiscal year 1969-71 are as follows:
1969 1970 1971
0.60 0.59 0.69
Understanding, Describing,and Predictingthe Environment
Funding of R. & D. pertaining to understanding,describing, and predicting the environment for fiscalyears 1969, 1970, and 1971 is reported in table 6(p. 146).
ECOLOGY AND RELATED RESEARCH
Corps of Engineers
Terrestrial and marine ecological systems of vari-ous geographic regions are investigated to determinethe impact of engineering works and to developtechnology and methodology for minimizing environ-mental damage but permitting national economicgrowth.
Biological and ecological research will provide animproved understanding of the effects of CE's activi-ties upon the total environment of coastal areas,especially the vast complex of highly sophisticatedand intricately interrelated ecological systems thatprovide benefits to man in the form of harvestablefishery resources and recreational opportunities.
Studies are carried out on water quality in reser-voir releases and impoundments. Fisheries engineer-ing investigations are undertaken to fill voids infisheries information needed for water resource pro-jects. This program is aimed at improving the effi-ciency of fish collection and passage systems atexisting and new dams, to learn more about theresponse of fish to changed conditions.
Increased flow of water from the Chesapeake Bayto Delaware Bay resulting from the channel enlarge-ment has raised ecological questions that are understudy. The Chesapeake Bay Basin Study was fundedfor $1.3 million for fiscal year 1971.
APPENDIX 4
Ecological studies are underway on the effects ofoffshore engineering works and coastal works, thedyi-imics of inlets and estuaries, and special studieson the Louisiana coast, New York Bight and offshoredumping, the Tennessee-Tombigee Waterway, pollu-tion of the Texas gulf coast, a study of the North-eastern United States water supply, the NorthAtlantic regional water resources, a special study ofthe south end of Lake Michigan, and a San FranciscoBay and Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta waste watermanagement investigation.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by CE onecology and related research during fiscal year 1969-71 are as follows:
1969 1970 1971
3.30 4.20 5.80
Department of Agriculture
The USDA ecological and environmental researchdefines, measures, and interprets ecological relation-ships important to environmental quality and humanwelfare for many forest, range, and wildland vegeta-tional types throughout the United States. Much ofthe research seeks to establish the structure, de-velopment, and functioning of forest and range eco-systems as a basis for formulating managementprinciples and cultural practices. Research rangesfrom determining the biological bases of productivityand the nutrient and energy relationships in forestsand grasslands to the role of fire in the origin andperpetuation of vegetational types and the stabilityof wildland ecosystems under recreational use. Otherresearch explores the autecology of forest and rangespecies, for example, the silvical characteristics, re-production, and growth of important forest treespecies, the ecology of insects and diseases as a basis
Ira" 99
for control of pests, the ecology of rangeland grasses,forage, and brush, and ecological principles for re-habilitation of eroded lands. Results of this researchare being applied in the management of forests andgrasslands and in tlie development of criteria andme ods to preserve fragile ecosystems and reversedeterio on abused sites. However, the struc-ture and respot o alteration of many ecosystemsare poorly understood. . nrageEat_prifteiTrierrinirVpreserving and improving the environment whilesupplying humn needs are correspondingly tenuous.
Much research is needed to clarify interrelation-ships among native and introduced plants, animals,birds, insects, fungi, and micro-organisms. Theseinterrelationships are multitudinous and complexand are made more so by differences among ecosys-tems and differential response to environmentalfe tors such as wind, fire, temperature, precipitation,and man's activities.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by USDAfor ecology and related research during fiscal year1969-71 are as follows:
1989 1970 1971
3.81 4.17 6.48
minimize deleterious effects and maximize enhance-ment effects. Preproject ecological and environmentalstudies are made in typical areas. Studies are con-ducted for periods sufficient to establish the effectsthat have been created by the project. The programincludes design and field-response studies of esthet-ically more pleasing transmission facilities and loca-tions for electric power facilities to provide much
ore acceptable structures and good public accept-ance of the structures. It is planned to evaluate onetype of fish's protective facility for its effectivenessin keeping fish out of an outlet works. Also, studiesof environmental effects of waste water treatmentfacilities will be made to evaluate the impact. ofprojects and to develop guidelines for future treat-ment projects. In addition, a research contract, isunderway to evaluate the ecological and environ-mental aspects of water resource planning. Otherstudies are planned to expand and to test the newvalue systems and criteria expected to result fromthis contract.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by DOIfor ecology and related research during fiscal year1969-71 are as follows:
Department of Defense
A study defining the environmental factors ofworld desert areas has been completed and studieson the origin, distribution, frequency, and durationof sand and dust storms have been initiated. Terraindesign criteria have been developed. Studies of theeffects of chemical testing upon the ecology of regionsadjacent to testing sites have been conducted forseveral years. Ecological baseline data have beengathered on areas in Maryland and Utah.
Short-range plans are to continue studies at thecurrent level. Long-range plans depend upon theresults of current studies, the level of testing neces-sitated in the future, and requirements for develop-ment of area environmental studies.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by DODfor ecology and related research during fiscal year1969-71 are as follows:
1969 1970 1971
0.40 0.70 0.50
Deportment of the Interior
The DOre Bureau of Reclamation stipports re-search on the effects of water projects and watermanagement operations on the overall environmentand ecology of an area, to provide information thatcan be used to structure the projects in ways to
100 111--o-t
1969 1970 1971
4.10 4.00 6.90
National Science Foundation
Ecology research is supported in the General Ecol-ogy (GE) and Ecosystems Analysis Programs, (EAP),formerly the Environmental Biology Program,(EBP), under which support for the InternationalBiological Program (IBP) was included in fiscal year1969. In fiscal year 1970, the EAP was initiated tohandle the IBP, which received a considerable fundincrease. Research under the IBP includes theanalysis of ecosystems studies that are conductedunder biome projects. At present, research is beingconducted in the various biomes: Grasslands, desert,deciduous forest, coniferous forest, and the wettundra in Alaska. This research will contribute to theunderstanding of how ecological systems operate toboth short-term and long-term processes. Systemsdisturbed by man to varying degrees are included.Several other areas are being studied as integratedresearch projects: The origin and structure of eco-systems with several subprograms including Hawaiiterrestrial biology; the conservation of ecosystems;biological control; and the biological production inupwelling eeosystetns and marine mammals. Re-search results will provide further understanding ofthe biological processes in these various areas.
The ecosystem analysis program also supportsvarious studies on nutrient cycling in watersheds,research on freshwater and thermal springs ecosys-tems, and on wet and dry tropical forest ecosystems.
Research in general ecology concerns small ecosys-tem studies, structure and dynamics of communitiesand populations, paleoecology, biogeochemistry,ecophysiology, limnology, plant and animal ecology,host parasite relationships, and behavior and orienta-tion. Research training grants in ecology, as well asoperational support of inland field stations, phyto-trons, and biotrons, are funded.
Systematic biology projects supported by the NSFinclude studies of various organisms under diverseecological conditions. Geography, ecologic and sea-sonal distribution, life histories, and habitats areconsidered. A better understanding of evolutionaryrelationships may produce greater understanding ofinterspecific competition for limited ecological nichespace.
Psychobiology research in this category includesbehavior and ecology of various animls and theeffect of the environment (natural wild mng;tikins)on brain and behavior of rodents. Thermal adapta-tion of certain animals is studied, as well as researchon migratory Atlantic salmon and American eels toexplain the spectacular homing migration.
Research conducted under the research applied tonational needs (RANN) program includes projectswhich are establishing environmental baseline datafor broad ecosystem studies of specific regions suchas the Chesapeake Bay. Research in progress in-cludes projects concerned with environmental sys-tems in the Tennessee River Valley, the Lake Tahoearea of California, and the Big Sky Region of Mon-tana. The projects supported under the RANN pro-gram range in geographic size from regional to local.
The engineering sciences support theoretical andcomputational investigations of aspects of on-linedirect digital control of reaction and environmentalsystems. Research is conducted on water flow, watertables, and hydrodynamics of watershed flow, groundwater seepage problems, and pressure fluctuations inthe vicinity of dams.
A theoretical study of the coastal boundary layersin a large lake, as well as the dynamics of ice-coveredstreams, and engineering and economic aspects oflarge continental droughts are under investigation.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by NSFfor ecology and related research during fiscal year1969-71 are as follows:
1969 197010.80 12.01
SnO0ponlanInsfituflon
Biological and physical studies are carried out incollaborative, integrated research projects that willpermit the evaluation, and ultimately the prediction,of environmental change.
The SI is using its large collections of plants andanimals of the world, with detailed distribution andabundance data as ,a basis for an effective environ-mental monitoring system. The programs underwayinclude: The Museum of Natural History developscritical environmental base line data on the abund-ance and distribution of plants and animals in relationto modification of the environment by man, andidentifies bioassay and bioindicator organisms formonitoring the environment. The National Zoologi-cal Park carries out research on breeding and preser-vation of rare and endangered species of animals,and research on reproductive physiology and be-havior of various animals. The Smithsonian TropicalResearch Institute studies the abundance, distribu-tion, and adaptations of tropical, terrestrial andmarine plants and animals and studies effects of man -.made change, effects of oil spills, and potentialeffects of a sea-level canal. The Radiation BiologyLaboratory studies regulatory and other effects oflight cycles on growth and development of organisms(primary productivity), photosynthesis, and bio-chemical and periodic response to light, and measuressolar radiation. The Office of Environmental Sciencesstudies ecological consequences of man's technologi-cal developments on the environment and biologicalorganisms, and ecosystem and community actionstudy of a watershed for planning and predictingdevelopment of a megalopolis, and cooperates withand assists international programs and explorations.It also studies pollution problems and maintainssorting centurz for marine biological organisms.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by SI forthe ecology and related research during fiscal year1969-71 are as follows:
1969 197V 1971
2.90 6.70 7.50
ENVIRONMENTAL OBSERVATION ANDMEASUREMENT TO DESCRIBEAND PREDICT WEATHERAND OCEAN ACTIVITY
Corps of Engem
1971 The CE studies wind-wave relationships, wave14.32 activities, storms, general hydrology, and strearnflow,
r, I. 112101
and rainfall data as they affect design criteria andconstruction technology in the coastal zone and
inland..The wind-wave action in coastal waters is studied
to gain an improved understanding of the character-istics of ocean surface wind waves, their generation,propagation, transformation, breaking, and action onshores and shore protection. Long period waves andsurges are studied to provide an improved under-standing of the characteristics of long waves, par-ticularly sieches, storm and hurricane surge, andtsunamis. In storm studies, data are accumulated onthe most important past and current storms to evalu-ate flood-producing potentialities of river basins asrelated to the accomplishment of the civil worksmission. General hydrologic studies include hydro-logic analysis of rainfall-runoff relationships, snow-melt studies, flood forecasting, analysis of pastfloods, infiltration indices, unit hydrographs, de-velopment of flood hydrographs, and other studies of
related hydrologic nature.The research is conducted to gain an improved
understanding of the processes involved in the inter-action of the natural shore with the wind, wave, tide,current, and surge forces imposed upon it; and thereaction of the shore and shoreline to these forces
and processes.Data are obtained on environmental factors re-
lated to coastal engineering. This includes waves,water levels (with regard to storm surges), littoralmaterials on the beaches, suitable sand sources forbeach replenishment, and rates of littoral materialmovement, quantity and characteristics of materialmade available to the shore area (whether by streamsor shore or bluff erosion), and the economic life ofvarious construction materials.
Assessment of beach and shore erosion problemsis being made to appreciate the Nation's erosionproblems considered in conjunction with economic,industrial, recreational, agricultural, navigational,demographic, ecological, and other relevant factors.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by CE forenvironmental observation and measurement to de-scribe and predict weather and ocean activity duringfiscal year 1969-71 are as follows:
1989 1970 1971
2.00 2.30 2.40
Department of Aeon=
Objectives of USDA's research are (1) to measure,interpret, and develop prediction methods for theeffects of weather on forest fire danger and fire be-
102
havior and (2) to compile, interpret, standardize, andsummarize climatological data correlated with phew-logical information for agricultural use. Relation-ships between weather and fire are incorporated intofire danger indexes and used to predict forest firebehavior. Weather data are used to derive probabili-ties of rainfall amounts, wet-dry days, and growingdegree days for correlation with crop growth stagesand maturation.
Wind flow in mountainous terrain critically affectsfire danger and behavior, but measurement, correla-tion, and prediction methods remain to he developed.New techniques of analysis for spatial and temporaldistribution of climatic elements are being devised,as well as models to incorporate climatic informationinto agrilultural decisionmaking and means to deline-ate atmospheric conditions conducive to air pollution.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by USDAfor environmental observation and measurement todescribe and predict weather and ocean activityduring fiscal year 1969-71 are as follows:
1909 1970 1971
0.90 1.00 1.02
Department of Commerce
Atmospheric environment. The National Oceanicand Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) in supportof its environmental services and research missionsconducts a program of research that includes nearlyall aspects of the atmospheric sciences. The researchis conducted primarily through NOAA's Environ-mental Data Service, Environmental ResearchLaboratories, National Weather Service, and Na-tional Environmental Satellite Service.
The world weather program R. & D. activitiesplanned by NOAA focus on systems design andtechnological developments for both the global at-mospheric research program (GARP) and the WorldWeather Watch. GARP is an international effortdesigned to further the understanding of atmosphericprocesses necessary to develop capability in long-range weather prediction. The program consists oftwo major parts --(1) theoretical research on atmos-pheric physical processes and (2) supporting fieldexperiments to provide the necessary understandingof how energy is exchanged between the atmosphereand oceans at the air-sea interface. The understand-ing of how small-scale processes can be incorporatedit'. the terms of large-scale measurements of the at-mosphere is essential in the development of thecapability for long-range weather prediction.
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The Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory isconducting research in theoretical modeling of atmos-pheric and oceanic processes and dynamics, and incomputational simulation of their characteristic be-havior and phenomena. The range of predictabilityof midlatitude, large-scale storms beyond one weekwill be extended. Global prediction experiments tostudy the coupling between the hemispheric cir-culations and the role of the tropics will be performed.Increased sophistication of models and their growingfidelity and similitude to the actual atmosphere andoceans have indicated several potential applicationareas including long-range weather and oceanic pre-diction, the large-scale, long-term dispersion ofpollutants in the atmosphere and the oceans, and anassessment of the feasibility of intentional modifica-tion of climate and its inadvertent modification dueto human activity.
Research on hurricanes and other tropical circula-tions, and severe local storms, such as thunderstorms,tornadoes, and associated phenomena, is conductedto acquire greater knowledge of these storms fordeveloping techniques of detecting, forecasting, andmodifying. Studies of tropical cyclone genesis andmaintenance will be accelerated through develop-ment of improved dynamical-numerical models oftropical circulations and hurricanes.
Integrated field experiments employing severalnewly developed remote sensing techniques will re-ceive increasing attention during fiscal year 1972.The International Field Year on the Great Lakes(IFYGL) will provide an excellent opportunity tocompare atmospheric data taken by various remotesensing and standard in situ techniques. The leadagency responsibilities were assumed by NOAA con-current with the recent transfer of the Lake Surveyto NOAA from the CE. The IFYGL which is i jointCanadian-U.S. program for increasing our under-standing of the water problems of Lake Ontario andits basin, includes four projects: Lake meteorology,energy balance, terrestrial water balance, and watermovement.
R. & D. at the National Meteorological Center isprimarily directed toward improving the short, ex-tended and long-range forecast products. The twomain activities concern numerical weather predictionthat is a deterministic approach through physicalrealism of mathematical models, and long-range pre-diction, that is a systematic application of physicaland statistical methods and models.
The climatological research program will continuethe development of an environmental data index(ENDER) to facilitate ready access to available
climatic and other data. Studies of long-term changesin national and world climate will continue by usingany newly acquired measurements from globalbenchmark stations. Satellite-based weather observa-tions will be related to ground truth data in an effortto optimize eventual applications of earth resourcessatellite information.
Upper atmosphere and .pace. NOAA conducts aresearch program in aeronomy to increase the under-standing of the solar-terrestrial environment, and todevelop techniques for the forecasting of solar dis-turbances and their subsequent effects on the earthenvironment. Investigations into the ionosphericphysics will use new approacht-s and exploit recentsignificant results.
In geomagnetism, a study of the atmospheric cur-rent systems resulting from tidal effects on the atmos-phere in the presence of the geomagnetic field will beinitiated.
Theoretical and experimental studies concerningthe transport of energy released by the sun andpropagated through the interplanetary medium tothe vicinity of the earth will continue. Theoreticalmodels of energy transport will be tested with dataobtained from new experiments.
Environmental satellite research.In the environ-mental satellite program, emphasis on deriving andusing quantitative information from data obtainedby satellites will continue. Operational proceduresfor deriving winds from time-lapse cloud motionobservations will be further developed and tested inpreparation for the Geostationary Operational En-vironmental Satellite (GOES) system to be estab-lished late in fiscal year 1972. New projects to beundertaken will emphasize the application of satellitetechnology to improved services and support ofmarine, hydrology, and space disturbances programs.An increased effort is planned for 1972 in the develop-ment of satellite sensors needed to support geophysi-cal monitoring for climate change, and sensors toobtain measurements required in the marine environ-mental prediction programs.
Marine environmene.To provide a proper tech-nological base for increased marine weather activities,a broad R. & D. program in marine weather has beenconducted and a systems approach developed. In-vestigations of ship density have shown advantagesfrom instrumenting additional merchant ships.Sensors capable of continuous operation in the harshmarine environment are being developed, particularlyfor use on buoys,
Special attention has been given to the develop-ment of improved techniques for forecasting wave
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heights in the open ocean, coastal wave heights andbreakers, and waves on the Great Lakes.
Oceanographic programs involve studies of theinfluences and interactions of the oceans with theirphysical environment, study of the Gulf Stream,extending the marine services and applying knowl-
edge gained to national needs for improvement, ofoceanographic techniques and instrumentation.
An important factor, both to meteorology andoceanography, is the sea-air interaction between the
oceans and atmosphere, involving a study of exchangeprocesses of heat, moisture, momentum, and mass.The program consists of developing better instru-ments and bet ter mathematical models.
The Great Lakes research is aimed at a betterunderstanding of the natural environment in theGreat Lakes and connecting channels and at fore-casting the effects of manmade changes. The programprovides information to be used in optimum manage-ment and development of water and land-relatedresources. The program includes studies on watermotion, water characteristics, water quality, and ice
and snow.National data buoy development project.This
project was established to carry out the developmentof a system of automatic ocean buoys for obtainingoceanic and atmospheric data. While measurementsof the oceans are available from satellites, ships, andaircraft, the need for more detailed data on environ-mental conditions over vast uninhabited marine
areas has long been recognized. A network of auto-matic buoys throughout the ocean is a logical methodto bridge this information gap. The data buoy pro-ject is developing and deploying a network of pilotoceanographic and marine meteorological data collec-
tion buoys preparatory to a future decision to deploy
an operational system. Central to the task is thecompilation and analysis of interagency and extra-governmental requirements, including environmentalstudies; the analysis of costs, benefits and tradeoffs;and the development of improved equipment forreliable, accurate, unmanned buoy operation.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by DOC
on environmental observation and measurement todescribe and predict weather and ocean activity dur-
ing fiscal year 1969-71 are as follows:
1969 1970 1971
19.70 22.90 35.50
Department of Defense
The DOD must at all times have the best weatherinformation technologically feasible to obtain. To
provide this constantly improving service, the AirForce supports research efforts in the areas of weatherforecasting and the 'development of improved sensors.Satellite weather forecasting is being investigated toobtain an automatic and quick response forecast.
system. Development of new instrumentation andtechniques to provide routine measurement of atmos-pheric parameters is being employed to increase theaccuracy of prediction by improving the quality ofthe data base. Sensors are being developed to provideoperational lightning warning. The Air Force oper-ates the national clear air turbulence program andshares the national responsibility for hurricane re-connaissance. The Army determines the effects ofatmospheric conditions upon transport, diffusion andthe trajectory of aerosols, and detects contaminatedair. The Navy develops and tests methods and equip-ment to improve efficiency and capability to collectoceanographic environmental data; increases theaccuracy of oceanographic predictions which affect.Naval operations; provides new means for datacompilation and presentation to permit earlier andincreased usage of data collected. The hydrographicsurvey and charting system increases the capabilityof collection of near-shore hydrographic data. Thefunds for oceanographic instrumentation and equip-ment have been transferred to NOAA.
A future project will be the bottom topographicsurvey system that will greatly increase capabilityfor collection of bathymetric data from the deepocean. Satellite technology is also being developedfor improved oceanographic surveys.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by DODon environmental observation and measurement todescribe and predict weather and ocean activityduring fiscal year 1969-71 are as follows:
1969 1970 1971
8.59 13.57 13:41
Department of the Interior
The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) conducts re-search and develops opeational techniques for cal-culating the circulation of water and associated solids
and solutes in estuary and lagoon waters from tide-stage and other data. USGS makes geologic andhydraulic studies of sediment movement into and inestuaries. In cooperation with States and otheragencies, it maintains programs of measuring theamount and rates of fresh-water inflow and water-quality parameters. It also carries on an expandingprogram of monitoring the background water qualitywithin estuaries and similar coastal waters.
t.
USGS specifies equipment and techniques for pre-venting and controlling the pollution of ocean waterswhich can result from mineral operations.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by USGSon environmental observation and measurement todescribe and predict ocean activity during fiscal year1969-71 are as follows:
1969 1970 1971
1.69 1.98 2.09
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NASA has an extensive meteorological surveyprogram in cooperation with other Governmentagencies using earth orbiting and synchronous satel-lites which give continuous synoptic coverage on ahemispheric scale. These surveys show day and nightcloud cover, distribution of surface temperature, cir-culation, turbulence of the atmosphere, some windvelocity and direction, fronts, and jet streams. Stud-ies are also being carried out on gravitational stabil-ity of large gas clouds.
NASA's meteorological program (MP) has pro-vided the global monitoring capability that is essen-tial to increasing the accuracy and extending thetime range and scope of weather predictions. MPalso provides the basis for developing tools forassess-ing the effects of man's pollution of the atmosphereon the quality of our environment. The NationalOperational Meteorological Satellite System(NOAISS) developed and launched by NASA, sup-ports the U.S. weather services. A developmentprogram is expanding the observational range andimproving its coverage, accuracy, and reliability.Satellites of the TIROS, TOS, Improved TOS,Nimbus, and ATS families have provided capabilitiesfor observing weather conditions and preparation ofsevere weather warnings, affecting the entire world.
In the earth resources survey program, multispec-tral sensing is being developed and tested by usingaircraft, preliminary to global satellite coverage.This development gives great promise to determiningvertical temperature, moisture, pressure, and CO:profiles, improved cloud cover and atmospheric cir-culation; and detailed mapping of air pollution. Thebudget figures include supporting research and tech-nology, spacecraft and hardware, but not launchvehicle costs.
The NASA aeronomy program includes studies ofthe mesosphere and thermosphere, along with suchphenomena as airglow, atnorae, magnetic fields, andcurrent systems in the ionosphere. Altitudes of inter-
est range from about .0 to about 1,000 kilometers.The experimental program employs sounding rocketand satellite measurements. The program includesTiros satellites, Nimbus satellites, and the Synchro-nous meteorological satellite. None of the costs ofspacecraft, launch vehicles, or ground operations areincluded. The total costs are fiscal year 1969, 860.30million, fiscal year 1970, 853.60 million, and fiscalyear 1971, 860.10 million. The cost of supportingresearch and technology and experiments is reportedbelow.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by NASAfor environmental observation and measurement todescribe and predict weather and ocean activityduring fiscal year 1969-71 are as follows:
1989 1970 1971
30.80
National Science Foundation
30.00 31.40
The goal of the NSF program in oceanographicresearch activities is to gain a better understandingof the sea and associated phenomena necessary todevelop and use the vast resources of the sea. Thephysical oceanography program supports study ofocean-atmospheric interactions including air-sea ex-change of CO2 and 02 and its dependence uponcurrents, upwelling, photosynthesis, and so forth.Other studies include ocean currents, continentalshelf circulation, and upwelling processes.
The chemical oceanography program supportsgeochemical studies of the ocean and development ofnew techniques for in situ measurements of metalsin the ocean. The Geochemical Oceans Sections Studymeasures oceanic constituents at all depths in theArctic and Antarctic areas to study ocean mixingand organic productivity.
Investigations of the biological components, to-gether with physical environmental studies, are pro-viding greater understanding of how the oceanfunctions as an ecosystem. Knowledge at this levelof organization is vital, if we are to use the resourcesof the ocean wisely and to understand the effect ofhuman activities on this environment.
Research on the process and phenomena takingplace in the ocean environment includes studies ofthe dynamics of the water masses including day-by-day and year-by-year changes in temperatures,current flow, etc. The past history of the oceans,which is recorded in the ocean sediments and deepwaters, gives clues to the changes that have occurredand are occurring. Part of the Foundation support
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of oceanographic research is devoted to the analysisof these deep waters and sediments.
The NSF also gives emphasis to oceanographic re-search investigations concerned with the modes andenemy content of internal motions of the ocean andto studies aimed at gaining a better understanding ofthe important exchanges of energy and material be-tween the ocean and the atmosphere.
NSF is designated as lead agency for the UnitedStates involvement in the International Decade ofOcean Exploration, (IDOE).
IDOE is an effort in which the United St. 'as andother participating nations will apply their comi :ned
resources to expand their knowledge of the earth'smarine environment for their mutual benefit. TheIDOE is an outgrowth of the realization that thefuture well-being of mankind will depend, to a largeextent, on our ability to expand the uses we make of
the meant:. At the same time we must find ways toprotect the marine environment from the degrada-tion which modern technology has already wrought.
The program objectives for IDOE are to assess andmonitor the ocean environment, improve environ-mental forecasting, expand seabed assessment activi-ties, improve worldwide marine data exchange, andincrease opportunities for international sharing ofcosts for ocean exploration. In achieving these objec-tives, NSF utilizes the capabilities of academicinstitutions, other Federal agencies, and other quali-
fied organizations.The objective of the Foundation's atmospheric
sciences research program is the building of a base of
new knowledge about natural phenomena and funda-mental processes taking place in the atmosphere.The results of this research will help man in hisefforts to forecast the state of the atmosphere andionosphere in advance and to eventually exercise
some degree of control over atmospheric processesand weather. Atmospheric science research is con-cerned with all aspects of the character and variationsof solar energy and its transmission through inter-planetary space, reaction with ionized and neutral
gases of the earth's atmosphere, and the atmosphericprocesses near and at the surface of the earth. Workunderway in the global atmospheric research program(GARP) and the weather modification program bene-
fits from the investigations supported by scientificresearch project support. The Foundation-supportedNational Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR)
is a major facility that enhances the national capa-bility for both fundamental and applied atmosphericresearch. NCAR has built a research program thatcovers the full spectrum of phenomena that affect
the earth's atmosphere and which constitutes a majorpart of the U.S. effort in atmospheric research.
The objectives of this National Research Centerare to: (a) Improve our knowledge of the behavior ofglobal atmospheric circulation to the point of beingable to predict the large-scale features of the weathera week or more in advance. (h) Ascertain the life-times of pollutants to the point of being able tounderstand adequately both their local and world-wide effects. (c) Develop realistic mathematicalmodels of convective clouds to the point of beingable to predict the intensity of cloud buildup and theoutcome of various weather modification techniquesapplied to the clouds. (d) Provide leadership in theatmospheric sciences including the provision oftraining opportunities for young scientists.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by NSFfor environmental observation and measurement todescribe and predict weather and ocean activity dur-ing fiscal year 1969-71 are as follows:
1989 1970 1971
10.01 11.70 17.00
Smithsonian Institution
The Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory(SAO) measures the solar radiation, the atmospherecomposition and changes, the heat balance and heat-ing of the earth. Continual measurement is requiredsince the atmosphere is constantly changing from theinfluence of the earth beneath it and the solar radia-tion above it, with resultant effects on the earth'sclimate, both globally and locally.
The SAO uses the same techniques developed formeasuring satellite orbits by using its worldwideobserving stations to monitor temperature and dens-ity variations in the upper atmosphere caused bysolar activity. SAO also monitors the atmosphericcomposition through laser and photometric measure-ments of pollutants, such as water vapor and dust.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by SI forenvironmental observation and measurement to de-scribe and predict weather and ocean activity duringfiscal year 1969-71 are as follows:
1989 1970 1971
1.00 0.40 0.40
IMPACT OF ENVIRONMENT ON MAN
Grp of WimpThe CE investigates environmental values as they
affect the development of water resources and their
interrelationships with man. This includes recreationdemand and esthetic evaluation. Systems analysisand operations research modeling techniques weredeveloped and mathematical models were used toevaluate (1) the demand for various potential waterresource uses to meet man's needs and (2) the rela-tionship between man's needs and impact on the eco-logical systems.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by CE forimpact of environment on man during fiscal years1969-71 are as follows:
1969 1970 B;710.20 0.20 0.20
Deprtment ofHealth, Education, and Welfare
The mission of HEArs Bureau of CommunityEnvironmental Management (BCEM) is the protec-tion of health and safety of residents of urban, sub-urban, and rural settlements in specific human eco-logical areas. The major focus is the development ofmeans of maintaining or changing both the man-builtphysical surroundings and the attitudes and be-haviors of social environment that are appropriateto the healthful and safe use of built environment.
The BCEM has programs in three areas: (1) Inhuman ecology research design t to ascertain thedynamics of health ecosystems, inetuding both thephysical and social environmental factors that affectchanges in health status and morale. Such studies in-clude investigation of stressors in both the physicalsurroundings and . social environment of humansettlements, under different climatic conditions andunder land use and population densities ranging fromrural to congested urban. (2) Basic health and safetycriteria research for standards of design, maintenance,occupancy, and use of residential and communityrecreational environments, followed by evaluativehealth and safety research of developments built andused under the guidance of such standards. (3) Ap-plied and evaluation research and development ofcommunity health environmental management sys-tem, including public administration process andprocedures, legal relationships and responsibilities,and community organisation and health educationtechniques, which lead to better private and publicmanagement as measured by health status changein evaluation of demonstration programs.
The National Institute of Environmental HealthScience supports research on the phenomena associ-
ated with the source, distribution, mode of entry, andthe effects of environmental agents on biologicalsystems through grants to v.iiversities, research in-stitutions, and other public or private nonprofitinstitutions.
This activity supports the in-house research pro-grams, environmental health sciences at the NationalEnvironmental Health Science Center in the Re-search Triangle Park. Included are research effortsin cell biology, pharmacology and toxicology, analy-tical and synthetic chemistry, Aophysics and bio-medical instrumentation, animal science and tech-nology, pathologic psychology, epidemiology, bio-metry, epidemiologic pathology, and scientificinformation, as well as the supporting services forthese laboratories and branches.
The carcinogenesis area of the National CancerInstitute bears responsibility for the planning, im-plementation and management of a coordinated re-search program on carcinogenesis by chemical andphysical factors which it carries out both through aprogram of intramural research and trough researchcontracts to universities and other research institu-tions. To meet this responsibility, it is necessary todevote a sizable portion of available resources to anattempt to identify those materials in man's environ-ment which produce carcinogenic effects in animalsafter prolonged exposure.
The materials receiving greatest attention in thecarcinogenesis bioassay program, which have notbeen discussed under air or land quality, fall into thefollowing categories: (a) Pharmaceutical agents; (b)industrial chemical; (c) food constituents, additives,and contaminants; (d) natural products, particularlymycotoxins; (e) metals and metalloorganic com-pounds; and (f) tobacco and related products. Anattempt is being made to acquire information onusage and to determine the feasibility of creating aninformation system which will assist persons re-sponsible for management of bioassay programs inmaking assessments of priority for testing.= Funds cm millions of dollars) expended by HEW
on impact of environment on man during fiscal years1969-71 are as follows:
1969 1970 197127.30 23.60 24.80
Mod Science FembIlm
NSTs research includes social sciences researchwith projects in anthropology and archeology, andsocial psychology. The archaeological research isbeing conducted in diverse geographical locations to
ell 118 107
provide a scientific study of material remains such asfossil relics, artifacts, and monuments which illus-trate past human life and activities and cult tit:. Theresults of the anthropological research will be related
to changing environmental and ecological conditions.In the ecosystem analysis program of the Interna-tional Biological Program, population genetics of atribe of primitive Indians is being studied to deter-mine questions of inbreeding levels, genetic drift,stabilizing selections, not susceptible to deterministicformulations.
Engineering research is involved with effects of
such factors as urbanization, deforestation, and wind
on the environment. Support has been given forprojects involving a study on a hydrologic model for
predicting the effects of urbanization, deforestation,and wind on the environment. This mathematicalmodel will help appraise hydrologic changes, theirmagnitudes, effects, and possible remedial actions.
The RANN program is supporting the Oak RidgeNational Laboratory to conduct research on the po-tential for genetic mutations in man resulting from
the introduction of manmade chemicals into theenvironment. Several approaches are being developedfor mass screening of mutations in man. Other studieswill develop techniques for performing overall eco-logical evaluations of the environment, increasingpublic awareness of environmental quality, projectingthe costs and consequences of alternate environ-mental policy actions, and development of a com-puter simulation model to predict the influences ofalternate environmental policies in the TennesseeRiver Valley.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by NSFfor impact of the environment on man during fiscalyears 1969-71 are as fol nye:
1969 1970 1971
2.30 2.30 2.80
Smithsenba Insabtion
SI's research on the impact of the environment onman includes studies by the Museum of NaturalHistory on anthropology research on effects of clim-atic changes on man both historical and present. TheCenter for the Study of Man is studying the effectsof rapid environmental change resulting from urbani-zat;on, improved transportation, and so forth. TheMuseum of History and Technology is studying theeffects of shelter, heating, and cooling man's environ-ment. The Smithsonian research awards program isstudying the mathematical modeling of environ-mental factors and environmental prediction ana
108
effects on man and adaptation of man. The Smith-sonian foreign currency program includes studies onthe impact of man's technology and destruction ofnatural environment on rural and urban communi-ties, and unusually rapid modernization in developingcountries.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by SI forimpact of environment on man during fiscal years1969-71 are as follows:
1969 1970 1971
1.70 2.00 2.30
LOCATING AND DESCRIBINGNATURAL RESOURCES
Department of Agriculture
USDA's research encompasses development oftechniques and accumulation of natural resourceavailability and planning data through remotesensing, high altitude photograph, and direct inven-tory. Objectives range from broad-based surveys andevaluations, such as land resources, land-use pat-terns, water requirements, future demands amongcompeting uses, and land and water conservation anddevelopment alternatives, to development of method-ology and inventories for specific resources or signifi-cant interrelationships. About half of the programconsists of the Forest Survey that is a continuinginventory of the forests of the United States and offuture timber needs and prospective supplies. Otherprograms include measurement of soil moisture,nutrient, and salinity conditions; snow accumulationson midlands; rangeland productivity; forest fueldistributions; and detection and analysis of forestinsect and disease outbreaks. Direct inventorymethods can achieve good accuracy, but they areslow and expensive. High altitude photography,remote sensing, and computerization for rapid datareduction and analysis are new and developing fields.They show much promise but require much researchfor development of techniques, for feasibility ofmonitoring and surveillance activities, for timelyavailability, and recall and updating of information.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by USDAon impact of environment on man during fiscal years1969-71 are as follows:
1969 1970 1971
4.74 5.31 5.87
Deportment of the
DOrs scientific investigations are carried out bythe Geological Survey on the origin, occurrence, and
et1 119
G.
distribution of fuel and nonfuel minerals and mineralraw materials in nature; the development and im-provement of mineral exploration concept~ and tech-niques for locating new deposits of minerals; and theevaluation of known and potential mineral resourcesof the Nation. This research is essential to theFederal Government in meeting its responsibilitiesfor (1) assuring that adequate and dependable sup-plies of mineral raw materials are available to do-mestic consumers, (2) insuring"-the orderly andefficient development of domestic mineral resourceswith a minimal detrimental effect on the environ-ment, and (3) judiciously managing the public landsand their contained resources.
Offshore geologic surveys are contributing to aplanned long-term program that will result in regionalgeologic information and reconnaissance (smallscale) geologic maps of significant parts of the U.S.continental margins and that. ultimately will con-tribute geologic analyses and maps of the submergedcontinental margins. Such analyses help provide thenecessary geologic data for managing resources in thepublic land and in producing geologic maps for all ofthe continental United States.
National land and mineral resources surveys in-clude the nature and distribution of minerals andinvestigations of fundamental geologic, geochemical,and geophysical processes. Geologic maps are pre-pared at scales appropriate for appraisal of environ-mental properties of the land and for determinationof its mineral resources.
The water resources investigations activity andthe areal appraisal, special studies, and Federalwater data coordination activity investigate and de-scribe the location, distribution, quantity, quality,and movement of surface and underground waterresources of the Nation. In addition to basic researchon hydrologic principles and techniques of investiga-tion and prediction, the program includes acquisitionof data on streamflow and ground-water levels, co-ordination of Federal water-data acquisition, inv=ti-gation of specific water problems (for example,floods, droughts, ground-water recharge), environ-mental quality effects and interactions betweenwater, air, land, and ecological systems, and assist-ance to other agencies in the solution of specificminion-oriented water problems.
The Earth Resources Observation Systems(EROS) program includes: (1) Collection and proc-essing of remote-sensing data of direct use in environ-mental research and action programs; (2) analysis ofthe data to develop new information to permitdetection and monitoring of environmental status
and change; (3) dissemination of this data and in-formation to Government and private resource andenvironmental research and management groups;and (4) continuation of research, development, andfurther refinement of remote :sensing techniques, andof methods and equipment for extracting and inter-preting such information.
The Office of Water Resources Research programsponsors research, and trains scientists in the fieldsof water resources which assures the Xat ion of asupply of water sufficient to meet its water supplyrequirements.
Assistance to States for insth es provides forspecific grants for assistance in water resources re-search at one college or university in each State.Matching grants are also given to institutes anduniversities to carry out research in this field.
Water resources planning and engineering researchinvolves water supply augmentation and conserva-tion, water quality management and control, waterquality management and protection, water resourcesplanning, and engineering works.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by DOIfor locating and describing natural resources duringfiscal years 1969-71 are as follows:
1969 1970 197128.09 31.82 32.17
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NASA's earth resources survey program is beingdeveloped to provide a global capability to surveyand monitor the earth's resources, measure thechanges in those resources, and provide continuousmonitoring of the significant environmental and eco-logical relationships. Aircraft and manned spaceflight experiments have demonstrated the feasibilityand economic and social value of remote sensing ofthe earth's forests, agriculture, water resources,oceans, geography, minerals, and even its atmos-phere. The earth resources technology satellites(ERTS) currently being developed will demonstrateand test techniques for routine monitoring of re-sources and the environment from space. Data pro-vided by the earth resources survey program canprovide the means for the detection of air, water, andsolid waste pollution, crop and forest degradation,and the occurrence and consequences of naturaldisasters.
The total NASA program for earth resources sur-vey included the earth resources technology satellite,aircraft surveys, and the earth resources experiment
120109
package for Skylab. The total cost is for fiscal year1969, $13.90 million; for fiscal year 1970, $44.60million; and for fiscal year 1971, $107.40 million in-cluding spacecraft and operations but not launchvehicles. The costs for experiments supporting re-search and technology, and data analysis are givenbelow.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by NASAfor locating and describing natural resources duringfiscal years 1969-71 are as follows:
1989 1970 1971
11.10 40.10 71.10
National Science Foundation
NSF's seabed assessment activities under the In-ternational Decade of Ocean Exploration (IDOE)are directed to a goal of permitting better utilizationof mineral resources on the seabed by acquiringneeded knowledge of seabed topography, structure,dynamics, and mineral location. The data obtainedwill improve the management of resource develop-ment, identify hazardous geologic conditions, andassist in formulating policy for international discus-sions of the seabed and its resources.
Elucidation of the evolution and mineral potentialof small ocean basins and selected wide continentalmargins are among the short-term IDOE objectivessupported by studies initiated in fiscal year 1971.The main emphases of these studies are directed to.the Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean and Bering Seas, andthe continental margin of the eastern Atlantic.
The Foundation's ocean sediment coring programhas as its objective the acquisition of samples throughthe sedimentary, layer of the deep ocean basins toserve the advancement of marine geology and relatedgeologic and geophysical sciences. From such sam-ples, which have never before been available fromdepths below the sea floor, is derived knowledge thatis necessary for our understanding of the structureand history of the crust of the earth.
The discoveries made upon a first examination ofthe cores, while still on board the drilling ship, havebeen beyond expectations. In addition to the firstsurprising discovery of petroleum in the deep seafloor, minerals such as native copper, zinc sulfide, andiron carbonate have been recovered off the conti-nental slope of eastern North America.
NSF also supports basic research grants on de-scription, biogeography, and ecology of variousgroups of flora and fauna, and some for hydrologicmodeling or resource econometrics. None of these
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activities directly contribute to economic resourcedevelopment.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by NSFfor locating and describing natural resources duringfiscal ears 1969-71 are as follows:
1969 1970 1971
2.30 2:40 2.0
SURVEYS TO DESCRIBETHE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
Department of Commerce
NOAA's marine geophysics program dealing withthe liquid envelope and the earth below the oceansincludes terrestrial magnetism, gravity, seismology,geological oceanography, and related sciences. Themarine geophysical program is describing the marineenvironment in terms of various parameters that areof interest to the various scientific communities.t:Iurrent geophysical research on the continentalmargins involves studies in morphology, structure,and sedimentary processes. Deep ocean basin re-search attempts to provide a basic understanding ofthe characteristics of the ocean crust and of thedepositional and tectonic processes occurring in thedeep ocean basin.
Research seismology attempts to improve under-standing of the natural forces that generate earth-quake mechanisms, and of the destructive power ofearthquakes. Research is aimed toward basic knowl-edge of geophysics and tectonics of earthquakes andthe physical structure of the earth. Instruments aredeployed in areas of known seismic activity to moni-tor geophysical phenomena at the site. Specific stud-ies are underway on the nature of the earth move-ment at the time of the earthquake and the relation-ship of this movement to tsunami generation. Effortsare being made to increase the value of seismic databy improving recording instruments, by increasingthe accuracy of earthquake location determinations,and by developing more advanced data processingcapabilities for including larger quantities of data inthe analysis.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by DOCfor survey to describe physical environment duringfiscal years 1969-71 are as follows:
1989 1970 1971
1.90 1.90 200
614111111111d of the Interior
The Geological Survey is studying special geologichazards. This includes a major geological and geo-
physical program to discover what causes earth-quakes and what can be done to decrease theirdangers; an investigation of volcanic processes toprovide basic data prerequisite to developing a pre-dictive system; and engineering geologic studies pro-viding information on foundation conditions, stabilityof slopes, drainage characteristics, and engineeringproperties of rocks and soils needed for land-useplanning and construction in many areas.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended for DOIfor survey to describe physical environment duringfiscal years 1969-71 are as follows:
1969 1970 1971
1.64 1.83 2.00
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
The NASA earth physics program includes studiesto: (1) Apply geodetic satellite technology, precisionsatellite tracking techniques, and precision astro-nomical techniques to measurements of the dynamicsof the solid earth and oceans; (2) establish marinegeodetic control points; and (3) contribute to theobjectives of the National geodetic satellite programwith respect to accurate determination of the sizeand shape of the earth. The program includes thegeodetic satellite program and a supporting researchprogram to provide improved measuring techniques,a better knoMedge of information requirements, andsystems concepts to meet these requirements. Theknowledge gained from these activities may contri-bute to the development of techniques for predictingearthquakes, volcano eruptions, and general oceaniccirculation, and will facilitate the production ofmapping of resources on the ocean floor.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by NASAfor survey to describe physical environment duringfiscal years 1969-71 are as follows:
1989 1970 1971
4.00 3.40 4.40
National Science Foundation
Geology research ranged widely from the study ofthe most ancient rocks and their fossils to the studyof present piocesses of glaciation, river erosion, andsedimentation. Most of the p: ejects are strongly fieldoriented, in contrast to the laboratory studies ofgeochemistry.
The past decade has seen a revolution in the scienceot, ge,ology. The concept of sea floor spreading and
plate tectonics, barely thought of in 1960, is generallyaccepted as a reasonable theory, based on evidencelargely obtained through studies of core samplescollected under the ocean sediment coring program.Perhaps of even greater importance have been theconcurrent development of the unifying concepts ofsea-floor spreading and plate tectonics along with thecritical need for information on and understandingof the balance of nature.
The discoveries made upon a first examination ofthe cores, while still on board the drilling ship, havebeen beyond expectations. The concept of sea-floorspreading has come to be generally regarded as valid.As a result of information obtained in analyzing thesubstance of the cores, other geologic facts of world-wide significance are becoming evident. For example,the Northwest Pacific appears to comprise a remnantof the oldest ocean yet extant; the Gulf of Mexicohas been estimated to have remained an oceanicbasin at least since early Cretaceous times (about120 million years ago); blocks of continental crustalmaterial appear to have foundered and sunk in theNorth Atlantic since Cretaceous times. In additionto the first surprising discovery of petroleum in thedeep sea floor, minerals such as native copper, zincsulfide, and iron carbonate have been recovered offthe continental slope of eastern North America.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by NSFfor survey to describe physical environment duringfiscal years 1969-71 are as follows:
1969 1970 1971
1.00 2.75 7.00
Smithsonian Institution,
The Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory(SAO) is studying the extremely mobile earth's sur-face. Of special interest are the large surface blocksor plates whose interactions appear to be responsiblefor large earthquakes, mountain building, generationof tsunamis, and confinement of active volcanic ac-tivity to a few narrow belts. Thorough monitoringand understanding of these phenomena may lead toprediction of earthquakes.
The SAO is using the most precise laser and elec-tronic techniques to monitor these geophysicalchanges, by observing the motions of artificial satel-lites in the earth's gravitational field. SAO is alsopioneering in the development of more accuratemeasurement techniques.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by SI forsurveys to describe physical environment during
4E2111
fiscal years 1969-71 are as follows:
1969 1970 1971
0 0.20 0.20
WEATHER MODIFICATION
Department of Agriculture
Development of cloud-seeding techniques forsuppressing lightning storms that produce forestfires is being done to reduce forest resource damageresulting from wildfire and to increase water yieldfrom mountain watersheds, particularly in the grow-ing season.
In the Forest Service Project Skyfire, field eyderi-ments are testing lightning suppression when a fullstorm system is heavily seeded. Research is conductedto improve seeding equipment, to develop a mecha-nism of lightning suppression through the depressionof the sparking potential of supercooled water drop-lets by glaciation, and to identify the less commonlong-pulse lightning strike as the principal firestarter.
Future research is needed to improve the use ofcloud seeding techniques and to develop computermodels of cumulus convection as a basis for simula-tion experiments on lightning occurrence.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by USDAfor weather modification during fiscal years 1969-71are as follows:
1969 1970 1971
0.44 0.45 0.52
Department of Commerce
Hurricane modificationDiagnostic studies byNOAA of the basic physical properties of the atmos-phere that determine hurricane formation, move-ment, and dissipation are emphasized by usingcomputer modeling techniques to examine basic con-cepts for hurricane modification. In Project Storm-fury, jointly sponsored program by DOC (NOAA)and DOD (Navy), field experiments involved releaseof seeding material into hurricanes and associatedclouds to assess effects on the wind velocity or thedirection of storm movement or bpth.
Diagnostic studies of the basic physical propertiesof the atmosphere that determine hurricane forma-tion, movements, and dissipation will be comple-mented by computer models. Studies will also bemade concerning the feasibility o; storm modification
112 1
through the use of chemicals to retard evaporationfrom the surface of the ocean.
Studies also involve tropical cloud modificationand effects of various methods of seeding on snowfall.Studies are underway on hail and lightning suppres-sion and of inadvertent weather modification by man-made constituents especially carbon dioxide andwater vapor.
The future program will aim at a full determinationof procedures for manipulating mesoscale wintercloud systems, including mitigation of severe local-ized snowstorms, release of precipitation and latera-tion in mesoseale climate through cloud dissipation.Further studies of the influence of metropolitanareas on clouds and precipitation will be conducted.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by DOCfor weather modification during fiscal years 1969-71are as follows:
1969 1970 1971
1.30 1.40 1.40
Department of Dofense
Operational techniques for modifying local weatherconditions are required for use by the DOD. Theo-retical, laboratory, and field studies are conducted todevelop, refine, and verify realistic models simulatingnatural atmospheric processes and their modification.The models serve as a basis for designing operationalmodification systems without the need for extensivetest programs for each potential application. Re-search is currently directed toward the developmentof techniques for suppressing dissipating warm andcold fog stratus clouds or both. The feasibility ofproducing large clearings in shallow warm fog andstratus layers by the down-wash mixing effect of ahelicopter has been conclusively. demonstrated. Anumerical model of the dissipation of nonturbulentfog by hygroscopic particle seeding has been de-veloped. Field experiments of the hygroscopic methodhave, however, emphasized the necessity of includingthe effects of turbulent diffusion in the model beforethe realistic potential of this modification techniquecan be assessed. Cold or supercooled fog consistingof liquid water droplets at below freezing tempera-tures is comparatively easy to dissipate by introduc-ing a large number of ice crystals into the fog.Methods are being investigated for preventing highelectrical fields within cumulus clouds to suppresslightning.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by DODfor weather modification during fiscal years. 1969-71
;,
P
are as follows: availability. These investigations will !)e made inconjunction with the benchmark programs and plan-
1969 1970 1971 nine; for the West Wide water studies.0.09 3.50 4.70 Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by 1)01
for weather modification during fiscal years 1909-71are as follows:
Department of the Interior
Precipitation modification.The DOI's Bureau ofReclamation has started early preoperational pro-jects in connection with the West Wide water plan-ning studies. Pilot-type research projects are de-signed to be the last development phase before initialoperations. The Colorado River Basin pilot projectis seeding a large target area to provide sound. scien-tific and engineering evaluations of precipitationincreases over large areas by an operational-typeapplication of developed cloud seeding techniques.The North Dakota pilot project is operationallytesting seeding of groups of summer cumulus cloudsand convective storms over western North Dakota.
Experimental research field activities are beingcarried out in nine States in the West by using air-craft and ground seeding. Research projects areunderway to attempt to shift precipitation to otherareas, on effects of seeding on clouds, particle growth,and cloud electrification.
Research programs underway include: Develop-ment of Techniques utilizing hydrologic parametersto evaluate precipitation modification effectivenessand to forecast effect on short-term, streamflow re-sponses for water right administration. Use of windtunnel modeling to study nuclei diffusion in moun-tainous areas with verification from field experimentdate and to predict diffusion for design of experimentand other projects. Use of a cooperative computerlaboratory to integrate developed mathematicalmodels and fully analyze results of seeding projectsand cooperative experiments. Development of basicconcepts and optimum statistical designs for scien-tific precipitation modification experiments and im-proved statistical evaluation procedures. Studies onthe physics and dynamics involved in modifyingwarm clouds for enhancing p-recipitation and designof practical modification techniques. Development ofremote sensors, including radar, that will measurethose meteorological parameters important to effec-tive cloud seeding and real-time analysis systemsand recognition displays for operational control dur-ing experiments and eventual routine operations.Analysis and forecasts of stormtype characteristicsand associated meteorological studies includingregion-wide elimittological surveys of natural nuclei
1969 1970 1971
4.70 4.S0 6.50
Department of Transportation
Fog dispersal.In cooperation with other Govern-ment agencies and industry, DOT's Federal Aero-nautics Administration (FAA) will conduct R. & D.to achieve operational weather modifications, suchas fog dispersal in terminal areas.
Atmospheric pollution may influence the weatherand attempts to modify it may create pollution.Knowledge of the interaction of pollution and effortsat weather modification is essential.
Specialized instrumentation to measure cloudphysics variables is being developed. Cloud modelsfor modification experiments are being developed.Efforts to find more effective weather modificationmaterials are continuing. Major emphasis is on sys-tems which will disperse warm fog and frontal cloudformations.
The results of studies of marine aerosols, dropletgrowth processes, and nuclei climatology will be ap-plied through experiments with both actual andmodel weather systems. Promising results will dictateprocess and equipment development.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by DOTfor weather modification during fiscal years 1969-71are as follows:
1969 1970 1971
3.00 2.30 3.50
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NASA's field tests of warm fog seeding experi-ments were continued by using sodium chloride andurea. This confirmed previous results that clearing ofdense fog could be attained. The fog-bound airportat Elmire, N.Y., was used as the target area. Effortwill be devoted to investigating the life cycle of warmfog to determine the principal parameters (radiation,turbulence, and hydroseopie nuclei) affecting itsgeneration and persistence.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by NASAfor weather modification during fiscal years 1969-71
124 113
are as follows:1969 1970 1971
0.18 0.20 0.14
National Science Foundation
Weather modification studies include modifica-tion of ice nucleation mechanisms, droplet coagula-tion and coalescence, cloud electricity, and hygro-scopic nuclei, storms. Social, economic, legal, andecological aspects of weather modification are alsoconsidered.
The national hail research experiment in Coloradounder the National Center for Atmospheric Research(NCAR) is designed to determine how hail formingmechanisms of severe storms may be modified toreduce hail damage on the ground.
A cloud seeding pilot project in the Upper Colorado
River area has successfully demonstrated the poten-tial of weather modification using groundbased seed-ing with silver iodide.
Research in atmospheric electricity will continueto establish the role played by electrical fields andelectrostatic forces in promoting coagulation of cloudparticles and rain production. Studies of the electricalstructure of discrete convective clouds will be con-tinued to determine the location, polarization, andextent of the charge centers. Artificial ion injectionwill be used as a tool of research to explore chargingmechanisms and possible precipitation enhancement.
Funds (hi millions of dollars) expended by NSFfor weather modification during fiscal years 1969-71are as follows:
1969 1970 1971
2.70 3.60 4.50
Protecting and Enhancingthe Environment
Funding of R. & 1). pertaining to protecting andenhancing the environment for fiscal years 1969,1970, and 1971 is reported in table 7 (p. 48).
ANALYSIS OFENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS
In addition to research on the interactions ofman's various developmental and technological ac-tivities on separate components of the environment,and on the structure and functioning of individualterrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, there is a needfor more comprehensive study of total environmentalsystem?.
National Science Foundation
NSF currently sponsors research designed to de-velop a holistic approach to regional planning thatwill identify and characterize probable major en-
. vironmental problems and find ways of preventingtheir occurrence. Related research seeks to relate theflow of goods and services to the occurrence of en-vironmental problems. Other research is examiningnew approaches to land use allocation which willaccurately predict the environmental consequencesof different mixtures of land use. An assessment ofthe national energy problem is coupled with researchto identify and exploit new technological alternativesfor energy generation, storage and transmission,particularly in ways that will minimize environ-mental impacts.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by NSFfor analysis of environmental systems during fiscalyears 1969-71 are as follows:
1969 1970 1971
0 3.07 0.11
APPENDIX 5
FISHERIES AND WILDLIFERESOURCES
The Nation's forest, range, and agricultural landsfurnish shelter and food for more than 10 millionhead of big game and for countless numbers of smallgame and nongame animals and birds. Our nativewildlife also represents an increasingly valued partof the environment for the interest, variety, andbeauty it adds to the landscape. Similarly, fresh-water streams and lakes are host to some 25 millionfishermen annually, and the 52,000 miles of tidalshoreline give access to offshore and deepwater sportsfishing for additional millions. Although this resourceis potentially self-perpetuating, protection and man-agement practices must be improved, intensified,and more generally applied to offset increasinglyheavy depletions. These occur not only from naturalcauses such as predators, disease, and weatherandfrom the annual harvest by hunters and fishermen,but also, and of mounting importance, as a result ofdamage to aquatic and terrestrial habitats by man'sactivities.
Department of Agriculture
Current research by the Department seeks tocharacterize the principal interactions between wild-life and their environment and to determine foodand cover requirements of game animals. Invest-ments are especially high in deer and elk habitatresearch. Work is concentrated in the deciduousforest ecosystems in the East, and in the mountainforest and rangeland ecosystems in the West. Meth-ods of manipulating forest and range vegetation tooptimize food and cover conditions are being de-veloped. Studies of alternative levels and combi-nations of multiple use management emphasize theintegration of wildlife with timber and livestockproduction. A small start recently has been made
t 126 115
iu determining effects of certain forest practices onaquatic habitat of anadromous fish. Habitat require-ments of a few selected endangered species of birdsand animals are also being investigated.
Research in the next 5 years will place moreemphasis on desert, grassland, coniferous forest, andwetland ecosystems. To insure rapid progress towardenhancing wildlife values, more attention will begiven to establishing a sound basis for forest andrange management systems that will augment wild-life values without sacrificing water, timber, forageand other benefits. Added emphasis will also begiven to methods of preserving and enhancing aquatichabitat in rivers and lakes in forested areas; to thefood and cover requirements of nengame birds andanimals, particularly endangered species; to improv-ing strains of wildlife food plants; and to the studyof insect and disease pests of important wildlifefood plants.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by USDAfor fisheries and wildlife resources during fiscal years1969-71 are as follows:
1969 1970 1971
1.95 2.22 2.33
Department of Commerce
The DOC research objectives are to developknowledge of the biological characteristics and re-quirements of living marine resources and an under-standing of their relationships to, and the conse-quences of, changes in their physical environment.Fishery models are designed to predict changes inabundance and location of fishery stocks and topredict the effects on fishery stocks of manmade ornatural changes in marine, estuarine, and anadrom-ous habitats. Basic studies of marine fish and shellfishwill identify races or stocks and their geographicdistribution; describe their life cycles, migrations,and seasonal changes in abundance; and determinethe causes of variations in abundance and distribu-tion. DOC also conducts investigations leading toimproved understanding of jellyfish populations todevelop possible methods of controlling or eradi-cating this marine pest.
Future work will involve biological and ecologicalstudies of the basic requirements of the living marineresources and the physiological implications of pol-lutants introduced by man. Another field of researchwill emphasize the natural and modified processesthat operate in marine ecosystems and the practicalmethods of managing the ecosystems to restore,maintain, or enhance the production of species useful
116
to man. Emphasis will be placed on an understandingof the coastal and oceanic processes and the role ofthe living marine resources within the marine eco-system. Systematic sampling of waters and biotawill be carried out in selected estuarine, coastal,and high seas environments to obtain relevant phys-ical, chemical, and biological data to permit de-tection, analysis, and prediction of environmentalchange and its consequenceS.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by DOCfor fish and wildlife resources during fiscal years1969-71 are as follows:
1969 197,0 1971
14.22 15.10 13.15
Department of the Interior
The DOI's R. & D. activities include fish andwildlife biological research, and Federal aid to Statesfor research on local fish (about 30 percent) andwildlife (about 70 percent) problems. Departmentscientists are measuring and analyzing the effects onfish populations of various ecological imbalances,such as water temperature increases resulting fromthe addition of heated waste water to streams andlakes and the immediate and chronic toxicity, per-sistence, and detoxification of pesticides and theirresidues. They are also investigating the cycling ofheavy metals through aquatic ecosystems. Researchis conducted on the prevention, detection, and con-trol of fish diseases to limit the contamination ofpublic waters through introduction of carriers. Fishhatchery management and rearing methods are beingimproved. A strong research program is maintainedto develop more complete knowledge of the environ-mental requirements of waterfowl and other migra-tory birds throughout their ranges. Also includedare studies of food, shelter, and mating requirementsof certain endangered bird and animal species. Theoverall effects of a broad spectrum of environmentalpollutants on the reproduction and survival of wild-life are receiving increased emphasis.
DOI plans for the immediate future envisage nosignificant changes from the present program.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by DOIfor fisheries and wildlife resources during fiscal years1969-71 are as-follows:
1969 1970 1971
17.30 17.20 19.10
The USDA and the DOI under a memorandumof understanding approved in October 1960, col-laborate closely in the planning and conduct of their
Ma 12
t
respective programs. USDA has primary responsi-bility for research on the habitat and develops neededknowledge on how favorable food and shelter con-ditions may be maintained and enhanced. USDAalso does research on the impacts of forest and rangeland management practices on fish and wildlife habi-tat. DOI has responsibility for studying the biologyand life processes of fish and wildlife, their habitatrequirements, and their parasites, diseases, andpredators.
RECREATION RESOURCES
Concentrations of population, combined with moreleisure time, greater mobility, and higher net income,have greatly intensified the demand for outdoorrecreation. Existing facilities and resources are oftenovertaxed, and development plans fail to keep upwith changing public needs and preferences andwith advancing technology. Increasingly, these de-ficiencies are leading to environmental deteriorationand to an unsatisfactory or unfulfilled recreationexperience by millions of people. Resource plannersand managers must have better information on whichto base their decisions if the Nation's requirementsfor a healthful, diversified, and rewarding array ofrecreation opportunities are to be met.
Department of Agriculture
USDA is developing more accurate techniques formeasuring recreation use, for evaluating trends intypes of recreation activity and for projecting futureneeds. Criteria for identifying, measuring, and ap-praising the, total recreation potential of forest andother wild lands are being established. An importantobjective associated with the Department's responsi-
. bilities for rural area development is to learn how toincrease the profitability of rural recreation enter-prises. Research is also concerned with finding outhow recreation opportunities can be provided to en-hance the quality of life for low income and under-privileged segments of the population, both in ruraland urban situations. Methods of integrating recre-ation activities with other land and water uses arebeing tested. The Department also conducts multi.:disciplinary research to evaluate the nature, du-ration, and severity of impacts of high-density recre- .
ation use on ecosystem componentsFuture research is expected to develop more accu-
rate yardsticks for determining recreational needs of
major population segments and methods of applyingthese findings in rural planning for expanded recre-ation areas and facilities. Recreation users of alltypes will be studied to determine their interests,motivatiow, and reactions to outdoor experiencesin order to improve the planning, development, andmanagement of recreation resources and facilities.Greater emphasis will be placed on understanding,preventing, and correcting adverse environmentaleffects resulting directly or indirectly from recreationactivities. Additional research is planned on a num-ber of problems which have so far received littleattention, such as criteria and guidelines for policieswith regard to use of snowmobiles and other off-highway vehicles in parks, recreational areas, andother public wild lands.
Funds (in millions of (lollars) expended by USDAfor recreation during fiscal years 1969-71 are asfollows:
1969 1970 19711.46 1.00
Department of the Interior
The DOI in addition to coordinating a variety ofinterrelated research activities, supports several re-search projects that relate to the protection andenhancement of recreation resources. Projects sup-ported during the past 3 years include: (1) Exami-nation of the optimum use of natural areas to de-termine patterns of preservation and development ofnatural areas that will maximize net benefits tosociety, (2) study which will focus on the substantivepolicy and political practices of wilderness and wild-life preservation at the national level of government,(3) review of the structure and adequacy of govern-mental decision making in the broad areas of environ-mental policy and land use planning, and (4) studyof wild and scenic rivers to determine which riversor stretches of rivers should be preserved in theirfree-flowing condition for the benefit of present andfuture generations. Future research will be expandedon these and related problems.
In the next 5 years the Department will endeavorto expand its existing programs while giving addedencouragement to privately supported investigationsand doctoral dissertation projects in the area ofidentified need. More attention will be given to thefield of motivational research and to determiningthe kinds of recreational opportunities which are orwhich are likely to be most desired and sought after.Research to assist in the development of improvedmethods for determining demand for and use of
128117
projected recreation developments is also planned.Similarly, methods for equating qualitative valueswith quantitative values will be investigated.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by DOI forrecreation and resources during fiscal years 1969-71are as follows:
1960 1970 1971
0.10 0.10 0.10
RURAL AND WILD LANDENVIRONMENT
This category of environmental research and de-velopment activities includes two major problemareas: (1) Improving the quality of living for ruralresidents, and (2) protection and enhancement of theesthetic and amenity values of the outdoor landscapefor all Americans. It does not include related prob-lems of pollution abatement, recreation resourcemanagement, and basic ecological knowledge andunderstanding, all of which are covered elsewhere inthis report. Rather, it relates primarily to the de-veloptnent and application of sound concepts andpractices for managing vegetation to achieve sociallydesirable objectives. These objectives include mini-mizing adverse impacts of natural and manmadeforces and creating for man's enjoyment a morecomplete and esthetically pleasing rural environment.
Department of Agriculture
Research is conducted on a variety of culture anduse problems which involve trees and other plantsproduced or established for functional or estheticpurposes. Little 's known, for example, about howto establish and plantain flowering ornamentals likedogwood or redbud, "screenings" of spruce or pine,or seed-bearing plants and shrubs for wildlife, in abroad range of wild land settings. Significant culturalproblems are associated with the establishment oftrees needed for landscape purposes at such adversesites as cuts and fills and in soil-compacted forestrecreation areas. Studies in landscape design andmanagement also extend to the use of tree and shrubplantings to lessen other land use eyesores resultingfrom past mistakes and for making high-speed high-ways safer and more attractive for travelers. Funda-mental ecological knowledge is used to devise forestmanagement systems which will permit extractionand utilization of timber without unacceptable or.lasting impairment of esthetic values.
118
Research is also conducted on the rehabilitationof stripmined areas. Current, hydrologic.. engineering,and ecological studies emphasize the characteri-zation, stabilization, and revegetation Of mined-outareas on steep slopes and acid soils. Better pnicticesare being developed for establishment, protection,and culture of windbreaks and shelterbelts in theGreat. Plains to ameliorate the harsh environnmitaround farm and ranch homes and to protect cropsand livestock. Forests and other rural landscapesmust be protected from the depredations of insectsand diseases and from destruction by fire. Depart-ment scientists seek safer, less expensive, and moreeffective ways of doing this.
In the future, more emphasis will be placed onresearch in rural land use planning, including thedevelopment of a better basis for determining usesof forest and range land that will insure the greatestlong- and short-term social and economic benefits.Increased emphasis will also be given to techniquesfor forest landscape management and the develop-ment of alternative timber harvesting systems whichwill meet esthetic requirements. Plans call for anexpansion of research to establish a sound andrational basis for evaluating esthetic and other en-vironmental values of forests and other wild land. Amajor research objective will be to find ways ofminimizing pest-induced deterioration of forest land-scapes by means of genetic and cultural pest re-sistance and through biological control of pestswherever possible.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by USDAfor rural and suburban environment during fiscalyears 1969-71 are as follows:
1969 1970 1971
6.50 6.78 7.63
Department of the Interior
The DOI is investigating ways of improving en-vironmental and economic conditions in areas dam-aged by past mining activities. Physical and chemicaltreatments of mine waste embankments are appliedexperimentally to modify acidity or alkalinity, im-prove structure and moisture-holding capacity, andreduce erosive tendencies. Recent tests with fly ash,for example, indicate that a large tonnage of thispowerplant waste might be used to restore barrenareas to attractive and productive use. Effective.means of revegetating and stabilizing spent oil shaledumps, mined-out phosphate deposits, and othersimilar consequences of mining are being developed.
Inasmuch as much of the extraction technology nowapplied is predicated on the use of land as a sink formineral wastes, improved extractive systems utilizingtechnological advances in the mining process arebeing designed and tested. Research is also con-ducted on methods of filling underground voids toprevent extensive land subsidence and for moreeffective and less costly control of mine fires.
No substantial shifts in direction or emphasis ofthe Department's R. & D. activities are planned forthe immediate future.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by DOIfor rural and wild land environment during fiscalyears 1969-71 are as follows:
1969 1970 1971
0.83 0.91 0.97
URBAN AND SUBURBAN ENVIRONMENT
Urbanization and related consequences of rapidpopulation growth and economic expansion havegreatly diminished the attractiveness and livabilityof the environment in and around population centers.Open space and scattered woodland oases with theirlittle enclaves of bird and animal life have been dis-appearing. Parks are deteriorating from neglect andoveruse. Trees, grass, and flowering plants sufferfrom the varied imp acts of hostile surroundings. Thegrace, order, and charm that could and should becharacteristic of well-planned municipalities seemalmost forgotten. All this is true not only of thegreat metropolitan centers but also of the thousandsof other cities, towns, and suburbs where 70 percentof our people dwell.
Recent years have seen a public awakening to theseriousness of urban blight and suburban sprawl anda gradual realization that they can no longer beignored or allowed to continue unchecked. Concernfor the poor and underprivileged millions crammedinto slum areas now embraces not only the day-to-day struggle to stay alive but also the need for im-proving the quality of their living. Demands areintensifying for better understanding of just whatthe problems are and how they may be corrected.The coals for research and development are in partto find ways of restoring already damaged environ-ment under conditions of continuing use and abuse,and in part to learn how to prevent deterioration inurban renewal programs, or in new or developingCommunities, through more intelligent and forwardlooking plaiining.
Department of Agriculture
The programs of USDA deal with protection,establishment, and culture of trees, turf, and orna-mental plants. They concern both problems of natur-ally occurring vegetation in city forests, parks andopen-space areas, and of special purpose plantings inpublic gardens, along streets, and around buildings.Particular attention is given to stress tolerance, pestresistance, and improvement of functional char-acteristics. Experimentation with the genetics, breed-ing, and selection of new species and varieties isemphasized. Safe and effective control measures arcbeing sought for such critical pest problems as Dutchelm disease and the gypsy moth. Prevention andcontrol of forest and brush fires in intermingledresidential and wooded areas especially in criticalsituations, such as those existing in the Los Angelesarea, are being intensively investigated. Researchbegun in 1971 will deal with optimum uses, thedynamics of change, and management alternatives ofwooded areas in the densely populated Northeast.
Over the next few years USDA expects to devotemore attention to identifying, characterizing, andevaluating urban and suburban environmental prob-lems. A broadened and more comprehensive attackis planned on selected, high priority. needs whichpromise prompt and effective research payoff. Im-proved plant materials for city parks, streets, andhomes will undoubtedly rank high. More useful anddependable decision making and planning models willbe sought, involving social, economic, biological, andecological analysis of forest and related resources inareas of constantly increasing human pressures. Newapproaches to improved management and use of
forested municipal watersheds will be investigated.Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by USDA
for urban and suburban environment are as follows:
1999 1970 1971
4.61 4.95 5.63
Department of Transportation
Research in DOT is designed to develop, test anddemonstrate methods by which transportation sys-tems serving the Nation's population centers cannotonly avoid adverse environmental impacts but actu-ally contribute to community social and environ-mental goals and help make metropolitan areas moreattractive. R. & D. activities will establish criteriaand techniques for identifying and evaluating en-vironmental and aesthetic impacts of specific com-ponents of transportation systems. The location,
Ix 130119
structure, and functions of alternative transportationmodes in terms of their relative environmental effectswill be studied. Available information on contri-butions of surface vehicles and aircraft to air, water,land, and noise pollution will be synthesized intoguidelines for selecting highway routes and airportlocations which will minimize environmental impair-ment. The results of the Department's research willbe made availabi.e for use by metropolitan decision-makers in (level Jping overall' policies and plans.
The above research will continue for the nextseveral years.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by DOTfor urban and suburban environment during fiscalyears 1969-71 are as follows:
1969 1970 1971
0 0.65 0.75
Department of
Housing and Urban Development
The objectives of the environmental quality re-search atd demonstration programs in HUD are toprovide the knowledge base and environmental plan-ning and management techniques needed by theurban planner and decisionmaker and to seek outways to bring the nation's science and engineeringcapability to help solve pressing urban and environ-mental problems. These programs consider the re-lationships between community development andredevelopment and environmental quality and en-courage management of the physical environmentto be more responsive to the needs of the urbandweller. Studies include the feasibility of small-scalecombined processing plants to treat solid and liquidwastes, generate electrical power and use the leftoverheat in the surrounding neighborhood for homeheating, air conditioning, and hot water. Also in-cluded is work on noise abatement, geologic hazards,application of advanced communications for moreeffective urban operations, utility installation tech-niques arch as tunneling and trenching and thelocation and distribution of public utilities. Work isalso underway to examine candidate technology andapproaches that may be used at the urban renewaland new communities scale.
Future plans are to design experimental demon-strations for the waste management systems thatare ready for application. Also research will continueon the urban environmental planning process witha focus upon earth hazards and natural resources.An emerging effort is in the area of earthquake
120
hazard reduction through improved seismic riskzoning, land use, building and construction practice.
Other objectives of research and demonstrationproginms are to help establish, preserve, improve,and beautify open space land which is essential towell-balanced, long-range urban and suburban de-velopment. The programs seek to define more re-liable criteria for, and design new and improvedapproaches to, the selection and allocation of landfor parks, greenbelts, wooded buffer strips, andrecreation areas. Studies relate to characterizing thequality of open space in terms of its specific purposesand to determine optimum distribution, location,size, and character of open space areas. The influenceof topography, traffic and business patterns, zoningregulations, needs of the people, and related factorsare evaluated. Other studies are leading to improveddesign and planning of parks for more efficientmaintenance, maximum public enjoyment, andgreatest safety and security.
This research will be continued in the next fewyears.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by HUDfor urban and suburban environment during fiscalyeas 1969-71 are as follows:
1969 1970 1971
0.77 2.09 3.68
WATER RESOURCES
The most critical problems affecting our Nation'swater resources are those involving pollution, floods,and adequacy of supply. Water pollution is dealtwith as a sepaeate topic elsewhere in this report.Floods impact primarily upon human health andwelfare and on property values and are outside thescope of this report. Certain R. & D. activitiesoriented primarily toward improving the amount,timing, and availability of water in streams and innatural and manmade impoundments are discussedhere as relevant to environmental 'quality.
Precipitation in the 48 contiguous States, a mount-ing to about 2% feet for every acre of land each year,represents the source of the Nation's fresh watersupply. Seventy percent of this annual increment isreturned to the atmosphere through evaporation andtranspiration. The remaining 30 percent finds its wayinto streams or ground water and is potentially avail-able for use.. Man's ability to degrade and destroythis water resource has been conclusively demon-strated. What has not been fully proved or demon-
(X-131
strated is the potential for reducing the 70 percentlost to evapotranspiration, or for making more effi-cient use of the 30 percent that stays on or withinthe earth's surface. The : eadwaters of all majorrivers in the United States and more than half thestreamflow originate in forests, associated rangelands,or alpine regions characterized by relatively highannual precipitation. The management of these head-waters, including the vegetative mantle, has a greatdeal to do with the fate of this precipitation andwith the timing and amount. of water yield. Similarly,research has shown that the use and management ofagricultural lands has a profound influence on thehydrologic characteristics of soils and, hence, on theinfiltration and movement of water. However, thetechnology for producing predictable effects where,when, and as needed has not been devised. It is stillnot possible to prescribe vegetation or land treat-ments which will cause specified changes in stream-flow and ground-water recharge in watersheds withheterogenous soil, geologic, topographic, and precipi-tation patterns.
Department of Agriculture
USDA develops knowledge that will lead to bettermethods for predicting effects of alternative systemsof land treatment, water harvest, and water pro-tection measures on streainflow and ground watersupplies. Research includes experimental manipu-lation of vegetation to increase throughfall, reducetranspiration lossesparticularly from riparian vege-tation in regions of low rainfall and the treatmentof agricultural and forest soils to promote water infil-tration and increase storage capacity. Research isalso conducted on the manipulation of forest cover
e and on the dynamics of air movement as they affectsnow accumulation and rate of melt in high mountainareas. Mathematical models are composed for quan-titatively describing the hydrologic performance ofwatersheds under varying types and levels of landuse and management. Some of the most successfulvegetation management methods involve the use ofherbicides and prescribed fire, both of which cancreate environmental problems. Other types of treat-ment result in badly scarred landscapes. Alternativeapproaches must be found which will avoid air orwater pollution or an aesthetically unattractiveeffect.
No significant increases in research on water sup-plies are planned, and there may actually be somereduction in effort in order to give greater impetusto water quality research. Also, there will be more
emphasis on making better use of i n forum t ion alreadyavailable, especially through the development ofmodeling systems. Much of the knowledge on effi.etsof removal of riparian vegetation, forest cover ma-nipulation, and agricultural soil amendments is notbeing fully applied because it has not been integratedwith other, closely related data, and incorporatedinto total soil and water management prescriptions.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by USDAfor water resources during fiscal years 1969-71 areas follows:
5.75
Department of the Interior
1970 1971
6.12 6.15
Several DOI Bureaus are involved in a broad-based program, the purpose of whi "h is to help assurea continuing supply of water sufficient to meet theNation's requirements. One pha.se of this programinvolves study of the effects of man's activities onthe availability, movement, and efficiency of use ofwater resources. Impacts of urbanization, highwaysystems, and irrigation projects on water yields andflow rates are evaluated. Institutional structureswhich influence. water policies and programs and thenature and mechanisms of constraints which theyimpose at all levels of government are investigated.Opportunities for making wider use of water heatedduring industrial processes or otherwise degraded inquality arc being sought. Adverse impacts of majorwater development and management operations onthe overall environment and ecology of an area arebeing evaluated to provide information which can beused to structure projects for minimizing deleteriouseffects and maximizing enhancement effects. Tech-niques are being developed to prevent or ameliorateside effects of saline water conversion which mayarise from improper disposal of the brine effluentproduced. Research on upgrading or renovatingwaters which have become salty by multiple usagewill, in essence, provide "new water," a particularlyimportant source of water resource enhancement inareas of low precipitation.
The DOI's existing research programs are indi-cative of future needs and reflect the probable di-rections of research over the next few years.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by DOIfor water resources during fiscal years 1969-71 areas follows:
,rit 132
1989 1970 1971
2.63 2.72 3.88
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1
i:
Alternatives tothe Use of Pesticides
INTRODUCTION
Pesticides have contributed greatly to the in-crea.si,d production of food and fiber by controllingthe pests that compete with crops, and the humanhealth by controlling the vectors of various diseases.Despite these positive attributes, the use of pesticideshas also been beset with some problems. Long per-sistance in the environment and bioconcentrationthrough a food chain, twin attributes of some chlori-nated hydrocarbons, have the potential for causingadverse effects in nontarget species, especially thoseat the top of food chains. More than 200 insectspecies have developed resistance to one or moreinsecticides. Beneficial insects are often affected asmuch by an insecticide as are the pest species. Fishand other aquatic organisms may suffer from thetoxic effects of pesticides applied on land for thecontrol of one or several pests.
Because of the adverse effects of pesticides, re-search has been underway many years to find effec-tive and safe alternatives to the use of pesticides.
Funding for R. & D. pertaining to alternatives tothe use of pesticides for fiscal years 1969, 1970, and1971 is reported in table 8 (p. 53).
Department of Agriculture
In the field of forestry, losses apg experienced eachyear because of attack from insects and disease, andbecause of competition from undesirable vegetation.Natural disease epizootics regulate populations ofsome insect pests, but significant losses result fromothers.
Biological and cultural control methods are beingdeveloped for controlling such insects as the douglas-fir tussock moth, European pine sawfly, larch case-bearer, gypsy moth, saratoga spittlebug, Europeanpine shoot moth, and the spruce budworm. Parasitesand predators have been successfully established for
122
APPENDIX 6
the control of such insects as the European elm barkbeetle, balsam wooly aphid, and larch casebearer.Although most. of the parasites and predators havebeen extended into operational size units. Attractantsfor gypsy moth and bark beetles are available andhave been field tested. Their use facilitates trappingto determine the severity of infestation and theymay ultimately be of use in actual control operations.
For the control of forest diseases, breeding pro-grams are actively underway to develop resistantvarieties. Silvicultural manipulations, taking intoconsideration soil and climatic requirements andspecies mixtures, are used to improve tree growthand health so that the use of synthetic pesticidesare not needed, or needed only infrequently, to main-tain forest and environmental quality.
Breeding programs are also underway to developtimber species whose faster initial growth, combinedwith intensive cultural methods, greatly reduces theneed for chemical control of competing vegetation.
Breeding programs on agricultural crops for re-sistance to insect and disease attack have been 'afirst line of defense for many years. Most of thesuccesses have been in the field of disease resistance,but varieties that are resistant to specific insectshave also been develop/xi. Resistant varieties ofwheat are virtually immune to the Hessian fly,strains of alfalfa have been developed that are re-sistant to the spotted alfalfa aphid, and good progresshas been made in developing sweet corn varietiesresistant to the corn earworm.
Biological control, using nonnative parasites andpredators plays a vital role in keeping pest popu-lations under control. More than 650 species of para-sites and predators have been introduced from foreignareas. Of these, about 150 have become established.Among notable successes are the control of St.Johnswort by a Chrpolina beetle and control ofcottony-cushion scale by Veda lia lady beetles.
Microbial agents can be equally as effective as
;Alf 133
h.
rr parasites and predators. Milky spore disease for thecontrol of Japanese beetle has been used for manyyears. More recently, Bacillus thuringiensis has beenused for the control of such insects as the importedcabbage worm, tobacco hudgworm, and the alfalfacaterpillar. Additional developmental work is nowbeing conducted to prove the efficacy wad safety ofa polyhedral virus for the control of various insects.
In the field of aquatic weed control, the Marisasnail' and P. fish, the white Amur, have promisingpotential.
Advantages of the male-sterile technique wereproven with the screw-worm, a major pest of live-stock. Sufficient information has been developed toindicate that the technique may prove useful in con-trolling Mediterranean fruit fly, oriental fruit fly,Mexican fruit fly, pink bollworm, boll weevil, tobaccohornworm, codling moth, and fruit flies of the gentisDrosophila.
Considerable research is being conducted on theisolation, identification, and synthesis of attractants.These may be used in the future directly in controlactivities or in combination with traps. Research isalso underway to determine specific portions of thelight spectrum which may attract insects to a greaterdegree than to other portions of the spectrum.
Integrated control offers important potential forthe future. Its use depends on a combination of manycontrol methods rather than to rely on any one.Successful application requires a detailed knowledgeof the relative effectiveness of a large number ofcombinations of control strategies, a detailed under-standing of the ways in which they interfere, withand complement each other, =id an ability to selectappropriate. methods in diverse circumstances. Suc-cess probably will depend on a detailed knowledge
of the biology of the crop and prat, and on the con-struction of mathematical systems models.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended for al-ternatives to the use of pesticides are as follows:
1969 ,1970 1971
32.05 33.64 37.74
Corps of Engineers
The research program is directed toward the con-trol of aquatic vegetation by nonchemical methods,particularly biological control. Research underwayincludes an evaluation of .a flea beetle for the controlof alligator weed, the Marisa snail for the control ofmany species of aquatic vegetation, and the whiteAmur for general aquatic vegetation control.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended for al-ternatives to the use of pesticides are as follows:
1969 1970 1971
0.20 0.30 0.30
National Science Foundation
Research supported by NSF falls principally intotwo areas (1) insect behavior, physiology, and bio-,chemistry, and (2) the ecological dynamics of naturaland modified systems. Both area are essential forthe development of more. sophisticated pest controlstrategies, particularly in terms of integrated control.Field studies and laboratory simulations are includedin the total program.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended kir al-'ternatives to the use of pesticides are as follows:
. 1969 1970 1971
0.83 0.80 0.90
Noise
Noise, for the purpose of this study, addressedboth natural and manmade sound patterns whichgenerate, propagate, attenuate, or otherwise affectthe natural or human environment. Although severalFederal agencies are involved in R. & D. concernedwith noise as a pollutant, the majority of the fundingeffort is centered in DOD, DOT, HUD, and NASA.These programs are almost exclusively directed to-ward aircraft noiseits reduction at the source,attenuation once generated, and human responsethereto. The R. & D. is bOth basic and applied.Approximately 20 to 25 million dollars per year aredirected toward noise R. & D. with the NASAexpending about 70 percent of the funding effort.Funds expended in fiscal years 1969, 1970, and 1971for R. & D. pertaining to noise are reported intable 9 (p. 55).
AIR
Several Federal agencies are involved in R. & D.concerned with noise as an air pollutant. The ma-jority of the funding effort is centered in DOD,DOT, NASA, and NSF. Research emphasis has beenplaced on aircraft propulsion system noise and itssuppression. Other efforts involve research on noisepropagation and sonic boom. The It. & D. is bothbasic and applied. For the purpose of illustratingthe noise programs and progress, major efforts inR. & D. have been placed in two categories: Aircraftpropulsion system noise and other aircraft noiseresearch.
Aircraft Propulsion System Note .
Quiet engine.Demonstration of the technologyand design innovations necessary to reduce the pro-duction and radiation of noise in turbofan engines.This experimental turbofan engine will have a takeoffthrust rating of 22,000 pounds. The engine will utilizeexisting core designs but will incorporate fan char-
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APPENDIX 1
acteristies and noise suppression techniques whichpromise to reduce noise substantially. Test lumlwa reincludes full-scale and acoustic-scale model fans.
Fan !eels. Test operations have begun in themodified fullscale test, facility. Initial fan tests willinclude: (1) A 1.5-pressure ratio fan with and withoutan acoustically treated nacelle (acoustic treatmentwill be varied by taping over porous surfaces toprovide information on suppressor effectiveness);(2) a 1.4-pressure ratio fan; (3) the 1.5-pressure ratiofan with reduced stator blade number; (4) the 1.5-pressure ratio fan without stators; and (5) the 1.5-pressure ratio fan with various motoi-stator spacingarrangements.
Fan results obtained to date translate into four-engine aircraft flyover noise levels of 104 effectiveperceived noise decibels (EPNdb) at the 3.5 nauticalmile point on takeoff power, and 102 EPNdb at the1 nautical mile point on approach (which are es-sentially the Federal Air RegulationsPart 36 (FAR36) noise limits). With an acoustically treated nacelle,the values should be reduced substantially below theFAR 36 criteria.
Nozzle configuration.Sea level static noise meas-urements are being continued on nozzle conceptssuitable. for supersonic cruise aircraft. Nozzle con-cepts investigated in conjunction with a J85 after-burning turbojet engine include a reference con-vergent primary nozzle, a variable flap ejector, anauxiliary inlet ejector, and a plug nozzle. Resultsindicate that the plug nozzle has an inherent capa-bility for reduced noise levels. Measurements of thenoise associated with these engine-nozzle-nacelle con-figurations have been extended to fly by tests wheninstalled on an F-106 aircraft.
A large rocket engine is being utilized to generatehigh temperature, supersonic jets with physical andthermochemical properties similar to those of a largeafterburning turbojet. This system will be used tostudy the contribution of the mixing region on theperceived noise level independent of the contributionsof any upstream turbomachinery. The investigation
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will attempt to determine: (1) The influence of ve-locity distribution at the exist of the nozzle, and(2) the influence of turbulence, particularly in theboundary layer, on the noise radiated from super-sonic jets discharging into the atmosphere at stag-nation temperatures (about 3,000°F.).
Supersonic jet noise generation.A theoretical andexperimental study to provide a better understandingof jet noise generation and suppression in supersonicjets and to develop an efficient supersonic jet noisesuppressor continues. Tests to date indicate thatweak shock waves from six small rods placed at theperiphery of a mach 1.4 jet decreased the overallsound power level by 6 db. While use of a shroudin conjunction with the six rods reduced the sound-power level by 18 db, multiple tubes were responsiblefor a 12 to 15 db reduction over that of a singlenozzle configuration. Analytical procedures havebeen used to determine the flow conditions neededto achieve up to.20 db noise suppression from super-sonic jets. Also determined were the large shieldingeffects of multitude supersonic jet configurations, anda theory was developed for the prediction of multipletube suppressor characteristics.
Lift fan noise.The lift fan program uses a 36-inchdiameter fan having a pressure ratio of 1.3 to explorethe effect of vane number (45 and 90), rotor-statorspacing (1.5 to 2.0 chords), and blade lean. The bestconfigurations will be investigated with acoustictreatment applied in the fan flow path and on theexit louvers. Later tests will also be made using ablade with a serrated leading edge. Noise measure-ments will continue to be taken during tests of air-craft in the 40- by 80-foot wind tunnel. This willestablish the relative noise levels of complete VSTOLaircraft configurations throughout the transitionflight regime and at cruise condition. The serratedleading edge concept continues to receive attention.Results to date at a speed of 377 feet per secondindicate that the most effective configuration con-sists of small triangular teeth mounted on an exten-sion of the wing chord. However, it appears, fromtests conducted with a serrated leading edge on a6-foot diameter tail rotor operating at 750 feet persecond, that a noise reduction potential may nolonger exit at the higher speeds.
Jet noise.Jet exhaust noise research involvesboth nozzle configuration and flow consideration.The basic acoustic characteristics of slot nozzles ofthe type used in augmented flap systems, and pe-ripheral nozzles of the type used in ground effectsmachines are under study in-house and at the Uni-versity of Tennessee. In-house studies also provide
for altering the sound speed profile of a jet exhaustand for adding flow shielding to radically change itsnoise radiation pattern. The addition of various sub-stances (solid particles, aerosol, secondary air flows,ionized particles) to the jet flow to alter its noisegeneration and radiation characteristics is understudy.
Rotating blade noise.The generation and pre-diction of rotating blade noise is important forvarious propulsion units, such as propellers, heli-copter rotors, fans, compressors, and turbines. Stud-ies that relate particularly to propellers include theacoustic evaluation of resonators for ducted pro-pellers and a theory for predicting the oscillatingpressure loads on propeller ducts and the far fieldradiation and the effects of inflow angle on the noisegeneration of unducted propellers.
The flight evaluation of helicopter noise reductionschemes has been completed. These were to evaluatevarious design modifications and specifically the rotorsystems. Flight tests have also been made to evaluatethe significance of unloading the rotor during flightby deployment of an auxiliary wing surface.
Tests are proceeding with .a multistage laboratorycompressor to study the noise loads on the com-pressor case near the rotors, and the propagation ofnoise through the blade rows.
Noise generation from large fan engines. Anotherproject being conducted is concerned with multiplepure tones and optimum lining generated by bladerows of an axial flow fan, and the determination ofthe effect of asymmetries in the inlet flow on thepropagation characteristics in the fan duct. Recentstudies have indicated that variations in bladespacing are not the source of significant multiplepure tones. Present studies are being continued todetermine blade stagger angle tolerance and bladeshape as possible causes of wave coalescencei.
Broadband noise mechanisms.This analyticalevaluation is concerned with the simultaneous inter-action of shock waves in a turbulent region, and theinteraction of blade wake turbulence with a heavilyloaded downstream blade. This latter mechanismwill be studied experimentally on an airfoil at highangles of attack with incident fluctuating flows.
Fluid mechanics of edgetones.This research pro-gram investigates the mechanism of aerodynamicsound production by free shear layers, such as sepa-rated boundary layers and impinging wakes on rigidsurfaces. Generation of edgetones associated with aturbulent jet both with and without a wedge in thestream has been explored, and a general theory isbeing formulated.
125
Turbulent jet noise generation.Research isoriented toward the noise generation and propagationby turbulent fluctuation in a turbulent jet, and thestudy of possible methods for alleviating this noisegeneration. Flow measurements have been obtainedin a subsonic stream downstream of a screen andwill be extended to includes supersonic jet. Spectralanalysis of the measured hot wire data will be con-ducted in a computer program.
VSTOL noise characteristics. Problems associatedwith VSTOL noise characteristics are under study.This effort is an extension to an existing studyrelating to the subjective evaluation of noise fromgeneral aviation aircraft. The noise characteristicsof some of these aircraft contain factors common toVSTOL aircraft. We have been concerned for sometime that noise characteristics peculiar to VSTOLvehicles, such as rotor blade slap, temporal noisepatterns, complex modulation, and tone effects maycontribute to the difficulty of calculating perceivednoise levels. The extension of noise certification regu-lations to VSTOL aircraft and the need to stimulatenoise reduction effort in VSTOL systems designsupport this requirement.
Reconnaissance/ surveillance aircraft noise. Ob-jectives of this noise research are to decrease auraldetection for reconnaissance/surveillance aircraft; toalleviate the problem of acoustically induced struc-tural fatigue; to reduce the overall noise environmentfor flight crew, ground crew, and neighboring com-munities; and to study radiated noise from aero-dynamic bodies in flight and methods of reduction.Tests have been conducted of a low-noise propeller,a test rig has been developed And recommendationsfor the design of minimum vortex noise propellershave been made. A one-time 3 million dollar effort toflight test a quiet aircraft for reconnaissance/sur-veillance has been successfully completed.
Propeller noise.Further work on radiated noisefrom aerodynamic bodies in flight and reduction ofpropeller noise continues. Jet propulsion systems forreconnaissance/surveillance aircraft are being stud-ied. The objective is to achieve aural nondetectabilityat relatively low altitudes. Acoustic evaluation ofpropeller designs will continue in-house as will de-velopment of a small turbine engine of minimumnoise.
Helicopter noise.Studies are being made to reducethe noise levels of both helicopters' and fixed-wingaircraft to reduce the probability of enemy detection.These efforts also contribute indirectly to abatementof noise pollution. Blade tip speed, blade geometiy,number of blades and blade materials are being
studied with a view to reducing helicopter noise.Techniques for measurement of noise levels havebeen improved. The effects of varying frequenciesupon the ability of humans to detect aircraft noisehave been determined. Short-range plans are tocontinue the search for means to reduce aircraftnoise.
J--65 inlet suppressor.A series of systematic vari-ations in inlet suppressor geometry were tested ona J-65 engine. The test series is complete.
Suppression concepts study.A crossed beam sys-tem is being developed for use in conjunction withalready existing advance data processing and ad-vance statistical analysis techniques. This systemwill be used to conduct jet noise research by studyingfundamental generation mechanics and suppressionconcepts. Optical measurements are being made ofsound source intensity variations in jets by gas andheat injection; these results will be compared withresults obtained in full-scale engine exhausts.
Acoustic treatment for jet engine tailpipes.A studyis being conducted to develop acoustic treatment forthe jet engine tailpipe. The work will identifyacoustic treatment which, when installed in the tail-pipe of a JT3D turbofan engine, will reduce theturbine noise and the turbulence generated noiseradiated from the tailpipe to a level below the levelof the jet exhaust noise. Specifically, the contractorshall perform the engineering design studies, basicexperiments, and components tests necessary to de-termine and evaluate promising alternate approachesto reducing the tailpipe and turbine radiated noise.The approaches are limited to acoustic treatmentwhich can be effectively installed within or aroundthe tailpipe. In evaluating the approaches, consider-ation will be given to factors such as maintainability,time between overhaul, safety, and cost, as well asengine performance and acoustic effectiveness.
Ground test of the most promising configurationwill be conducted by using a JT3D engine equippedwith a previously developed acoustically treatedflight test nacelle. The ground tests shall consist ofnoise measurements made in an arc around theengine for several power settings, including approachand takeoff power. Complete engine performancemeasurements also shall be obtained during thesetests. Based on the results of the ground tests, esti-mates of the acoustic benefits in terms of EPNdb,and change in performance characteristics of a Boeing707-300B series engine equipped with the modifiedtailpipe and acoustically treated nacelles will bedetermined.
Duct technology.A broad experimental and theo-
retical research program is underway relating to thebasic behavior of duct lining materials, the appli-cation to aircraft, and the associated operationalproblems. Basic in-house materials studies includeacoustical, structural, and aerodynamic aspects. Flowchoking in the inlets of engines involves the use ofvariable geometry guide vanes and the injection ofgases and fluids for localized flow control. The Dyna-tech Corp. is making systematic studies of waterinjection as a means of limiting noise propagation inconfined spaces. Studies relate to the developmentof useful prediction methods for noise generation bya zotor in a duct, for the subsequent noise propa-gation in the duet, and for noise radiated from it.
Studies have involved the flight testing and evalu-ation of specific duct lining configurations to de-termine acoustic, and aerodynamic performances.
"Internal" jet noise suppression test.As a part ofquiet engine program, the sources of low-velocity jetnoise are being studied. As 'a start, a J-65 turbojetengine will be equipped with a special tailpipe mufflerto separate internally generated noise from the ex-ternally generated jet noise. The engine is run atreduced r.p.m. with a 7-foot-long acoustically treatedannular muffler attached at the turbine outlet flange.The engine will also be run with an unlined "dummy"muffler section of identical flow geometry for noisecomparison. The muffler assembly has five separatemodular sections designed to attenuate noise in bandscentered at 300, 1,000, 2,000, 4,000, and 8,000 Hertz,respectively. Each module can be replaced by adummy section.
Other Aircraft Noise
Atmospheric pro. pagation.A study has been com-pleted to closely correlate flyover noise data record-ings, aircraft position information, and atmosphericpropagation losses over the audible frequency range.Meteorological studies of the lower 1,000 meters ofthe atmosphere in several representative locations inthe United States are underway to provide a sta.,tistical representation of temperature, humidity, andwind gradients; to correlate these with surface obser-vation; and to provide guidance in possible futurenoise propagation field studies.
Sonic boom.Considerable effort has been andcontinues to be taken to study the sonic boom phe-nomena. Studies are directed toward measurementtechniques, analyses of data, meteorological con-ditioning, atmospheric turbulence, experimentalsimulation, threshold mach, air stress alteration,operational maneuvers, and modeling.
Engineering development of glide slope computers.An engineering model of a low-cost airborne glide-slope computer has been developed to dc-nonstratethe feasibility of conducting two-segment approachesfor purposes of noise abatement. In addition, thiscomputer has material potential for increasing theoperating flight safety level of aircraft conductingvisual oral range (VOR)/noninstrument landing sys-tem (ILS) approaches to noninstrument landingsystem (ILS) equipped runways. This is done byadding a command signal to the pilot's verticalguidance. The two-segment approach capability isused on runways with ILS and permits commandguidance to be received by the pilot throughout bothsegments of the noise abatement approach.
Mechanism of noise generation and propagation.Theoretical and experimental studies are being con-ducted in such areas of interest as: effects of groundreflection and ground impedance on sound propa-gation; distribution of noise sources in gas flows;noise of interacting airjets; generation and propa-gation of sound in helium.
Several mechanisms of noise generation in a super-sonic jet stream have been postulated in addition tothose dominant in subsonic jets. The means ofabating noise generated by such mechanisms maybe considerably different and may not be mutuallycompatible if such mechanisms coexist. Furthereffort is required to greatly improve our under-standing of the noise generating mechanisms from ascientific standpoint, however, due to the currentneeds for solutions, engineering approaches must besimultaneously undertaken to reduce the exportnoise of aircraft capable of operating at supersonicspeeds. The research program, therefore, is a three-pronged effort to study the structure, turbulencelevels, and associated noise source mechanisms aswell as to pursue the two alternative engineeringmeans for superstinic aircraft noise reduction. Thatis, suppression of the noise generated by the super-sonic exhaust is studied through empirical hardwaredesign and tests. Variable engine cycle studies pro-vide for needed takeoff thrust with lower jet exhaustvelocities and transitioning to high jet velocity forsupersonic cruise.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by variousFederal agencies for noise in the air during fiscalyears 1969-71 are as follows:
1989 1970 1971
DOD 1.28 4.18 1.62
DOT .98 1.93 1.23
NASA 13.12 10.83 13.77
NSF .03 .11 .10
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HUMAN EFFECTS
The human effects category included approxi-inately 4 to 8 percent of the total noise researchand developtnent effort.
Physiological effects.Programs continue to in-vestigate human physiological responses to currentand future aerospace acoustical environments rang-ing from long term, low-level noises to the sonicboom to provide the means to reduce or eliminateundesirable effects.
Continuous noise exposure.Major emphasis isbeing placed on the study of peripheral circulationas influenced by noise exposure. Efforts will continuewith the intent of quantifying changes and to de-termine the clinical significance of such findings.
Impulsive noise exposure.This program is de-signed to identify physiologic responses that arcaltered by exposure to impulsive noises and to relatethese responses to various characteristics of the ex-posure stimulus. The relationship between startleand these effects will be established. The role ofimpulsive stimulus variables with respect to thresh-old of response, adaptation, and frequency of oc-currence will be examined for humans.
Infrasound.Physiological responses to intenseinfrasound will be investigated between 0.5 and 30Hz at levels up to 172 db. Effects on auditory acuityand the tympanic membrane are under study. Ex-posure conditions which will produce disorientation,respiratory arrhythmias, and other physiologic re-sponses will be defined. The combined effect of infra-sound and audio frequency exposures will be de-termined.
Effects of noise on performance.Programs con-tinue to measure and define human performancesensitive to acoustic exposures. Short-term memory,manual motor performance, and postural equilibriumin continuous noise exposures continue. Research issupported to determine the sources of natural andman-induced sound patterns which diminish or en-hance the physiological health, the mental state,the sense of safety and well-being, and the effective-ness of role performance by man. Monitoring andsurveillance activities are supported to determinethe characteristic sound patterns and intensity levelsthat exist in the home and neighborhood area, thework space, and the recreational areas.
Activities in the educational setting are primarilyto determine the effects of various sound patternsupon the learning abilities of school-age children.
Research in the occupational setting is aimed atreducing the effects of hazardous sound patterns
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upon the physical safety and efficiency of the worker.The residential setting is the target for assessing theimpact of both mechanical and man-derived soundpatterns on human health and well-being.
Acceptability of aircraft noise. Empirical studiesof the relative acceptability of sounds which appearto approach or recede from an observer have demon-strated a significant increase in unacceptability forapproaching sources. This phenomenon is being ex-tended through use of actual aircraft flyover or flybynoises.
Personnel protection and communication. Continu-ing programs are being conducted to measure anddefine acoustic environments as required for theevaluation of bioacoustic problems such as personnelprotection, communication, siting facilities, and coin -munity annoyance.
Frequency resolution in normal and impaired hear-ing.The purpose of this investigation is to perfecta simplified manner of obtaining estimates of differ-ential sensitivity for frequency which will study theeffects of masking noises and fatiguing sounds onhumans.
Auditory communication and its disorders.Cur-rent program 18 related to clinical audiometry, anal-ysis of processes in the inner car and auditory nerve,psychophysical studies of masking, and temporalperception.
Determination of susceptibility to hearing loss.Investigation will assess the validity of temporarythreshold shift tests as indicators of susceptibility topermanent hearing loss.
Loudness.Study distance cues and other param-eters correlated with distance charges and measuretheir effect on loudness judgments.
International standards.Support is provided theAcoustical Society of America for the establishmentof international standards on noise, noise abatement,and other acoustical standards.
Noise disturbancesonic boom.Noise disturbanceto sleep, public reaction to sonic boom, and environ-mental influence on public response to sonic boomare being studied.
Hearing levels of residents near airports.Investi-gation continues to evaluate hearing levels of resi-dents living near a major airport.
Noisevision and audition.Support is providedto the National Academy of Science, Committee onHearing, Bioacoustics, and Biomechanics (CHABA)for research on vision and audition.
R. & D. is still needed to determine the hearingdamage from different noise sources. ContinuingIt. & D. is required in human response to low fre-
las
quency noise, personnel protection, communication,and subjective responses to aircraft noise.
Funds expended (in millions of dollars) by variousFederal agencies for noise on human effects duringfiscal years 1969-71 are as follows:
1999 1970 1971
DOD 0.95 0.51 0.60DOT .57 .44 .04HEW .03 .10 .20NASA .76 .72 .70
LAND
Three Federal agencies have R. & D. programsconcerned with noise as a pollutant of land media:DOD, DOT, and HUD. Funding by agencies in-volved was approximately 6 percent of total dollarsexpended for total noise programs reported.
Land use planning.An existing FAA computerprocedure used for noise exposure forecasting willbe modified for military aircraft. A select number ofbases will be studied to test the applicability. Futurework will involve modification of procedures to applythe forecasting technique to all military aircraftoperations.
High-speed equipment.Studies are being con-ducted to reduce the noise from equipment withhigh speed components. These efforts contribute di-rectly to abatement of noise pollution, although thecontribution is applicable more to operators in theimmediate vicinity of the equipment rather than thegeneral public. Insulation techniques have been de-veloped for reducing noise from high speed gener-ators. This R. & D. effort will be phased out duringfiscal year 1971.
Noise exposure site assessment techniques.In fiscalyear 1970, a study was undertaken to provide thetechnidal background for noise abatement in HUD'soperating programs. As part of this study, techniqueswere developed to help facilitate implementation ofthe proposed HUD policy circular on noise abate-ment and control. HUD field personnel and appli-cants, who are not specifically trained acousticalexperts will be able to assess present and projectednoise exposures at sites proposed for considerationin HUD programs. The screening procedures will beeffective in eliminating or decreasing major noiseexposure problems before they develop. Additionally,measurement methods using acoustical instrumen-tation were provided for use in resolving the more
difficult situations. A training program consistingof visual aids and an audio tape that demonstratessome of the aspects of acoustics that are importantin dealing with community noise and its control wasprepared.
Metropolitan aircraft noise abatement stwl y (LoganInternational Airport).To develop useful alterna-tives for achieving both preventive and remedialrelief from aircraft noise exposure in the vicinity ofa large metropolitan airport. Included are consider-ations of basic causes, growth triads, and social-economic impact of aircraft noise exposure on indi-viduals and communities near airports. The projectincludes preparation of alternative approaehe3 foruse by local, State, and Fe(h!ral goverunw;its toguide them in land use development, airport develop-ment, and related aircraft operational procedures.A methodology for use by other airport and metro-politan planning officials is being developed.
Structural noise.R. & D. involving generationand interaction of noise with structure componentsand piping/ducting in buildings, and the performanceof acoustic filters is being undertaken.
Urban noise survey methodology.An effort wasbegun in 1970 to develop techniques for conductinga comprehensive urban noise study. Comprehensiveurban noise surveys will provide the baseline "cali-bration" of urban noise levels tu,im which adminis-trative or legislative actions may be based andagainst which the subsequent efficacy of such actionscan be determined.
Acoustical performance criteria. Deign criteriafor the HUD breakthrough housing systems werealso developed during fiscal year 1970 to help providea suitable interior acoustical environment free fromintrusive noises of neighbors, mechanical buildingequipment, and noises from outdoors.
Transportation noise study.To determine themagnitude of the transportation noise abatementproblem in the United States and develop a set ofanalytical tools that can be used to do+erline theextent of the abatement; provide a c,inpieht.analysis of the current technical, economic, and legallimits of noise reduction, and est' tales of what theymay be in the future; determine the level of responsi-bility (public and private) for noise abatement, andthe ability at each level to provide the necessaryresources to implement noise abatement program;determine the need for government standards andregulations for transportation noise abatement, toestablish specific recommendations for standards andregulations and their means of enforcement; de-termine the scientific research program which will
140129
4
maximize the expected return from all related re-source allocations; determine how to provide trans-portation services that stay within acceptable noiseexposure in populated areas, given the operationaleconomic, social, and political constraints.
Noise criteria evaluation.Define and evaluate thenoises of transportation with an overall goal of de-fining the requirements for uniform criteria and ob-jectives for transportation noise abatementidentifyand quantify the parameters which characterizedifferences in the annoyance levels of differentsources of transportationleads to a unified noiserating system.
Interdisciplinary research on the impacts and allevi-ation of transportation noise.The specific contri-butions of this program to existing knowledge is todetermine the impact of transportation noise oncommunity, physical, social, and economic environ-ment; to further explore methods for reducing trans-portation noise by analyzing their effectiveness, im-pact on system performance, cost, feasibility, andeconomic desirability; to provide urban planners,transportation system planners and operators,acousticians, governmental agencies, and others withbetter measures of the community cost of transpor-tation noise, and with better techniques for noisealleviation.
Subways noise measurement.Subway noise is beingstudied by reviewing available technical reports onthe mass transit rail systems now in existence inToronto, Hamburg, London, Berlin, Paris, andRotterdam and select seven systems that appear tohave the lowest noise levels. These acoustical meas-urements and studies will complement existing dataand provide additional data necessary to present acomplete matrix of the acoustical environment. Thisanalysis will identify the parameters that define thesystems acoustical environment.
Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) urban noisestudy.This study will gather, catalog, analyze andsummarize available noise data in three areas, rela-tive to noise associated with the operation of tractorsand related equipment. Specifically, the three areasare:
1. Definition of the physical characteristics oftypical noises to which operators of such equip-ment might be exposed;
2. The tolerance levels of such operators, bothwith and without protection.
3. Degree of possible hearing damage and operatordisorientation from exposure to variable noise.
Metropolitan aircraft noise abatement policystudies. Interagency agreement with HUD to fa,
130
cilitate and extend HUD's research in conducting aseries of metropolitan aircraft noise abatement policystudies to consider the causes, trends, and impact ofaircraft noise on people and communities near air-ports is being developed. The purpose of these studiesis to formulate applicable alternative policies thatmay be adopted to guide land use development in amanner compatible with the expected noise levels.Six airport areas were initially selected for study.During fiscal year 1969 research contracts were with :
New York Kennedy International Airport. (Tri-State Transportation Commission)Chicago O'Hare International Airport. (North-eastern Illinois Planning Commission)Bradley International Airport, Windsor Locks,Conn. (Capital Regional Planning Agency)Kennedy Regional Airport, Melbourne, Fla.(East Central Florida Regional PlanningCouncil)
As a followup to the prototype studies, a separateproject will synthesize the results and make themeven more useful to planning agencies. The method-ology utilized, the conclusions and recommendationsfrom the completed studies will be evaluated andsummarized for potential use in other airport impactsituations. The final product from the research willbe an airport environs planning manual which willhave widespread distribution to planning agenciesand local officials.
Clean Air Car Race.Noise measurements of allvehicles qualifying for the annual transcontinentalClean Air Car Race were made.
Truck tire noise.An investigation of truck tirenoise was initiated in April 1970. The objective ofthis program is to identify and quantify the physicalparameters that affect the noise generation character-istics of truck tires and to develop an informationbase that may lead to standardized tire-noise testingprocedures and to highway noise reduction criteria,standards, and regulations. A requirement for $67,300in fiscal year 1972 is anticipated to complete thiseffort.
Transportation noise generation.Using the air-craft /airport model developed for the Baltimore-Washington metropolitan area, the study will de-velop and implement a research and demonstrationprogram to measure and evaluate an urban area inthe Boston metropolitan area. This will therebyvalidate and provide more confidence in the method-ology used for evaluating noise exposure in urbanarea.
Modeling for jet noise.A grant agreement withthe University of Southern California to develop
141
ti
engineering guidelines for the noise abatement ofsubsonic and supersonic jets. The program of basicresearch will be conducted over a period of 3 years.The first 3pa Cs activity will include: (a) the overalldesign and construction of the research facility: theanechoic chamber, the air supply system for the jet,the jet nozzle, the traversing mechanisms used fordetailed measurements; (b) development of specialnarrow angle microphones of electronic system fordata pmcessing; and (c) preliminary measurementsin a high subsonic "clean jet." In the second year,plans are laid out to conclude the "clean jet" experi-ments, to initiate the theoretical study on a sourcemodel and to start an experimental and analyticalwork on the effects of initial conditions. Dependingon the progress of this program, it is hoped that inthe third year research on the supersonic jet noiseproblem could be initiated.
Formulation of noise standards.Efforts continuewhich deal with the formulation of acoustical stand-ards. The three standards committees of the Acous-tical Society (S-1Acoustics, S-2Shock and Vi-bration, and S- 3 Bioacoustics) will report uponcurrent engineering and scientific research designedto provide technical bases for specifying standardmethods for measuring noise and vibration and de-fining acceptable limits for noise and vibration bytransportation equipment.
Tire acoustics. --Astudy of tire sound generationwhether the variations between tires can lead to aneffective acoustical grading of tires. The two distinctareas of investigation are: (a) the physical distri-bution and characteristics of the sound generated bya representative range of commercial tires undervarious conditions; and (b) a comparative assessmentof the auditory responses to typical noises generatedby tires.
Advisory and information services for transportationnoise abatement.To provide for interrelated infor-mation services:
(1) Advisory servicesinformation storage, re-trieval, and synthesis: an advisory committee withinthe Highway Research Board of the National Re-search Council, National Academy of Sciences, ofapproximately eight experts in the variods aspectsof transportation noise will be appointed to adviseon the scope, sources, and input/output requirementsof a storage and retrieval system for noise informationand to advise on topics and procedures to be usedin the synthesis of stored information and informa-tion which is available from other resources. Initialpriority for committee concerns is in the area ofsurface transportation noise.
(2) Storage and retrieval system for transpor-tation noise research information: Develop a spe-cialized file for transportation noise research infor-mation service (TNRIS). The service will providefor up to 2,500 references in the first-year operationto cover ongoing research activities, reports on com-pleted research, and publications or other documentswithin the scope of the service. Output from thesystem will include response to direct queries,monthly lists and indexes of stored material and, atthe end of the contract year, an experimental publi-cation to represent the year's accomplishments.
(3) Synthesis of information for selected topics ontransportation noise abatement: After an adequateinformation base has been acquired, a small numberof relatively narrow topics within the field of trans-portation noise abatement will be selected as high-priority topics for information synthesis. One topicwill then be selected for producing a correspondinginformation synthesis document.
(4) Advisory services research programs: Examineand make recommendations for R. & D. activitiesthat may lead to the implementation, within thetransportation community of policies, standards, andprocedures for alleviating transportation.
Sonic boom parks and wildlife.There is a con-tinuing program for recording sonic booms in fourwestern National Parks. The Federal AeronauticsAdministration has supplied mobile equipment whichhas housed equipment in trailers presently set up atYellowstone, Mesa Verde, Bryce, and Yosemite. Self-tripping recorders make a record of all sonic boomswhich impact these areas and tapes are then ana-lyzed. National Park personnel at these and otherparks have been alerted to the boom problem andare maintaining a record of all sonic booms thatoccur within their areas and are noting any physicaldamage that may have resulted.
Possible damage that may result to marine lifefrom booms impacting streams and lakes is understudy. A preliminary analysis of this problem isbeing made.
Mink are extremely sensitive to disturbance andare an excellent experimental animal to test theeffects of sonicboom on wildlife. A number of de-partments and agencies are cooperating in an effortto determine the effect of sonic booms on mink inAlaska. The results will help in gaging the effects ofsonic booms on wildlife.
A need exists to conduct noise measurement,analyses, and information distribution to assist trans-portation system planners and operators.
Similarily noise measurements and analysis of
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ambient noise levels in remote wildlife areas to de-tamine impact of noise on wildlife need to be made.
Transportation system noise measurements inmetropolitan areas need to be initiated to gather datathat will be used to validate simulation models pre-viously developed.
An investigation of truck tire noise as a follow-on
to the current automobile tirc noise investigationshould be undertaken.
A program wherein highway noise enforcementproblems encountered by State and local authoritiescould examined to determine areas of possiblerefinement, and innovative methods of noise measure-ments to assist local officials in enforcing State vehiclenoise codes within urban areas.
Surface transportation vehicle noise reduction pro-grams designed to demonstrate economic means ofabating noise generated by existing transportationvehicles should be developed.
A program to demonstrate economic and techno-logically feasible methods of attenuating noise trans-missions generated by vehicles Operating on highwaysor other guideways or both is required.
A complete inventory of current truck noise per-formance and noise reduction kits should be de-veloped. This effort could be used as the first stepin the demonstration program on truck noisereduction.
Refinement of mathematical models or transpor-tation noise reduction and attenuation should bedeveloped.
Area-wide planning studies to consider the catises,trends, and the impact of aircraft noise on peopleand communities near airports should be expanded.The purpose of these studies would be to formulateapplicable alternative policies that may be adoptedto guide land-use development in a manner com-patible with forecast noise levels.
Over the years little has been done to demonstratemeans of abating noise generated by vehicles on ourhighways, hence, little has been accomplished byway of actual noise reduction and many argumentsprimarily of an economic nature have been madeagainst attempts at State and local highway noiseenforcement programs. In addition, the need formass transit vehicles to supplant the individual autoin conjested urban areas will be taxing a substantialbut diffused body of knowledge regarding the designand construction of acoustically acceptable masstransit systems. It is, therefore, necessary, in apriority fashion, to design and develop efforts todemonstrate the effectiveness of current and ad-vanced state-of-the-art noise reduction as applied tosurface transportation vehicles. This effort could
132
Elio explore in a more cursory fashion the economicimpact of such noise abatement technology in
practice.Initial effort should be aimed at demonstration
projects for the most populous vehicles involved inthe areas of largest community annoyance. As prog-ress is made on the vehicles presently creating thelargest problem, other vehicles will begin to evolveas the most troublesome, hence, warranting demon-stration projects of those vehicles in turn.
It is anticipated that the results of these vehicledemonstrations will permit and become the basis forprogressively more stringent State highway noisestandards which, in turn, could provide the impetusfor the inclusion of technology developed within thisresearch area as routine design and manufacturingpractice.
Systematic research and demonstration/evaluationprograms should be supported with the aim of prop-erly assessing current practices and developing newand innovative methods of attenuating noise trans-mission away from transportation rights-of-way.Specific areas to be explored are noise barriers(capable of being added to existing roads and de-signed into new roads), absorbent materials on re-taining walls and abutments, roadside terrain con-touring and planting surface material, traffic flowcontrol devices, and other design features.
In addition, techniques to aid highway noise en-forcement could be developed to permit such enforce-ment programs close to urban residential areas andon highways employing noise abatement features.
The results of this research area would provide adirect input to State and Federal highway planners,as well as State highway law enforcement organi-zations for immediate application within State en-vironmental programs.
A continuing program of research into the morefundamental aspects of noise generation and propa-gation should be supported as a source of new andmore effective concepts of noise abatement theoryand technology from which future development anddemonstration programs would draw in order toinhibit the escalation of transportation noise in oursociety. While some efforts will pertain to scientificinvestigation of a generalized nature with such broadpotential application as to preclude indentificationof the research with specific transportation vehicles,it is anticipated that end results of all of the research
. would have specific application to transportationnoise abatement and that such applications will befully postulated.
Contributions of interstate highway noise, airportnoise, and major transportation terminal noise to
X
overall ambient noise levels in urban areas shouldbe further defined by building upon further measure-merits. Refined measurements would be made in ac-cordance with a detailed plan formulated to insurethat sufficient data will be obtained to permit afactoral analysis.
Studies and analyses should be conducted to de-termine the feasibility of a performing on a con-tinuing basis monitoring of urban noise to furtheridentify contributions made by transportation ve-hicles. Based upon these results, demonstration pro-grams of urban noise level monitoring could beinitiated.
Analytical and mathematical models previously4 developed should be refined on a continual basis to
provide more useful analytical tools for urban plan-ners, vehicle manufacturers, and guideway builders.
Interrelated noise information services need to beprovided so that research and advisory informationcan be made available to appropriate State and localofficials to assist in the establishment and enforce-ment of noise standards, planning, construction, andmaintenance activities.
Funds (in million of dollars) expended by variousFederal agencies on noise on the land during fiscalyears 1969-71 are as follows:
WATER
Two Federal agencies indicated an R. & D. effortinvolving noise in water media. This combined mini-mal effort totals $66,000 for fiscal years 1969-71,and represents less than 1 percent of the total en-vironmental noise program. The NSF grant sup-ported basic research on sound propagation and hasnot been funded since fiscal year 1969. The DOTresearch and development was sponsored by theFederal Aviation Agency and concerned the pene-tration of sonic boom energy into the ocean (com-pleted in June 1970) and an investigation of under-water acoustic effects caused by atmospheric sonicbooms.
Little attention has been focused upon the effectsof noise in water. With the concern of the Nationfor possible sonic booms effects on flight pathslimited to ocean traverse, there should be cause formore scientifically based data of noise and over-pressure upon various forms of marine life.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended by variousFederal agencies for noise in the water during fiscalyears 1969-71 are as follows:
DODDOTHUD
19890.10
.93
.12
19700.02.15.08
19710.60
.46
.10
DOTNSF
1969
0.03
19700.04
.04
1971
00.5
Pftlt., 144
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Radiation
For the purpose of this study, radiation was viewedas encompassing ionizing and nonionizing radiation,natural and manmade, which affects the natural orhuman environment. The radiation programs aredivided into the following research categories: (1)evaluation of effects, (2) measurement and inoni-toring, (3) prevention and control, and (4) transportand fate.
The level of R. & D. effort for fiscal years 1969-71remained fairly constant at about $70 million peryear. In each category the AEC program accountedfor more than 95 percent of funds expended. Evalu-ation of effects received the majority of the emphasis(approximately $40 million per year). Studies de-voted to transport and fate of radioactive materialsresulted in expenditures of approximately $15 millionper year. All radiation programs reported were sub-mitted by five Federal agenciesAEC, DOD, EPA,HEW, and NSF. Funding for each of these agenciesin fiscal years 1969, 1970, and 1971 is reported intable 10 (p. 59).
EVALUATION OF EFFECTS
Research in this category enables a better under-standing of the immediate and' long-term effects ofacute and chronic exposure to radiation of varioustypes. Because of the ever-expanding applications ofnuclear energy, knowledge of the effects of exposureto low-level (chronic) irradiation is particularly im-portant. Research is carried out to understand theeffects and interactions of radiation and other factorson freshwater, marine, estuarine, and terrestrial eco-systems. Investigation of techniques for the measure-ment of external radiation doses in the Vicinity ofoperating nuclear facilities that release gaseous radio-active wastes to the atmosphere is another programunder this category. Dose estimates are being de-veloped from experimental data on tritium andkrypton for concentration guides in gas for com-mercial and domestic use.
APPENDIX 8
Research, including basic and long-term studiesinvolving large numbers of human beings and ani-mals, is conducted to better understand the potentialbiological effects resulting from exposure to ionizingand nonionizing radiation from many electronicproducts. Examples of electronic products, whichare used by consumers, the medical professions, andin industry, include microwave ovens, color TV's,X-ray equipment, and diathermy equipment amongsome 30,000 electronic products. Medical and in-dustrial uses of radiopharinaceuticals and radioactivematerials are also sources of exposure of immediateconcern.
An indoor radon exposure progeny evaluationstudy is to be conducted to evaluate effects ofuranium mill tailings used in construction and sur-rounding communities. Also of special interest isresearch to determine the significance of radioactivematerials in freshwater systems, since radionuclidesare more readily accumulated from the environmentby freshwater organisms than by marine forms. Re-search is also determining the different types ofgenetic damage produced at the level of the chromo-some, gene, and nucleic acids. From such investi-gations, it is hoped to predict with reasonable accu-racy the consequences of specific types of geneticdamage in individuals of initial and succeeding gener-ations. Another aim is to understand and predict theimpact of specific types of genetic damage on popu-lations, and the mode and rate of elimination ofdamage from populations. Some of the more specificareas of interest include the study of the effects ofradionuclides on plant and animal populations in
aforests, grasslands, deserts, and tundra and on suchbiological processes as behavior, food production,succession, migration, and reproduction. Researchinvestigations assess the impact of radiation on soil,plant, and micro-organism ecosystems.
Research in radiobiology is being conducted toevaluate the adverse effects of electromagnetic radi-ation. A major goal is to develop knowledge of theoverall survivability and vulnerability analyses of
13
systems. Research to define the cause of incapaci-tation is continuing. Research is undertaken to definelaser, microwave, and flashblindness hazards. Effortscontinue to develop exposure criteria and protectivedevices. Funding for R. & D. programs involvedwith evaluating the effects of radiation accounted for58 percent of the money in this category. The AECspent 97 percent of the funds in evaluating theeffects of radiation.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended for evalu-ating the effects during fiscal years 1969-71 were asfollows:
1969 1970 1971AEC 40.98 40.35 39.59DOD .90 .82 .82EPA .28 .78HEW 2.55. 2.69 2.78
MEASURING AND MONITORING
The development of instruments to detect andmeasure radiation is an important part of the overallprogram. The development of special radiation in-struments to assess uranium miners' exposure toradiation has received much attention. Materials,devices, and techniques for these instruments areconstantly being improved. This R. & D. programsupports many other Federal activities that assessand control pollution. Related to this work is re-search in radiological physics, which provides thebasis for a full understanding of the underlyingphysical processes by which radiation produces bio-logical changes. These studies are prerequisite tointerpretation of radiobiological effects and to theformulation of advanced dosimetry. Health physicsresearch provides information and techniques neededfor the formulation and establishment of improvedradiation protection procedures. Detection of lowlevels of krypton and tritium in effluents from stacksof nuclear fuel reprocessing plants is being developed.Analytical techniques for measuring radionuclidesin water discharged from nuclear power plants arebeing developed. A program to investigate the maxi-mum and average levels of dosimetrically importantradionuclides in human diet for use in estimatingpopulation dose is continuing. This category ac-counts for 14 percent of all funds reported involvingradiation pollution R. & D. The AEC expends 96percent of the funds devoted to this radiation area.
R. & D. is required to develop instruments tomeasure exposure levels of microwaves, ultrasonics,ultraviolet, 'and other nonionizing radiation, underboth laboratory and field conditions, in order to
enforce electronic product performance standards.Dosimetry instrumentation R. & D. is also underway.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended for meas-uring and monitoring during fiscal years 1969-71were as follows:
1969 1970 1971AEC 8.72 9.57 9.37DOD .20 ___EPA ____ .51 .59HEW .70 .85 .70
PREVENTION AND CONTROLTECHNOLOGY
R. & D. to improve the collection, handling, treat-ment, and disposal of radioactive waste materialsand effluents from the nuclear energy industry havebeen important parts of the overall program. Thedevelopment of improved equipment and proceduresfor the safe management of radioactive wastes, par-ticularly the high-level wastes from the chemicalprocessing of irradiated reactor fuels, is a major ob-jective. Programs also involve the development ofprocedures for using alumina to remove or reducestrontium-90 in aqueous effluents from nuclear fuelreprocessing plants.
Evaluation of radon diffusion control measures todetermine the effectiveness of ventilation in buildingsusing uranium tailings for fill material is in progress.
High-power radar and communication transmittershave caused numerous unexpected problems in de-grading receiver sensitivity. To avoid this situation,a program is underway to insure electromagneticcompatibility. Funding in this category has average?approximately $3.3 million for fiscal years 1969-7'sand will drop to about one-half this expenditureprojected to fiscal year 1972.
Funds for prevention and control R. & D. accountfor approximately 7 percent of those reported. TheAEC expends 99 percent of the funds reported underthis radiation pollution category.
R. & D. has been conducted to provide perform-ance standards specifications covering color TV com-ponents and !shielding, microwave oven interlocksand door seals, and other technical improvementssuch as X-ray collimators.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended for pre-vention and control during fiscal years 1969-71 wereas follows:
1989 1970 1971AEC t 5.08 4.87 5.12EPA .02 .03HEW .65 .68 .70
135
TRANSPORT AND FATE
R. & D. programs in this category are directed tothe understanding of the mechanisms by which radio-nuclides move through the natural environment,including inland waters, oceans, and land. Interestin these studies stems from the fact that radioactivitymay be introduced into the environment as a resultof nuclear energy operations. Among these arc radio-active fallout from nuclear explosions, from nuclearreactors for power or propulsion, or from any othersituation that might result in the dissemination ofradioactivity. From these studies, it is possible topredict more reliably where and how rapidly suchradioactivity will be transported. This informationis necessary to design procedures to assure thatnuclear activities are conducted safely. This categoryaccounts for 22 percent of all funds expended onradiation research and development.
Development of procedures to determine the build-up of radionuclides in a small lake impoundmentassociated with a nuclear power reactor is currentlyfunded and projected through fiscal year 1971. Anevaluation study of radionuclide discharge pathways,techniques of removal, and waste treatment associ-ated with current and planned operating power re-actors is in progress and will continue through fiscalyear 1971. The basis for determining significant en-vironmental impact of proposed nuclear facilities in-volves the development of special data from inde-pendent studies and problem analyses. Researchconcerned with the mechanisms of interaction ofhigh-energy atoms of chemical kinetics is being ac-complished. Radioactive materials are distributed inthe atmosphere and the ocean as tracers of globalprocesses. Projects in the general area of radiationenergetics of the upper atmosphere and global distri-bution of the ozone resulting from photo dissociationand attenuation of the solar beam by atmosphericaerosols are supported. Oceanographic projects areconcerned with tritium used as a global tracer. TheAEC expends 96 percent of the radiation pollutionfunds in this category.
The growth of nuclear industries will probablyresult in increased discharges of radioactive ma-terials to the environment. Current program ac-tivities are not sufficient to provide the technicalevaluation of proposed power reactors and assess-ment of the total impact of the operation of theseplants on the environment. Intensified efforts shouldbe directed toward development of technology forfurther reduction of radioactivity discharges. Theprojected increase in population exposure to krypton
136
and tritium requires R. & D. of technology to reduceand control these radionuclides from power reactorsand fuel reprocessing plants. Research on the bio-logical effects of low-level radiation will be neededto expand the knowledge of this effort to improveexisting standards. Future use of plutonium as aheat source for space nuclear auxiliary power (SNAP)requires better modeling to estimate its biologicaleffects. Each of the programs identified needs tocontinue and to be expanded.
There is an increased need for the evaluation ofthe effectiveness of current and newly developedradioactive waste treatment systems. More study isrequired to determine the effectiveness of protectiveactions to reduce population exposure in the eventof an incident or accident at a nuclear power reactor.Additional studies are necessary to determine theuptake and distribution of reactor effluent radio-nuclides in marine ecosystems.
Research investigations are still needed to assesshuman exposure to radiation and to evaluate theimpact of radiation upon soil, plant, and micro-organism ecosystems. In meeting this objective,models need to be developed for predicting the up-take by, movement through, and loss of radio-nuclides from components of the environment. Landdisposal techniques as alternatives to regulated oceandisposal are needed.
The determination of effectiveness of protectiveactions is still required. The need exists for non-ionizing radiation standards for an expanded fre-quency range of the electromagnetic spectrum. Anaccurate, reliable, and portable instrument to meas-ure varying electromagnetic frequencies is still
necessary.Considerable R. & D. effort for many years has
been devoted to preventing and controlling the intro-duction of radioactive material into watercourses ofthis Nation . The tremendous increase in nuclearenergy for electrical power production will requirethat specific geographic areas where the plants areto be located be studied in greater depth. As oceandisposal of radioactive waste material is phased out,new methods of landbased disposal must be found.
Also of special interest is research to determine thesignificance of radioactive materials in freshwatersystems, since radionuclides are more rapidly ac-cumulated from the environment by freshwaterorganisms' than by marine forms.
It would appear that increased effort and fundingis indicated in the prevention and control area.When compared with the level of effort in othercategories discussed, the expenditure is dispropor-
'4
11
p
tionately small. No long-term solution has yet beendesigned for the proper disposal of highly activeradionuclides.
Voids of knowledge still exist concerning the effectson the human and natural environment for manysegments of the electromagnetic spectrum. Little isknown concerning high-power low-frequency micro-wave effects or the significant parameters of concern.
There would appear to be no overlap in R. & D.currently underway by Federal agencies. To thecontrary, there appears to be a coordinated effortbetween Federal agencies to insure that duplication
does not occur. Several instances of cross fundingbetween- agencies to devote maximum expertise wereindicated in this analysis.
Funds (in millions of dollars) expended for trans-port and fate during fiscal years 1969-71 were asfollows:
1969 1970 1971AEC 13.89 15.91 15.11DOD
.01 .01EPA .27 .96HEW .35 .28 .40NSF .22 .29 .32
148
GOVIERNUENT PRINTING OFFIGM IMO-M11-084
137
