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Dempsey, John V.; And OthersInstructional Gaming: Implications for InstructionalTechnology.Feb 9421p.; Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of theAssociation for Educational Communications andTechnology (Nashville, TN, February 16-20, 1994).Information Analyses (070) Reference Materials
Bibliographies (131) Speeches/Conference Papers(150)
EDRS PRICE MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS Annotated Bibliographies; Attitude Change; Computer
Assisted Instruction; *Computer Games; ComputerSimulation; *Educational Games; EducationalTechnology; Literature Reviews; *Problem Solving;*Recreational Activities; Resource Materials; SelfEsteem; *Skill Development; Teaching Methods;Theories
ABSTRACTInstructional gaming, as distinguished from
simulation, is defined as any overt instructional or learning formatthat involves competition and is rule-guided. The literature review
identifies five categories of articles on instructional gaming: (1)
research, (2) theory, (3) reviews, (4) discussion, and (5)development. Games have been found to serve many functions, such astutoring, amusing, helping to explore new skills, promotingself-esteem, practicing skills, or seeking to change attitudes. Someassertions drawn from the literature that might be useful in using ordesigning a game or in researching its use or design are presented. Achart presents an annotated bibliography of 94 articles related togaming. (SLD)
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cz:
U.f. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONOff ce of Educational Research and improvement
EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATIONCENTER (ERIC/
o This document hes been reproduced asreceived from the person or organizationoriginating it
0 Minor changes have been mad* to Improvereproduction quality
Points of view Or opinions stated In tr. s docu-ment do not necessarily represent officialDEBI position or policy
INSTRUCTIONAL GAMING: IMPLICATIONS FOR INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY
JOHN V. DEMPSEY
KAREN RASMUSSEN
BARBARA LUCASSEN
2
"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THISMATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY
John V. Dempsey
TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCESINFORMATION CENTER (ER1C1."
Instructional Gaming: Implications for Instructional Technology
John V. DempseyKaren RasmussenBarbara Lucassen
University of South Alabama
Prepared for the 1994 Annual Meeting of theAssociation for Educational Communications and Technology
Nashville, TN
Few would argue these days of the potential instructional gaming has for enrichingcertain educational and training activities. For instance, Faria (1987) has reported that4,600 of thelarger U.S. firms he surveyed by mail or telephone, use business orexperiential games in training or development. Those who profess the educational benefitsof gaming have been encouraged to some extent by a number of researchers who havefound a wide range of benefits which, for example, include improved practical reasoningskills (Wood and Stewart, 1987), higher levels of continuing motivation (Malouf 1988),and reduced training time and instructor load (Allen, Chatelier, Clark, & Sorenson, 1982).Some researchers, however, have questioned certain of these claims due to a lack ofsufficient empirical support (e.g., Bredemeier & Greenblat, 1981). Even so, very diversetraining applications, such as attention reduction or automaticity training (Jacobs,Dempsey, & Salisbury, 1990) and complex problem solving (Hayes, 1981), arehypothesized to be prime candidates for gaming strategies.
The purpose of this paper is to report on our continuing review of five categories ofgaming articles in order to present some implications and, in some cases, guidelines todesigners and educators. We see this review as part of the search for the beneficial uses ofgaming in the learning processes, particularly as applied to computer-driven media andmultimedia.
What is gaming anyway?
Gaming is defined as being separate from simulation and is defined, in a basic
sense, as any overt instructional or learning format that involves competition and is rule-52:uided (Dempsey, Lucassen, Gilley, & Rasmussen, 1993-94). A competitive format, aswe see it, does not necessarily require two or more participants. If a simulation, forinstance, produces an overall "score," then it is possible for a learner to compete againstherself by comparing scores over successive attempts at the simulation. Therefore, thislearner may be in a gaming mode. If, however, the focus of the simulation involves thecompletion of an event only (e.g., navigating a channel in a boat), then according to ourdefinition the simulation would not be considered a game. A game structure may beimposed on the simulation from outside, however. For example, in the boating scenario,learners could compete by seeing how many safe passages they could achieve in a certainamount of time compared with another person or their own prior performance. Gamingelements offer particular characteristics which may be manipulated within the simulationtraining context, and thus can be treated separately.
Categories of the articles in the Gaming Literature
Our review of the literature to this date consists of 91 sources, most of which arejournal articles. We located these using ERIC, PSYCHLIT, MEDLINE, and referencecitations from other articles. With few exceptions, we concentrated our review on articles
3
published in the last 12 years. We oriented (but did not limit) our search to articlesconcerning instructional games which used some form of technology and were substantivein nature. We felt that our first step in looking at the literature consisted of establishing atypology by which gaming articles could be categorized for study. After someconsideration, we defined the following five categories of gaming articles. Thesedefinitions were employed in an earlier related article (Dempsey, Lucassen, Gilley, &Rasmussen, 1993-94).
Research:
Theory:
Reviews:
Discussion:
Development:
any systematic approach used in the study of gaming whose goal is toexplain, predict or control a particular phenomena or variable.Research studies may be further broken down into their paradigms(e.g., case study, experimental study).
articles which offer to explain the basic concept of gaming or aspects ofgaming or the outcomes derived.
synthesis of articles concerning gaming in general or a specific aspect ofgaming.
articles which state or describe experiences or opinions with noempirical or systematically presented evidence.
articles which discuss projects involving gaming or the design ordevelopment of instructional games.
To date, we have reviewed more discussion articles (n=43) than the nearestcategory, research (n=33). Although we have only unsystematically sampled a smallportion of the literature thus far, we expect the trend in the gaming literature to continue tobe dominated by discussion articles. Nine literature review and seven primarily theoreticalarticles were located. Early on, we were mildly surprised at the low number ofdevelopment articles (n=4) we have located.
Types of Games
One of our efforts has been to delineate and eventually work toward operationaldefinitions of types of instructional games. In this and our prior review, we separatedgames into simulations, puzzles, adventures, experimental games, motivational games,modeling, and others (e.g., frame games). To be candid, we are likely to change the typesof games delineations we have chosen in future explorations of gaming. At any rate,simulation games accounted for the largest number of articles we encountered in this review(n=42). The "other" category was second (n=20), followed by adventure (n= 10), puzzles(n=4), and experimental and motivation (n=1 each).
This abundance of articles concerning simulation games may, in part be the result oftechnological improvements and the long and well-documented history of simulationgaming in education, particularly in the military and in business education. Also, simulationgaming parallels current movements in instructional technology such as situated cognitionand anchored instruction which hold that knowledge is inseparable from its context.Theorists in these areas (e.g., Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989; Perelman, 1992) supportthe notion that the human brain is designed to learn through experience and experience hasno meaning except in some context. Simulation games can provide that experience in theabsence of real life experience. Thus, simulation games are a powerful tool whose use canonly be expected to increase.
Learning Outcomes
As our literature review locus on instructional or educational gaming, we wereinterested in what learning outcomes were discussed. In a large number of articlesconcerning games or gaming (n.37), specia learning outcomes were ignored or a
rraj.;,' 2
discussion of learning outcomes per se was not germane. The largest specific learningoutcome discussed in those articles that did so, however, was problem-solving (n=21). As
the reader can see in Figure 1, the articles we reviewed covered most of the nine domainsand sub-domains of learning in Gagne's taxonomy (Gagne, 1985), suggesting thattechnology-based instructional gaming has a wide spectrum of utility for learning. We wereparticularly interested in the preponderance of games intending to promote higher-levelintellectual skills and attitude learning as opposed to verbal knowledge outcomes. We see
this as a positive testimonial to the gaming mode.
Fig. 1 . Learning Outcomes
Learning Outcomes
403530252015105 1
owl0 I 1
A
3
Function of Games
t=z1 .31
111 45
C n.Sg 0 ° ra 6 S
Games serve many functions such as tutoring, amusing, helping to explore newskills, promoting self-esteem, practicing existing skills, drilling existing skills,automatizing, or seeking to change an attitude. In the articles we reviewed, the functions ofthe instructional games were moderately well-distributed, but suggested that games werenot frequently employed to serve as a tutor. As Figure 2 illustrates practicing existing skills
(n=22) was the highest frequency and learning new skills (n=21) was a close second.Many of the articles stated that games were used to learn new skills after some introductoryinstructional events had prepared the learner for the competitive instructional interaction.The variety of functions discussed in the gaming literature we reviewed is seen as a positive
indicator paralleling the agreeable diversity of learning outcomes with which imming may
be used.
pox. 3
Fig. 2. Functions of Games
Function of Games
" T25
20
15
1 0
o 11111 I
5
op
cG a
6 0 E
61
Gaming environment
There are great environmental differences assumed by the designers of instructionalgames. We reviewed articles from the following environments: elementary education,secondary education, adult education, business, management, military, health care. Thelargest number of jourral articles considered gaming in the context of adult education(n=25). We came upon no claims in our reading that instructional gaming was moreeffective in one environment compared to any other.
Media
Clearly, there are more media options available today than there were a decade ago.How has this affected gaming? Many of the articles we reviewed that used technologyemployed the computer only (n=32). A reasonable number of articles employed acombination of media (e.g., the computer and interaction with a live instructor). Othermedia employed were video-related media (i.e., video tape and optical videodisc). Role-playing was common regardless of the media.
Measurement
Key issues in gaming research are the appropriateness, validity, and reliability ofthe measured outcomes. Several authors (e.g., Reiser & Gerlach, 1977; Reuben &Lederman, 1982) have chided the lack of appropriate dependent variables and the lack ofclarity of their terminology. Expanding slightly on the work of Bredemeier & Greenbiat,1981, dependent variables of integrity in this literature include creativity, problem-solvinu,ability, achievement, retention, attitude, self-image, self-efficacy, and continuedmotivation.
The variable mentioned most often in our review of the literature was achievement(n=33). This was mentioned almost twice as much as the next most frequent, problem-solving (n=13). Other measurement variables included attitude and continued motivation(n=10 each), and retention (n=7), .
fuge 4
Learner Characteristics
The various characteristics of the learners participating in gaming experiences were
of increasing interest to authors in the gaming literature during the dozen years. Our review
searched for personality variables, cognitive style variables, gaming and academic ability,
and demographics (sex, race, and age). We found that authors we reviewed were, for the
most part, very unclear in reporting these characteristics. Of the articles we reviewed, sex
was the most frequently reported (n=11), age was second (9), academic ability and race
were reported even less (n=5 and n=3 respectively). Characteristics we expected to be
reported such as personality traits or cognitive styles were reported only twice. Although
much attention was given in the articles we reviewed to discussion of "the learner", few
articles considered variables related to learner characteristics.
Implications
Below are stated some assertions that grew out of the articles that we reviewed that might
be of use to designers and educational researchers. After each assertion, at least one article
is cited which made, or in our opinion supports in some way, the listed assertion.
Nevertheless, as presented below, the assertions are very open to deliberation. Although
there is some crossover statements (e.g., regarding sex differences), an attempt has been
made to separate assertions which may be practicable in using or designing a game for
instructional purposes and a separate section for conductina research related to gaming as a
learning activity.
Using or Designing the Game
It is preferable in many cases, although usually more difficult, to use a gaming vehicle
which is intrinsically motivating as opposed to an extrinsically motivating game. In an
intrinsically motivating gaming activity, the game structure itself helps to teach the
instructional content. In an extrinsically motivating game, external rewards (real or
imaginary) of some sort are usually saiven. (Deci, 1972; ; Malone. 1981).
In considering which game to employ in a learning activity, pay special attention to gender
preferences. There appears to be some disparity in the types of games and the types of
gaming activities preferred by males and females (Braun. Goupil, & Giroux 1986; Malone.
1981).
When possible, employ debriefing as an a part of or in addition to gaming activities.
(Carrol, 1986).
Change the methods of scoring in a game to channel attention and vary the level of
challenge (Allen, Jackson, Ross, & White, 1978).
Gaming used for instructional purposes should not be overly complex. Complex rules and
scoring require the learner to use up limited learning time in order to understand the :lame
(Jacobs, & Dempsey, 1993).
Change the levels of complexity or difficulty based on the learner's experience with the
gaming structure. This will help promote interest in instructional materials as the learner's
gaming abilities increase (Jacobs, & Dempsey, 1993).
When developing or adapting games for instructional purposes, look for existing gaming
strategies which can be used for your particular purposes (Driskell & Dwyer, 1984).
Page 5
If the learning activity is construed to be less than exciting to the learning population,consider using adventure games or other games which have a strong challenge componentand add an uncertain outcome to the fantasy of the game (Grabe & Dosmann, 1988).
For issues of conflict or contml, use or adapt games which employ both role-playing and
fantasy. The role playing requires the student to play an active part. The fantasy allows the
student to make serious errors with minimum detriment (Kowitz & Smith, 1989).
Intrinsically motivating strategies for use in an educational gaming environment may bediscovered by interviewing or observing very effective learners in a particular content area(Logan, Olson, & Lindsey, 1989, Oxford & Crookall, 1988).
If your goal is to change the learner's attitude, simulation gaming, if designed with a theory
base in mind, has been shown to be an effective vehicle (Renaud & Stolovitch, 1988:
Williams, 1980).
Use a highly visual simulation game which includes all participants to help understand,address, and resolve group decision-making (Hasell, 1987).
Make sure your game has a way of ending so the satisfaction of the learner may bemaximized (Reuben & Lederman, 1982).
Researching the Game
Identify the direct and indirect aims of the a.ame (Barnett, 1984).
Avoid the apples and oranges comparison studies between games and traditional teachinatechniques. (Barnett, 1984; Fraas, 1982: Megarry, 1977).
Much of the research involving gaming should involve variables relating to motivation(Malone, 1981). The use of motivational scales such as Keller's Instructional MaterialsScal..; should be adopted, adapted, and validated. (Klein & Frietag, 1991).
Consider the effect of being on a losing team or in losing roles? For example, how are self-
esteem and attitudes toward the winners affected (Greenblat, I980)? In addition, how dothese change when one of the teams or players is a computer?
Allowing learners to "wager" tokens or imagined currency in an insanctional gamingenvironment holds some promise for representing some aspects of learner certitude andtherefore internal processes of expectancy. There is some a possibility of unwantedintervening variables, particularly those related to gambling (Griffiths, 1990; 1992).
As gaming becomes a more important area for exploration, there will be an increasing need
to develop worthwhile measures of strategy (Laughery, 1984).
Regardless of the findings of some researchers that arcade-style gaming is a social and not
an achievement oriented activity (McClure & Mears, 1986), this activity is increasinggreatly as a result of more sophisticated and lower priced hardware and software inpersonal computers. Educational researchers will be more frequently asked how this typeof gaming activity can be incorporated into learning environments.
Much of what takes place on a gaming environment may not be easily measurable or, atleast easily reduced to a few variables. Therefore, although experimental studies have an
page 6
important place in the instructional gaming literature, it is critical that researchers honestlyrecognize the limitations of objective-oriented research for assessment and also look at theeffects of incidental learning. (Barnett, 1984; Remus, 1981).
The validity of the assessment of an instructional game is somewhat different than withother learning environments and, according to Reuben & Lederman (1982) is dependent onrules, interactions, roles, goals, & criteria.
Girls are often thought to be not as competitive as boys in a gaming environment. To someextelt that is situational or a result of a less socially reinforcing scenario (Hughes, 1988).
Increased involvement (being in control of the program) has been found to increaselearning with a simulation game (Wishart, 1990).
Four clusters of factors which influence the effects of a simulation game includeadministrative variables (characteristics of "who runs the game"), learner variables (e.g.,ethnicity or learning style), procedural variables (such as postgame discussion), and gamevariables (e.g.., depicting reality). (Williams, 1980).
Bibliography
Something we thought might be useful to designers and researchers interested ineducational gaming was a fairly recent reference listwith the category of article, thestatistical analysis used for those articles involving quantitative research, the environmentfor which the instructional gaming is intended, and an additional comment describing thearticle or its purposes. A table with this information follows.
me 79
Gam
ing
Art
icle
sPa
ge I
; Feb
ruar
y 11
, 199
4St
atis
fica
l Ana
lysi
sC
ateg
ory
Env
iron
men
tC
omm
erts
/Pur
pose
Aff
isco
. J.F
. and
Cha
nin,
M.N
. (19
90).
An
empi
rica
l inv
estig
atio
n of
inte
grat
ed m
ultic
rite
ria
grou
pde
cisi
on m
odel
s in
a s
imul
atio
n ga
min
g co
ntex
t.S
inud
atio
n an
d G
amin
g,21
(1),
27-
47.
arm
istic
e,. t
-tes
tre
sear
chm
anag
emen
t, hi
gher
educ
atio
npr
opos
es a
nd c
ompa
res
2 m
odel
s of
gro
up d
ecis
ion
mak
ing
in a
sim
ulat
ion
gam
ing
cont
ext
Alle
n, L
.E.,
Jack
son,
G.,
Ros
s, J
., W
hite
, S. (
1978
). W
hat c
ount
s is
how
the
gam
e is
sco
red:
One
way
to in
crea
se a
chie
vem
ent i
n le
arni
ng m
athe
mat
ics.
Sim
ulat
ion
and
Gam
es,
9(4)
, 371
-389
.
----
4de
scri
ptiv
es. s
tude
nt t
rese
arch
elem
enta
ry e
duca
tion
expl
o:e
the
effe
ct o
f ch
anne
ling
atte
ntio
n by
cha
ngin
g th
e m
etho
d of
scor
ing
Atk
inso
n, F
.D. (
1977
, Feb
). D
esig
ning
Sim
ulat
ion/
Gam
ing
activ
ities
: A s
yste
mat
ic a
ppro
ach.
Edu
catio
nal T
echn
olog
y,38
-43.
disc
ussi
onno
t abl
e to
det
erm
ine
expl
ains
sys
tem
s ap
proa
ch to
des
ign
of g
ames
Bal
tra,
A. (
1990
). L
angu
age
lear
ning
thro
ugh
com
pute
r ad
vent
ure
gam
es.S
imul
atio
n an
d G
ames
,21
(4),
445
-451
.
duco
ssio
nad
ult e
duca
tion
adve
ntur
e ga
mes
for
lang
uage
lear
ning
and
mot
ivat
ing
stud
ents
Bar
ak, A
., et
. al.
(198
7). I
ncre
asin
g th
e le
vel o
f em
path
ic u
nder
stan
ding
by
mea
ns o
f a
gam
e.S
imul
atio
n an
d G
ames
,18
(4),
458
-470
.
AN
OV
Are
sear
chad
ult e
duca
tion
asse
sses
the
effe
ctiv
enes
s of
a s
imul
atin
g ga
me
in in
crea
sing
empa
thic
und
erst
andi
ng
Bar
ker,
LA
. (19
82).
Sim
ulat
ion
and
gam
ing,
with
out c
ompu
ters
, for
sch
ool b
iolo
gy c
ours
es.
Jour
nal o
fB
iolo
gica
l Edu
catio
n,16
(3),
187
-196
.
disc
ussi
onse
cond
ary
educ
atio
nde
scri
bes
diff
eren
ces
betw
een
and
uses
of
gam
es, s
imul
atio
ns, a
ndca
se s
tudi
es; g
ives
exa
mpl
es o
f us
e in
bio
logi
cal c
onte
xt; a
ppen
dix
give
s lis
t of
com
mer
cial
gam
es a
nd a
rtic
les
on b
iolo
gica
l gam
es.
Bar
nett,
T. (
1984
) E
valu
atio
ns o
f si
mul
atio
ns a
nd g
ames
: A c
lari
fica
tion.
Sim
ulat
ion/
Gam
es fo
r
Lear
ning
,14
(4),
64-
75.
theo
ry, d
iscu
ssio
nM
t abl
e to
det
erm
ine
disc
usse
s ev
alua
tion
issu
es in
clud
ing
iden
tific
atio
n of
dir
ect a
ndin
dire
ct a
ims;
lim
itatio
ns o
f ob
ject
ive-
orie
nted
res
earc
h fo
ras
sess
men
t; cr
itici
zes
com
para
tive
eval
uatio
ns o
f si
mul
atio
n-an
d
gam
es w
ith tr
aditi
onal
teac
hing
tech
niqu
es
Bra
nd. C
F. (
1980
). L
earn
ing
from
sim
ulat
ion
gam
es: E
ffec
ts o
f so
ciom
etri
c gr
oupi
ng.
Sim
ulat
ion
and
Gam
es.
11(2
), 1
63-1
76.
AN
OV
Are
sear
chel
emen
tary
edu
catio
nlo
oked
at s
ocio
met
ric
grou
ping
of
stud
ents
in tw
o ga
mes
; con
clud
edth
at th
is ty
pe o
f le
arni
ng w
as n
ot in
flue
nced
by
peer
acc
epta
nce
orm
embe
rshi
p in
wor
k gr
oups
with
var
ied
degr
ees
of c
ohes
iven
ess
tran
wyn
, G. (
1986
). G
amin
g: S
imul
atin
g fu
ture
rea
liti.s
.F
utur
ist,
20(0
,29-
35.
disc
ussi
onno
t abl
e to
det
erm
ine
exam
ines
fut
ure
gam
ing
real
ities
Bra
un. C
.M.,
Gou
pil,
G.,
and
Gir
oux,
J. (
1986
). A
dole
scen
ts a
nd m
icro
com
pute
rs: S
ex d
iffe
renc
es,
prox
emic
s, ta
sk a
nd s
timul
us v
aria
bles
. Jou
rnal
of P
sych
olog
y,12
0(6)
, 529
-542
.co
rrel
atio
n, c
hi-s
quar
ere
sear
chse
cond
ary
educ
atio
nqu
estio
nnai
re r
e: a
ttitu
des
usin
g m
icro
com
putin
g an
d ar
cade
gam
esan
d an
alyz
e ty
pe o
f ga
mes
and
beh
avio
r of
clie
nts
in v
ideo
arc
ades
Bre
dem
eier
, M.E
. and
Gre
enbl
at, C
.E.(
198
1). T
he e
duca
tiona
l eff
ectiv
enes
s of
gam
es: A
syn
thes
is o
ffi
ndin
gs.
Sim
ulat
ion
and
Gam
es,
12(3
) 30
7-33
2.
liter
atur
e re
view
seco
ndar
y ed
ucat
ion,
busi
ness
, oth
erre
view
of
gam
ing
cons
truc
ts; c
oncl
uded
that
ther
e is
not
yet
ath
eore
tical
-bas
ed ta
xono
my
that
has
cle
ar th
eori
es
Bre
dem
eier
, M.E
. and
oth
ers.
(19
82).
Ba
Fa B
a Fa
and
Dog
mat
ism
/Eth
noce
ntri
sm:A
stu
dy o
f at
titud
ech
ange
thro
ugh
sim
ulat
ion-
gam
ing.
Sim
ulat
ion
and
Gam
es,
13(4
), 4
13-4
36.
fact
or a
naly
sis,
ani
ma.
t-te
st/e
ta. m
ean
scor
es,
mea
n di
ffer
ence
s.co
rrel
atio
n
rese
arch
adul
t edu
catio
nas
sess
es g
ame
effe
cts
on s
tude
nt a
ttitu
des;
sum
mar
izes
res
earc
h
evid
ence
and
rep
orts
met
hodo
logi
cal p
robl
ems
Bre
nens
tuhl
, C.,
& C
atal
anel
lo, F
. (19
76).
An
anal
ysis
of
the
impa
ct u
pon
the
lear
ning
eff
ectiv
enes
s of
trad
ition
al in
stru
ctio
n, s
imul
atio
n ga
min
g, a
nd e
xper
ient
ial l
earn
ing
tcac
hing
met
hodo
logi
es: A
nex
peri
men
tal d
esig
n. P
roce
edin
gs. A
ssoc
iatio
n fo
r B
usin
ess
Sim
ulat
ion
and
Exp
erie
ntia
l Lea
rnin
g(A
BSE
L),
463
-473
.
disc
ussi
onad
ult e
duca
tion,
busi
ness
, hig
her
educ
atio
n
over
view
of
prop
osed
res
earc
h pr
ojec
t inv
olvi
ng c
olle
ge s
tude
nt;
disc
usse
s re
sear
ch d
esig
n
Bro
wnf
ield
. S. a
nd V
ik, G
. (19
83. D
ecem
ber)
. Tea
chin
g ba
sic
skill
s w
ith c
ompu
ter
gam
es.
Tra
inin
gan
d D
evel
opm
ent J
ourn
al,5
3-56
.de
velo
pmen
tad
ult e
duca
tion,
mili
tary
desc
ribe
s de
velo
pmen
t of
mili
tary
inst
ruct
iona
l sys
tem
that
incl
udes
gam
ing
elem
ents
for
lite
racy
dev
elop
men
t
But
ler,
R.J
., M
arku
lis, P
.M.,
and
Stra
ng, D
.R. (
1988
). W
here
are
we?
An
anal
ysis
of
the
met
hods
and
focu
s of
the
rese
arch
on
sim
ulat
ion
gam
ing.
Sim
ulat
ion
and
Gam
es,
19(1
), 3
-26.
liter
atur
e re
view
not a
ble
to d
eter
min
eev
alua
tes
curr
ent (
1988
) st
atus
of
rese
arch
on
sim
ulat
ion/
gam
ing
Car
lson
, J G
. and
Hill
, K D
. (19
82).
The
eff
ect o
f ga
min
g on
atte
ndan
ce a
nd a
ttitu
de.
Per
sonn
el
PsN
chol
ogy.
35(1
). 6
3-73
.
one-
taile
d t t
est
rese
arch
othe
rga
min
g as
a v
ehic
le to
impr
ove
atte
ndan
ce a
nd a
ttitu
de in
the
wor
kpl
ace
- op
eran
t con
ditio
ning
Car
roll,
C E
(19
86, C
ompu
ter
Sim
ulat
ions
.S
ocia
l Stu
dies
Rev
iew
,25
(3),
57-
59.
disc
ussi
onel
emen
tary
edu
catio
ndi
scus
ses
4 co
mm
erci
al p
rogr
ams;
em
phas
izes
deb
rief
ing:
-sim
utat
ions
not
inte
nded
to-
stan
dalo
ne: e
mph
asiz
es d
evel
opm
ent o
fth
inki
ng a
nd p
robl
em s
olvi
ng a
nd n
ot m
erel
y m
aste
ry o
f .u
oten
t
Gam
ing
Art
icle
sP
age
St F
ebru
ary
11, 1
994
Sta
tistic
al A
naly
sis
Cat
egor
yE
nviro
nmen
tC
omm
ents
/Pur
pose
INIII
I111
11
Pie
rfy,
D.A
. (19
77).
Com
para
tive
sim
ulat
ion
gam
e re
sear
ch: S
tum
blin
g bl
ocks
and
ste
ppin
gsto
nes.
Sim
ulat
ion
and
Gam
es,
8(2)
, 255
-268
.
liter
atur
e re
vsew
elem
enta
ry e
duca
tion.
seco
ndar
y ed
ucat
ion
revi
ew o
f stu
dies
and
focu
ses
on th
e qu
estio
n of
whe
ther
gam
es.
teac
h pa
rtic
ular
thin
gs b
ette
r th
an a
ltern
ativ
e m
etho
ds
Ran
del,
J.M
., M
orris
, B.A
., W
etze
l, C
.D.,
Whi
tehi
ll, 1
3.y.
(19
92).
The
effe
ctiv
enes
s of
gam
es fo
red
ucat
iona
l pur
pose
s: a
rev
iew
of r
elev
ant r
esea
rch.
Sim
ulat
ion
& g
amin
g,23
(3),
261
-276
.
liter
atur
e re
view
elem
enta
ry e
duca
tion,
seeo
r,da
rY e
duca
tion,
mili
tary
com
pare
s in
stru
ctio
nal e
ffect
iven
ess
of g
ames
to c
onve
ntio
nal
clas
sroo
m in
stru
ctio
n
Rei
gelth
, C.M
. and
Sch
war
tz, E
. (19
89).
An
inst
ruct
iona
i the
ory
for
the
desi
gn o
f com
pute
r-ba
sed
sim
ulat
ions
.Jo
urna
l of
Com
pute
r-B
ased
Ins
truc
tion,
16(1
), 1
-10.
disc
ussi
onno
t abl
e to
det
erm
ine
focu
ses
on in
stru
ctio
nal o
verla
y as
a s
imul
atio
n --
opt
imiz
e le
arni
ngan
d m
otiv
atio
n.
Rei
ser.
R.A
. & G
erla
ch, V
.S. (
1977
). R
esea
rch
on s
imul
atio
n ga
mes
in e
duca
tion:
A c
ritic
al a
naly
sis.
Edu
catio
nal T
echn
olog
y,17
, 13-
18.
liter
atur
e re
view
.di
scus
sion
not a
ble
to d
eter
min
ere
view
of a
rtic
les
invo
lvin
g si
mul
atio
n ga
mes
and
thei
r ef
fect
s in
area
s of
inte
rest
, atti
tude
, effi
cacy
, kno
wle
dge,
inte
llect
ual s
kills
:lo
oks
at w
eakn
esse
s in
res
earc
h m
etho
ds a
nd n
otes
on
how
toov
erco
me
this
pro
blem
Rem
us. W
.E. (
1981
. Jun
e). E
xper
imen
tal d
csig
ns fo
r an
alyz
ing
data
on
gam
es: O
n ev
en th
e be
stst
atis
tical
met
hods
do
not r
epla
ce g
ood
expe
rimen
tal c
ontr
ol.
Sim
ulat
ion
and
Gam
es,
12.
disc
uss
ion
not a
ble
to d
eter
min
edi
scus
ses
rese
arch
des
igns
and
sho
ws
that
they
nee
d go
odex
perim
enta
l con
trol
and
mos
t sop
hist
icat
ed s
tatis
tical
met
hods
can
'tre
mov
e th
e ef
fect
s of
a la
ck o
f exp
erim
enta
l con
trol
Ren
aud,
L. a
nd S
tolo
vitc
h, H
. (19
88).
Sim
ulat
ion
gam
ing:
An
effe
ctiv
e st
rate
gy fo
r cr
eatin
gap
prop
riate
traf
fic s
afet
y be
havi
ors
in fi
ve-y
ear-
old
child
ren.
Sim
ulat
ion
and
Gam
es,
19(3
), 3
28-3
45.
MA
NO
VA
. AN
OV
Are
sear
chel
emen
tary
edu
catio
ndi
scus
ses
gam
ing
as a
n ef
fect
ive
stra
tegy
for
beha
vior
cre
atio
n in
5-
year
old
s
Rey
nold
s. A
and
Mar
tin, J
.V. (
1988
, Jan
uary
). D
esig
ning
an
educ
atio
nal c
ompu
ter
gam
e: G
uide
lines
that
wor
k. E
duca
tiona
l Tec
hnol
ogy.
45.4
7.
disc
ussi
onno
t abl
e to
det
erm
ine
give
s gu
idel
ines
for
desi
gnin
g ed
ucat
iona
l com
pute
r ga
mes
Rub
en. B
.D. a
nd L
eder
man
, L.C
. (19
82).
Inst
ruct
iona
l sim
ulat
ion
gam
ing:
Val
idity
, rel
iabi
lity,
and
utili
ty.
Sim
ulat
ion
and
Gam
es,
13(2
), 2
33-2
44.
theo
ryno
t abl
e to
det
erm
ine
prov
ides
a fr
amew
ork
for
anal
ysis
of g
ames
by
asse
ssin
g va
lidity
,re
liabi
lity,
and
the
utili
ty o
f the
act
ivity
Rut
herf
ord,
M (
1976
) T
he u
se o
f com
pute
r ga
mes
in e
duca
tion:
A c
ritiq
ue.
Eco
nom
ics.
12, 3
1-36
.di
scus
sion
rot a
ble
to d
eter
min
elo
cate
s as
sum
ptio
ns th
at u
nder
lie v
iew
s of
the
pote
ntia
l of c
ompu
ter
gam
es a
nd e
xam
ines
them
Sae
ge.s
ser,
F. (
1981
). S
imul
atio
n-ga
min
g in
the
clas
sroo
m: S
ome
obst
acle
s an
d ad
vant
ages
.Sim
ulat
ion
and
Gam
es,
12(3
), 2
81-
294.
disc
ussi
onse
cond
ary
educ
atio
ndi
scus
ses
gene
ral d
iffic
ultie
s en
coun
tere
d w
hile
intr
oduc
ing
sim
ulat
ion/
gam
es in
to th
e sc
hool
sys
tem
Sau
nder
s. D
. and
Cro
okal
l, D
. (19
85).
Pla
ying
with
a s
econ
d la
ngua
ge.
Sim
ulat
ion/
Gam
es f
orL
earn
ing.
15(4
), 1
66-1
72.
disc
ussi
onno
tab
le to
det
erm
ine
sim
ulat
ion
gam
ing
appl
icat
ion
to le
arni
ng fo
reig
n la
ngua
ges
Sau
nder
s, D
. and
Gun
n, R
. (19
90).
The
ass
essm
ent a
nd e
valu
atio
n of
com
mun
icat
ion
skill
s as
soci
ated
with
sim
ulat
ion/
gam
ing.
Sim
ulat
ion/
Gam
es f
or L
earn
ing,
20(2
), 2
15-2
34.
theo
ryro
t abl
e to
det
erm
ine
disc
usse
d as
sess
men
t of c
omm
unic
atio
n sk
ills
rela
ted
to g
amin
g
Shu
bik.
M. (
1989
). G
amin
g: T
heor
y an
d pr
actic
e, p
ast a
nd fu
ture
.Si
mul
atio
n an
d G
ames
,20
(2),
184
-18
9.
disc
ussi
onbu
sine
ss, m
illta
rY,
ckhe
rhi
stor
y an
d po
tent
ial o
f gam
ing
Sm
ith, P
. (19
86).
Low
-cos
t sim
ulat
ions
: The
impo
ssib
le d
ream
rev
isite
d.E
duca
tiona
l Tec
hnol
ogy.
26,
35-3
8.
disc
ussi
onad
ult e
duca
tion
Sor
enso
n, D
.S. (
1981
). "
Nuc
lear
det
erre
nce"
as
an a
dapt
ive
gam
e fr
ame
for
cris
is d
ecis
ion-
mak
ing.
Jour
nal o
f E
xper
ient
ial L
earn
ing
and
Sim
ulat
ion.
3(2)
. 103
-109
.
mea
n, fr
eque
ncie
sre
sear
chad
ult e
duca
tion
disc
usse
s ga
me
"nuc
lear
det
erre
nce,
" lin
ks to
oth
er c
risis
beh
avio
rth
eory
and
cas
e st
udy
Sza
fran
, R.F
. and
Mon
dolin
i, A
.F. (
1980
). T
est p
erfo
rman
ce a
nd c
oncc
pt r
ecog
nitio
n. T
he e
ffect
of a
sim
ulat
ion
gam
e on
two
type
s of
cog
nitiv
e kn
owle
dge.
Sim
ulat
ion
and
Gam
es,
11(3
), 3
26-3
35.
regr
essi
onre
sear
chad
ult e
duca
tion,
hig
her
educ
atio
nst
udie
s te
st p
erfo
rman
ce a
nd c
once
pt r
ecog
nitio
n: c
oncl
udes
that
ther
e is
no
evid
ent t
hat s
imul
atio
n ga
mes
sub
stan
tially
incr
ease
cogn
itive
kno
wle
dge
Tay
lor,
M (
1990
) S
imul
atio
ns a
nd a
dven
ture
gam
es in
CA
LL.
Sim
ulat
ion
and
Gam
ing,
21(4
), 4
61-
466.
disc
ussi
onD
OI a
ble
to d
eter
min
edi
scus
ses
use
of c
omm
unic
atio
n la
ngua
ge te
achi
ng a
ppro
ach
usin
gC
ALL
1 2
1 3
-
Can
ing
Art
icle
sP
age
6; F
ebru
ary
II, 1
994
Sta
tistic
al A
naly
sis
Cat
egor
yE
nviro
nmen
tC
omm
ents
/Pur
pose
Tow
ne, D
.M. a
nd M
unro
, A. (
1991
). S
imul
atio
n-ba
sed
inst
ruct
ion
of te
chni
cal s
kills
.H
uman
Fac
tor,
33(3
). 3
25-3
41.
disc
ussi
onno
t abl
e to
det
erm
ine
..
disc
usse
s an
aut
horin
g la
ngua
ge c
alle
d R
AP
IDS
use
d pr
imar
ily fo
rin
stru
ctio
n of
tech
nica
l dev
ice-
orie
nted
topi
cs; n
o re
fere
nce
toga
min
g
Tys
on, G
.A. a
nd o
ther
s (1
988)
. Gam
es p
layi
ng s
trat
egy
as a
n in
dica
tor
of r
acia
l pre
judi
ce a
mon
gS
outh
Afr
ican
stu
dent
s.Jo
urna
l of
Soci
al P
sych
olog
y,12
8(4)
, 473
-385
.
desc
riptiv
esre
sear
chhi
gher
edu
catio
nex
amin
ed c
oope
ratio
n at
titud
es o
f bla
ck a
nd w
hite
Sou
th A
fric
anst
uden
ts
Van
Sic
kle.
R.L
.(19
86).
A q
uant
itativ
e re
view
of r
esea
rch
on in
stru
ctio
nal s
imul
atio
n ga
min
g: A
twen
ty-y
ear
pers
pect
ive.
The
ory
and
Res
earc
h in
Soc
ial E
duca
tion,
14(3
), 2
45-2
64.
min
i-ana
lys
isre
sear
chno
t abl
e to
det
erm
ine
quan
titat
ive
revi
ew (
min
i-ana
lysi
s) o
f sim
ulat
ion/
gam
ing;
indi
cate
ssm
all p
ositi
on e
ffect
s fo
r af
fect
ive
varia
bles
and
ret
entio
n; a
ppen
dix
show
s co
ding
she
ets
for
stud
y
'Van
Men
ts, M
. Sim
ulat
ions
, gam
es, a
nd r
ole-
play
.T
echn
ique
s of
Tea
chin
g an
d A
sses
smen
t,di
scus
sion
not a
ble
to d
eter
mirr
defin
es s
imul
atio
ns, g
ames
, rol
e pl
ay, e
xam
ples
, adv
anta
ges,
disa
dvan
tage
s
Wat
kins
, M.W
. (19
86).
Mic
roco
mpu
ter-
base
d m
ath
inst
ruct
ion
with
firs
t gra
de s
tude
nts.
Com
pute
rs in
liwna
n B
ehav
ior,
2, 7
1-75
.
AN
CO
VA
rese
arch
elem
enta
ry e
duca
tion
stud
y as
sess
ed p
ostte
st m
ath
scor
es; c
oncl
uded
that
res
..ilts
wer
eco
nsis
tent
with
exi
stin
g lit
erat
ure,
but
muc
h re
mai
ns to
be
expl
ored
in e
duca
tiona
l app
licat
ions
Wes
trom
, M. a
nd S
haba
n. A
. (19
92).
Intr
insi
c m
otiv
atio
n in
mic
roco
mpu
ter
gam
es.
Jour
nal o
fR
esea
rch
on C
ampu
nng
in E
duca
tion.
24(4
), 4
33-4
45.
rese
arch
seco
ndar
y ed
ucat
ion
disc
usse
s in
trin
sic
mot
ivat
ion
in tw
o ga
mes
(in
stru
ctio
nal a
ndno
nins
truc
tiona
l)
Whi
tele
y. T
.R. a
nd F
aria
, A.J
. (19
89).
A s
tudy
of t
he r
elat
ions
hip
betw
een
stud
ent f
inal
exa
mpe
rfor
mar
ce a
nd s
imul
atio
n ga
me
part
icip
atio
n.Si
mul
atio
n an
d G
ames
,20
(1)
44-6
4.
AN
OV
Are
sear
chbu
s in
ess
stud
ies
whe
ther
par
ticip
atio
n in
a g
ame
is r
elat
ed to
fina
l gra
de
Will
iam
s, R
.11.
(19
80).
Atti
tude
cha
nge
and
sim
ulat
ion
gam
es: T
he a
bilit
y of
a s
imul
atio
n ga
me
toch
ange
atti
tude
s w
hen
stru
ctur
ed in
acc
orda
nce
with
eith
er th
e co
gniti
ve d
isso
nanc
e or
ince
ntiv
e m
odel
sof
atti
tude
cha
nge.
Sim
ulat
ion
and
Gam
es,
11(2
), 1
77-1
96.
AN
OV
Are
sear
chad
ult e
duca
tion
desc
ribes
fact
ors
that
influ
ence
effe
cts
of s
imul
atio
n/ga
min
g;di
scus
ses
iden
tific
atio
n an
d pl
ayab
ility
Wis
hart
. 1(1
990)
. Cog
nitiv
e fa
ctor
s re
late
d to
use
r in
volv
emen
t with
com
pute
rs a
nd th
eir
effe
cts
upon
lear
ning
from
an
educ
atio
nal c
ompu
ter
gam
e.C
ompu
ters
and
Edu
catio
n,15
(3),
145
-150
.
chi-s
quar
ere
sear
chel
emem
ary
educ
atio
nbu
ilds
on M
alon
e's
theo
ry, a
dds
cont
rol t
o co
mpl
exity
and
chal
leng
e
Woo
d, L
.E. a
nd S
tew
art,
R.W
. (19
87).
Impr
ovem
ent o
f pra
ctic
al r
easo
ning
ski
lls w
ith c
ompu
ter
skill
s.Jo
urna
l of
Com
pute
r-B
ased
Ins
truc
tion,
14(2
), 4
9-53
.
3-w
ay A
NO
VA
rese
arch
adul
t edu
catio
nst
udy
of s
tude
nt r
easo
ning
abi
lity
incr
ease
s sc
ores
on
criti
cal
thin
king
app
rais
al
Yet
). G
.K. (
1991
). A
fram
ewor
k fo
r de
velo
ping
sim
ulat
ion
gam
e sy
stem
s.Si
mul
atio
n an
d G
amin
g,22
(3).
308
-327
.
deve
lopm
ent
adul
t edu
catio
n,
busi
ness
, rna
nagm
ent.
high
er e
duca
tion
disc
usse
s in
tegr
ated
net
wor
ked
to c
oord
inat
e ac
tiviti
es s
urro
undi
ng a
sim
ulat
ion
gam
e to
hav
e ga
me
adm
inis
trat
ion
and
deci
sion
sup
port
syst
em m
ore
easi
ly b
e bu
ilt a
nd m
aint
aine
d
Gam
ing
Art
icle
sPa
ge 2
; Feb
ruar
y 11
, 199
4St
atis
tical
Ana
lysi
sC
ateg
ory
Env
iron
men
tC
omm
ents
/Pur
pose
Cha
ffin,
J.D
., M
axw
ell,
B.,
& T
hom
pson
, B. (
1982
). A
RC
-ED
cur
ricul
um: T
he a
pplic
atio
n of
vid
eoga
me
form
ats
to e
duca
tiona
l sof
twar
e.E
xcep
tiona
l Chi
ldre
n,49
(2).
173
-178
.
disc
ussi
onot
her
mot
ivat
iona
l fea
ture
s of
vid
eo a
rcad
e ga
mes
: fee
dbac
k, h
igh
resp
onse
rat
es, i
mpr
ovem
ent,
unlim
ited
ceili
ngs
on p
erfo
rman
ce;
refe
renc
es to
Mal
one,
mot
ivat
ion
and
mas
tery
Cha
mbe
rs, B
. and
Abr
ami,
P.C
. (19
91).
The
rel
atio
nshi
p be
twee
n st
uden
t tea
m le
arni
ng o
utco
mes
and
achi
evem
ent,
caus
al a
ttrib
utes
, and
affe
ct.
Jour
nal o
f E
duca
tiona
l Psy
chol
ogy,
83(1
), 1
40-1
46.
desc
riptiv
es. A
NO
VA
rese
arch
elem
enta
ry e
duca
tion
exam
inat
ion
of r
elat
ions
hip
betw
een
prio
r ac
hiev
emen
t, in
divi
dual
outc
ome,
team
out
com
e, s
tude
nt a
chie
vem
ent,
and
acad
emic
perc
eptio
ns
Cru
ichs
hank
, D.R
. (19
88).
Thc
use
s of
sim
ulat
ions
in te
ache
r pr
epar
atio
n.Si
mul
atio
n an
d G
ames
,19
(2),
133
-156
.
disc
uss
ion
,adul
t edu
catio
nre
view
of s
imul
atio
ns fo
r te
ache
r ed
ucat
ion;
one
gam
e
Cry
er, P
. (19
88).
Mak
ing
deci
sion
s ab
out a
n ed
ucat
iona
l gam
e, s
imul
atio
n or
wor
ksho
p: A
'gam
esth
eory
'Per
spec
tive.
Sim
ulat
ion/
Gam
es f
or L
earn
ing,
18(4
), 2
45-2
55.
theo
ryad
ult e
duca
tion
expl
ores
theo
ries
of g
ames
in e
duca
tion
setti
ngs
Dcc
i, E
.L. (
1972
). In
trin
sic
mot
ivat
ion,
ext
rinsi
c re
info
rcem
ent,
& in
equi
ty.
Jour
nal o
f Pe
rson
ality
and
Soci
al P
sych
olog
y,22
, 113
-120
.
AN
OV
Are
sear
ch. t
hem
adul
t edu
catio
nw
ill th
ere
be c
hang
es in
a p
erso
n's
intr
insi
c m
otiv
atio
n w
hen
exte
rnal
rew
ards
for
perf
orm
ing
an a
ctiv
ity a
re g
iven
Der
.ipse
y. J
.V.,
Luca
ssen
. B.,
Gill
ey, W
. & R
asm
usse
n, K
. (19
93-9
4). S
ince
Mal
one'
s th
eory
of
intr
insi
cally
mot
ivat
ing
inst
ruct
ion:
Wha
t's th
e sc
ore
in th
e ga
min
g lit
erat
ure.
Jour
nal o
f E
duca
tiona
lT
echn
olog
y Sy
stem
s.22
(2)
, 173
-183
.
liter
atur
e re
view
.di
scus
s io
n
othe
rdi
scus
ses
inte
rpre
tatio
ns o
f cur
rent
gam
ing
liter
atur
e
Dris
kell,
J.E
. and
Dw
yer,
D.J
.(19
84).
Mic
roco
mpu
ter
vide
ogam
e ba
sed
trai
ning
.E
duca
tiona
lT
echn
olog
y,24
. 11-
17.
disc
uss
ion
mili
tary
defin
es v
ideo
gam
es a
nd th
eir
bene
fits
and
char
acte
ristic
s, li
sts
inst
ruct
iona
l pro
pert
ies,
giv
es g
amin
g st
rate
gies
; exa
mpl
e of
gam
ein
clud
ed
Duc
hast
el. P
.(19
91).
Inst
ruct
iona
l str
ateg
ies
for
sim
ulat
ion-
base
d le
arni
ng.
Jour
nal o
f E
duca
tiona
lT
echn
olog
y Sy
stem
s.19
(3).
265
-276
.
disc
uss
ion
not a
ble
to d
eter
min
edi
scus
ses
inst
ruct
iona
l str
ateg
ics
for
sim
ulat
ion
feat
ures
: fid
elity
,in
tera
ctiv
ity, a
rtifi
cial
ity; g
loba
l str
ateg
ies:
sim
plifi
catio
n, s
uppo
rt:
spec
ific
stra
tegi
es: d
emon
stra
ting,
task
ing,
exp
lain
ing
Duk
e. "
. D a
nd K
emen
y, N
.K. (
1989
). K
eepi
ng s
core
one
sco
re la
ter:
Tw
o de
cade
s of
the
Sim
ulat
ion
and
Gam
es J
ourn
al.
Sim
ulat
ion
and
Gam
es,
20(2
). 1
65-1
83.
liter
atur
e re
view
not a
ble
to d
eter
min
edi
scus
scs
stat
e of
sim
ulat
ion/
gain
ing
from
his
toric
al p
ersp
ectiv
e of
artic
les
in s
imul
atio
n an
d ga
mes
jour
nal
Dun
ne, J
J. (
1984
). G
amin
g ap
proa
ches
in e
duca
tiona
l sof
twar
e: A
n an
alys
is o
f the
ir us
e an
def
fect
iven
ess.
13
p. E
valu
atio
ns c
ondu
cted
by
Edu
catio
nal P
rodu
cts
Info
rmat
ion
Exc
hang
e In
stitu
te,
disc
uss
ion
seco
ndar
y ed
ucat
ion
inve
stig
ate
use
and
effe
ctiv
enes
s of
gam
ing
tech
niqu
es in
educ
atio
nal s
oftw
are;
the
exte
nt s
/w u
ses
gam
ing;
way
s it
is b
eing
used
; ove
rall
effe
ctiv
enes
s
Elli
ngto
n. II
,et
. al.
(198
2). G
ames
and
sim
ulat
ions
teac
h so
cial
rel
evan
ce o
f sci
ence
.Im
pact
of
Scie
nce
on S
ocle
ty.
32(4
), 4
81-4
91.
disc
ussi
onse
cond
ary
educ
atio
nbr
oad
intr
oduc
tion
to s
imul
atio
n an
d ga
min
g to
sho
w h
ow s
uch
tech
niqu
es c
an b
e us
ed to
dem
onst
rate
soc
ial r
elev
ance
of s
cien
ce
Fis
her.
I.E
. (19
76).
Com
petit
ion
and
gam
ing:
An
expe
rimen
tal s
tudy
.Si
mul
atio
n an
d G
ames
,7(
3),
321-
328.
rese
arch
adul
t edu
catio
nto
inve
stig
ate
the
effe
cts
of v
aria
tions
in c
ompe
titiv
e fo
rm o
n th
eco
gniti
ve le
arni
ng o
utco
me
of a
n ed
ucat
iona
l gam
e
Fre
es, I
NV
. (19
82)
Thc
influ
ence
of s
tude
nt c
hara
cter
istic
s on
the
effe
ctiv
enes
s of
sim
ulat
ions
in th
epr
inci
ples
cou
rse.
Jour
nal o
f E
cono
mic
Edu
catio
n,13
(1),
56-
61.
Nes
tre
sear
chad
ult e
duca
tion
inve
stig
ate
effe
ctiv
enes
s of
sim
ulat
ion-
gam
ing
lc te
ach
colle
gein
trod
ucto
ry c
ours
e, e
spec
ially
in a
rc o
f stu
dent
cha
ract
eris
tics;
findi
ngs:
nei
ther
sim
ulat
ion
gam
e no
r le
ctur
e di
scus
sion
cou
ld b
eco
nsid
ered
exc
lusi
vely
sup
erio
r, d
epen
ds o
n st
uden
t cha
ract
eris
tics
Goo
dman
. F.L
. (19
901.
Gra
phix
.Si
mul
atio
n an
d G
amin
g.21
(4),
467
-472
.di
scus
sion
not a
ble
to d
eter
min
ede
scrib
es g
amin
g pr
oced
ure
and
desi
gn o
f gra
phix
Gra
he, M
. and
Dos
man
n, M
. (19
88).
App
licat
ion
repo
rt: t
he p
oten
tial o
f adv
entu
re g
ames
for
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f rca
ding
and
stu
dy s
kills
.Jo
urna
l of
Com
pute
r-B
ased
Ins
truc
tion,
15(2
), 7
2-77
.
desc
riptw
esre
sear
ch. d
iscu
ssio
nel
emen
tary
edu
catio
nus
e of
adv
entu
re g
ames
as
an a
cade
mic
act
ivity
to d
evel
op te
xtpr
oces
sing
ski
ll
48
1 7
Gam
ing
Art
icle
sP
age
3; F
ebru
ary
11. I
VA
1111
1111
1111
1.11
1111
1110
1111
111M
,
Gre
dler
, M.B
. (19
90).
Ana
lysi
og d
eep
stru
ctur
e in
gam
es a
nd s
imul
atio
ns. S
imul
atio
n/G
ames
for
Lear
ning
, 20(
3), 3
29-3
34
Sta
tIstle
al A
naly
sis
Cat
egor
yE
nviro
nmen
t
theo
ryno
t abl
e to
det
erm
ine
Com
men
ts/P
urpc
se
disc
usse
s de
ep s
truc
ture
of g
ames
and
rei
nfor
cem
ent t
heor
y in
rela
tion
to g
amin
g --
as
wel
l as
rela
ted
conc
epts
suc
h as
neg
ativ
eut
ility
Gre
enbl
at, C
.S (
1982
). G
ailh
's a
nd s
imul
atio
ns. I
n M
itzel
, H.E
.. E
ncyc
lope
dia
of E
duca
tiona
lR
esea
rch
(5th
cdl
, Thc
Fre
e ;T
ess:
New
Yor
k.
disc
ussi
onel
emen
tary
edu
catio
n,
seco
ndat
y ed
ucat
ion.
adul
t edu
catio
n,
busi
ness
. mili
tary
.
heal
th c
are
defin
es g
ames
/sim
ulat
ions
Grif
fiths
, M.D
. (19
92)
Pin
ball
wiz
ard:
the
case
of a
pin
ball
mac
hine
add
ict.
Psy
chol
ogic
al R
epor
ts,
71(1
). 1
60-2
.
disc
ussi
onot
her
disc
usse
s ad
dict
ion
of p
erso
n to
pin
ball
mac
hine
gai
ning
--
gam
blin
g
Grif
fiths
. M D
(19
90)
Ado
lesc
ent g
ambl
ing-
An
obse
rvat
iona
l pilo
t stu
dy. P
erce
ptua
l and
Mot
orS
kills
, 70(
3), 1
138
disc
ussi
onot
her
obse
rvat
ion
of g
amin
g m
achi
nes;
4-h
our
mon
itorin
g se
ssio
n;di
scus
sion
of r
esul
ts
Grif
fiths
, M.D
. (19
90).
Arc
ade
clie
ntel
e an
d ga
min
g pr
efer
ence
s: A
long
-ter
m s
tudy
. Per
cept
ual a
ndM
otor
Ski
lls. 7
0(2)
. 125
8
disc
uss:
onno
t abl
e to
det
erm
ine
obse
rvat
ion
of g
amin
g pr
efer
ence
s
M J
. (19
87).
Com
mun
ity d
esig
n an
d ga
min
g/si
mul
atio
n: c
ompa
rison
of c
omm
unic
atio
nte
chni
ques
in p
artic
ipat
ory
desi
gn s
essi
ons.
Sim
ulat
ion
and
Gam
es, 1
8(1)
, 82-
115.
smal
l num
ber
of c
ases
.us
ed n
rese
arch
othe
rev
alua
te th
e us
e of
gam
ing/
sim
ulat
ion
as a
par
ticip
ator
y m
etho
d fo
rin
clud
ing
user
s in
the
desi
gn o
f com
mun
ity p
roje
cts
Hat
ch. C
.W. (
1984
) S
olut
ion
of p
robl
ems
whi
ch in
volv
e a
diffe
renc
e be
twee
n an
indi
vidu
al's
beh
avio
ran
d ex
pect
atio
ns. E
duca
tion.
104
(3),
329
-331
.
disc
ussi
onbu
sine
ss. o
ther
prop
oses
mod
el fo
r so
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g di
ffere
nces
bet
wee
nbe
havi
or a
nd e
xpec
tatio
ns in
a g
amin
g en
viro
nmen
t
Hub
bard
. R. (
1991
) E
valu
atin
g co
mpu
ter
gam
es fo
r la
ngua
ge le
arni
ng. S
imul
atio
n an
d G
amin
g, 2
2(2)
.22
0-22
3
disc
ussi
onot
her
disc
usse
s ev
alua
tion
crite
ria fo
r us
ing
gam
es in
fore
ign
lang
uage
clas
ses
Hug
hes.
L.A
. (19
88)
"But
that
's n
ot r
eally
mea
n': C
ompe
ting
in a
coo
pera
tive
mod
e. S
erol
es. 1
9(11
-12
), 6
69-6
87
Jaco
bs, J
.W &
Dem
psey
, I V
. (19
93).
Sim
ulat
ion
and
gam
ing:
Fid
elity
, fee
dbac
k, a
nd m
otiv
atio
n. In
V. D
emps
ey &
G.C
. Sal
es, I
nter
activ
e In
stru
ctio
n an
d F
eedb
ack.
Eng
lew
ood
Clif
fs, N
J: E
duca
tiona
lT
echn
olog
y P
ublic
atio
ns
rese
arch
disc
ussi
on
elem
enta
ry e
duca
tion
girls
arc
ofte
n th
ough
t to
be n
ot a
s co
mpe
titiv
e as
boy
s in
a g
amin
gen
viro
nmen
t; to
som
e ex
tent
that
is s
ituat
iona
l or
a re
sult
of a
less
soci
ally
rei
nfor
cing
sce
nario
not a
ble
to d
eter
min
eex
amin
es fe
edba
ck a
nd m
otiv
atio
n in
sim
ulat
ion
and
gam
ing
Jaco
bs, R
L a
nd B
aum
. M. (
1987
). S
imul
atio
n an
d G
ames
in tr
aini
ng a
nd d
evel
opm
ent:
Sta
tus
and
conc
ern
abou
t the
ir us
e S
imul
atio
n an
d G
ames
, 18(
3), 3
85-3
94.
disc
ussi
onad
ult e
duca
tion
disc
usse
s st
atus
and
con
cern
s ab
out u
sing
sim
ulat
ion-
gam
es fo
rtr
aini
ng a
nd d
evel
opm
ent
Jone
s, K
(19
89)
Run
ning
or
stum
blin
g th
roug
h si
mul
atio
ns. S
imul
atio
n/G
ames
for
Lear
ning
, 19(
4).
160-
167
disc
ussi
onno
t abl
e to
det
erm
irede
scrib
es d
iffer
ence
s be
twee
n si
mul
atio
n an
d ot
her
inte
ract
ive
lear
ning
eve
nts;
def
ines
sim
ulat
ion
and
gam
es in
bot
h U
SA
and
Brit
ain
Key
s. B
and
Wol
k, .1
(19
90)
The
rol
e of
man
agem
ent g
ames
and
sim
ulat
ions
in e
duca
tion
and
rese
arch
Jou
rnal
of M
anag
emen
t, 16
(2),
307
-336
.
theo
ry. l
itera
ture
revi
ew. d
is:u
ssio
nad
ult e
duca
tion.
man
agem
ent
defin
es te
rms
and
para
met
ers
for
man
agem
ent g
aini
ng, r
evie
ws
hist
ory
of b
usin
ess
gam
ing,
exa
min
es s
tudi
es o
n m
anag
emen
tga
min
g ef
fect
iven
ess,
rev
iew
s m
odel
s of
lear
ning
, rev
iew
s lit
erat
ure
that
dea
ls w
ith m
anag
emen
t gam
es a
nd s
imul
atio
ns, l
ooks
at t
rend
san
d de
velo
pmen
ts
Ke)
s. 0
119
76i A
res
lew
of l
earn
ing
rese
arch
in b
usin
ess
gam
ing
Pro
ceed
ings
. AB
SE
L: 1
73-1
84.
liter
atur
e le
s le
oad
ult e
duca
tion.
busi
ness
revi
ew o
f lea
rnin
g re
sear
ch in
bus
ines
s ga
inin
g to
cla
rify
exis
ting
inco
ngru
enci
es th
at e
xist
in th
e lit
erat
ure
R D
and
Fle
ck, R
A. (
1990
) In
tern
atio
nal b
usin
ess
sim
ulat
ion/
gam
ing:
An
asse
ssm
ent a
ndre
% le
ssS
imul
atio
n an
d G
omin
g, 2
1(2)
. 147
-165
.
liter
atur
e re
m%
busi
ness
revi
ews
gam
ing
liter
atur
e to
iden
tify
gam
ing'
s st
reng
ths
and
wea
knes
ses
to d
eter
min
e ro
les
that
sim
ulat
ions
can
pla
y in
inte
rnat
iona
l bus
ines
s pe
dago
gy
klem
, Ian
d F
rieta
g. E
t194
I IE
ffect
s of
usi
ng a
n in
stru
men
tal g
ame
on m
otiv
atio
n an
d
prrf
ornu
nce
Jour
nal o
f Edu
catio
nal R
esea
rch,
84(
5), 3
03-3
08
MA
NO
VA
. AN
OV
Are
mat
chad
ult e
duca
tion
effe
cts
of a
con
tent
-spe
cific
boa
rd g
ame
as m
easu
red
by K
elle
r'sm
otiv
atio
nal s
cale
Gam
ing
Art
icle
sPa
ge 0
; Feb
ruar
y 11
, 159
4St
atis
tkal
Ana
lyst
sC
ateg
ory
Env
iron
men
tC
ernm
ents
/Pur
pose
Mr
Kor
an, L
.J. a
nd M
cLau
ghlin
, T.F
. (19
90).
Gam
es o
r dr
ill: I
ncre
asin
g th
e m
ultip
licat
ion
skill
s of
stud
ents
. Jou
rnal
of I
nstr
uctio
nal P
sych
olog
y,17
(4),
222
-230
.
IMF
ANOVA
rese
arch
elem
mat
Y 4
4mat
ion
sugg
ests
usi
ng g
amin
g as
a m
otiv
ator
Kow
itz, G
.T. a
nd S
mith
, J.C
. (19
89).
Con
flic
t and
gam
ing
in in
stru
ctio
n an
d pe
rfor
man
ce.
Per
form
ance
and
Inst
ruct
ion,
28(2
), 2
8-32
.
.--
disc
ussi
onno
t abl
e to
det
erm
ine
disc
usse
s ro
le o
f co
nflic
t and
con
trol
in g
amin
g an
d its
use
in
inst
ruct
ion
and
gam
e th
eory
Kry
ukov
. M.M
. and
Kry
ukov
a, L
.I. (
1986
). T
owar
d a
sim
ulat
ion
gam
es c
lass
ific
atio
n an
d ga
me
dial
ogue
type
s.S
imul
atio
n an
d G
ames
,17
(3).
393
-402
.
theo
ryno
t abl
e to
det
erm
ine
prop
oses
a g
ame
clas
sifi
catio
n ba
sed
on th
e "g
ame
imag
e" e
xist
ing
in th
e m
inds
of
the
part
icip
ants
Lau
gher
y, K
.R. (
1984
) T
each
ing
hum
ans
gam
e-pl
ayin
g sk
ills.
Sim
ulat
ion
and
Gam
es,
15(2
), 1
87-2
12.
ANOVA
rese
arch
mil
itary
expl
ores
rev
erse
-rol
e tr
aini
ng a
nd m
entio
ns m
easu
res
of s
trat
egy
Lav
eaul
t, D
. and
Cor
beil,
P. (
1990
). A
sses
sing
the
impa
ct o
f si
mul
atio
n ga
mes
on
lear
ning
: A s
tep-
by-
step
appr
oach
. Sim
ulat
ionl
Gam
es fo
r Le
arni
ng,2
0(1)
, 42-
54.
disc
ussi
onad
ult e
duca
tion
disc
usse
s m
icro
-dev
elop
men
t seq
uenc
e of
how
lear
ning
take
s pl
ace
in a
sim
ulat
ion
gam
e
Upp
er. M
.R. a
nd C
haba
y. R
. W. (
1985
). I
ntri
nsic
mot
ivat
ion
and
inst
ruct
ion:
Con
flic
ting
view
s on
the
role
of
mot
ivat
iona
l pro
cess
es in
com
pute
r-ba
sed
educ
atio
n. S
peci
al is
sue:
Com
pute
rs a
nded
ucat
ion.
Edu
catio
nal P
sych
olog
ist,
20(4
), 2
17-2
30.
theo
ry, d
iscu
ssio
nno
t abl
e to
det
erm
ine
disc
usse
s th
eore
tical
con
trov
ersi
es a
nd p
olic
y de
bate
s co
ncer
ning
usin
g co
mpu
ters
; arg
ues
that
con
flic
ting
view
s un
derl
ie d
iffe
renc
esof
opi
nion
s ab
out c
osts
and
ben
efits
, im
port
ance
of
styl
es o
fte
achi
ng, a
nd a
ltern
ativ
e st
rate
gies
Lin
. S. a
nd L
eppe
r, M
.R. (
1987
). C
...,r
-ela
tes
.1f
child
ren'
s us
age
of v
ideo
gam
es a
nd c
ompu
ters
.Jo
urna
l of A
pplie
d S
ocia
l Psy
chol
ogy,
17(1
). 7
2-93
.
corr
elat
ion
rese
arch
elem
enta
ry e
duca
tion
to s
ee if
ther
e is
a r
elat
ions
hip
betw
een
vide
ogam
c us
c an
dag
gres
sive
ness
, soc
iabi
lity,
aca
dem
ic p
erfo
rman
ce, c
ompu
ter
use
Liv
ings
ton,
L.A
. (19
91).
The
eff
ect o
f co
lor
on p
erfo
rman
ce in
an
inst
ruct
iona
l gam
ing
envi
ronm
ent.
Jour
nal o
f res
earc
h on
com
putin
g in
edu
catio
n,24
(2)
, 246
-53.
desc
ript
ive:
.ANCOVA, ANOVA
rese
arch
adul
t edu
catio
ndi
scus
ses
impa
ct o
f co
lor
on r
eten
tion,
mem
ory
load
: col
or a
ppea
rsto
be
a di
stra
ctin
g va
riab
le
Log
an. J
.W.,
Ols
on. M
.W. a
nd L
inds
ey, T
.P. (
1989
). L
esso
ns f
rom
cha
mpi
on s
pelle
rs.
Jour
nal f
or
the
educ
atio
n of
the
Gift
ed,
13(1
), 8
9-96
.
disc
ussi
onel
emen
tary
edu
catio
ndi
scus
ses
diff
eren
t str
ateg
ies
cham
pion
spe
llers
use
to le
arn
com
petit
ion
wor
ds a
nd th
eir
intr
insi
c m
otiv
atio
n
Mad
den,
G. a
nd M
cGow
in. C
. (19
89).
The
eff
ect.
of th
e in
ner
gam
e m
etho
d ve
rsus
the
prog
ress
ive
met
hod
on le
arni
ng m
otor
ski
lls.J
ourn
al o
f Tea
chin
g in
Phy
sica
l Edu
catio
n,9(
1), 3
9-48
.
ANOVA
rese
arch
adul
t edu
catio
nco
mpa
red
effe
ct o
f tw
o m
etho
ds o
f in
stru
ctio
n fo
r te
achi
ngvo
lleyb
all;
did
not f
ind
any
diff
eren
ce
Mal
one.
T.W
. (19
81).
Tow
ard
a th
eory
in in
trin
sica
lly m
otiv
atin
g in
stru
ctio
n. C
ogni
tive
Sci
ence
,4,
333-
369.
ANOVA.
corr
elat
ion,
ANCOVA
rese
arch
, the
ory
rot a
ble
to d
eter
min
edi
scus
ses
stud
ies
of c
ompu
ter
gam
es a
nd p
rom
otes
a th
eory
whi
chin
clud
es c
halle
nge,
fan
tasy
, and
cur
iosi
ty
Mal
ouf.
D 1
3. (
1987
). T
he e
ffec
t of
inst
ruct
iona
l com
pute
r ga
mes
on
cont
inui
ng s
tude
nt m
otiv
atio
n.Jo
urna
l of S
peria
l Edu
catio
n,21
(4),
27-
38.
ANOVA,
t-te
stre
sear
chse
cond
ary
educ
atio
nin
vest
igat
ed e
ffec
ts o
f co
mpu
ter
gam
es o
n m
otiv
atio
n an
d fo
und
that
the
gam
e re
sulte
d in
sig
nifi
cant
ly h
ighe
r le
vels
of
cont
inui
ngm
otiv
atio
n
Mar
sh. C
.J. (
1981
). S
imul
atio
n ga
mes
and
the
soci
al s
tudi
cs te
ache
r. T
heor
yin
to P
ract
ice,
20(3
), 1
87-
193.
disc
ussi
onse
cond
ary
educ
atio
ndi
scus
ses
sim
ulat
ion
gam
ing
and
mer
its f
or s
ocia
l stu
dies
teac
hers
,ty
pes
and
form
ats
of S
/G, p
rep
activ
ities
and
ski
lls a
nd te
ache
rst
rate
gies
for
elic
iting
sup
port
fro
m c
olle
ague
s, p
rinc
ipal
s, a
ndpa
rent
s
Mar
tin. A
. (19
88)
Out
of
thc
scre
en: C
ompu
ters
and
Sim
ulat
ion.
Sim
ulat
ion/
Gam
es fo
r Le
arni
ng,
18(1
), 2
1-29
disc
ussi
onno
t abl
e to
det
erm
ine
diff
eren
t way
s co
mpu
ter
inte
rven
tion
in s
imul
atio
n ex
erci
ses
are
expl
ored
McC
lure
. R.F
. and
Mea
rs, F
G (
1986
). V
ideo
gam
e pl
ayin
g an
d ps
ycho
path
olog
y.P
sych
olog
ical
Rep
orts
,59
(1),
59-
62.
ANOVA
rese
arch
seco
ndar
y ed
ucat
ion.
othe
rvi
deog
ame
play
ing
is s
een
as a
soc
ial a
ctiv
ity a
nd n
ot a
ser
ious
achi
evem
ent a
ctiv
ity
Mie
sing
. P. a
nd P
rebl
e, J
.F. (
1985
). G
roup
pro
cess
es a
nd p
erfo
rman
ce in
a c
ompl
ex b
usin
ess
sim
ulat
ion
Sm
all G
roup
Beh
avio
r,16
(3),
325
-338
.
fact
or a
naly
sis
rese
arch
busi
ness
, hig
her
educ
atio
nre
port
s pr
oces
ses
on te
am p
erfo
rman
ce u
sing
a s
imul
atio
n as
an
expe
rim
enta
l lab
orat
ory
Nor
ris.
D a
nd N
iebu
hr. R
E. (
1980
). G
roup
var
iabl
es a
nd g
amin
g su
cces
s.S
imul
atio
n an
d G
ames
,
11(3
1. 3
01-3
12.
corr
elat
ion
rese
arch
busi
ness
gam
e pe
rfor
man
ce a
s a
prod
uct o
f gr
oup
char
acte
rist
ics
Oxf
ord.
R. &
Cro
okal
l, D
(19
88).
Sim
ulat
ion/
gam
ing
and
lang
uage
lear
ning
str
ateg
ics.
sith
ulat
ion;
Gom
ing.
1901
, -34
9-31
2.
disc
usso
not
her
disc
usse
s le
arni
ng s
trat
egie
s of
lear
ners
and
the
rela
tions
hip
to
sim
ulat
ion/
gam
ing
MT
WV
MIM
I2_
1
