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Selfe, Cynthia L.Computer-Assisted Instruction in Composition: CreateYour Own.National Council of Teachers of English, Urbana,

ISBN-0-8141-0814-886150p.National Council of Teachers of English, 1111 KenyonRd., Urbana, IL 61801 (Stock No. 08418, $12.00member, $15.00 nonmember).Guides - Classroom Use - Guides (For Teachers) (052)

MF01/PC06 Plus Postage.*Computer Assisted Instruction; *Computer Software;Higher Education; Microcomputers; Middle Schools;Secondary Education; *Teacher Developed Wterials;*Teaching Methods; *Writing Difficulties; *WritingInstruction; Writing Processes*Software Design

ABSTRACTIntended for writing teachers and administrators of

middle school through college writing programs, this guide suggestshow to translate approaches to teaching composition into computerassisted instruction (CAI) software. The book encourages writingteachers to see themselves as composition specialists who can team upwith specialists in computer programming and educationalfield-testing in order to increase their own effectiveness in theclassroom. Each chapter describes one step in the process ofdesigning CAI software. The chapters discuss the following: (1)identifying assumptions about writing and pedagogy; (2) gettingstarted on a CAI project; (3) working with a design team; (4) makingpedagogical decisions about a CAI lesson; (5) integrating responseand evaluation into a CAI lesson; (6) thinking about screen display;(7) field testing a CAI lesson; and (8) spreading the word about CAIsoftware. Worksheets for each step in the design process, suitablefor copying, are included. (SRT)

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r

COMPUTER-ASSISTEDCV

INSTRUCTIONIN COMPOSITION

CREATE YOUR OWN!

Cynthia L. Se IleMichigan Technological University, Houghton

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONOffice of Educatronal Research and Improvement

EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATIONCENTER (ERIC)

*his document has been reproduced aseceived from the person Or organization

originating itC Minor changes have been made to improve

reproduction Quality

Points of view or opinions stated in this docu .ment do not necessa.ily represent officialOERI position of POliCy

"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THISMATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY

NCTE

TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCESINFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)'

2

NCTE Editorial Board: Candy Carter, Julie M. Jensen, De lort.s Lipscomb, John S.Mayher, Thomas Newkirk, John C. Maxwell, ex officio, Paul O'Dea, ex officio

Book Design: Tom Kovacs for TGK Design

NCTE Stock Number 08148

0 1986 by the National Council of Teachers of English. All rights reserved. Printed inthe United States of America.

It is the policy of NCTE in its journals and other publications to provide a forum for theopen discussion of ideas concerning the content and the teaching of English and thelanguage arts. Publicity accorded to any particular point of view does not imply endorse-ment by the Executive Committee, the Board of Directots, or the membership at large,except in announcements of policy where such endorsement is clearly specified.

Library of Congress Cataloeing-in-Publication Data

Selfe, Cynthia L., 1951-Computer-assisted instruction in composition.

I. English languageComposition and exercisesStudy and teachingData processing. 2. EnglishlanguageRhetoricStudy and teachingDataprocessing. 1. Computer-assisted instruction.I. Title.PE1404.S38 1986 808'.042'0285 86-12340ISBN 0-8141-0814-8

CONTENTS

Acknowledgments

Introduction

vii

1. Identifying Assumptions about Writing and Pedagogy 7

2. Getting Started on a CAI Project 15

3. Working with a Design Team

4. Making Pedagogical Decisions about a CAI Lesson 47

5. Integrating Response and Evaluation into a CAI Lesson 75

6. Thinking about Screen Display 99

7. Field Testing a CAI Lesson 121

8. Spreading the Word about CAI Software 139

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Writing, for me, has never been an easy task, and Ihave always been jealous of those colleagues who cansay they "love to write," that they get a "sensualpleasure" from putting pen to paper or fingers tokeyboards. For me, writing is painful. The only part Ilike is having written. Therefore, it is with the deepestgratitude I acknowledge those intrepid souls whohelped me through this book-writing venture.

For the material in this book, I owe the most tothose professional colleagues with whom I work everyday at Michigan Tech: Billie Wahlstrom, who con-tinues to contribute most of the fresh perspective,insight, and energy that goes into my thinking aboutwork with computers; Tim Nelson, of Michigan TechSoftware, who struggled with Billie and me as welearned to produce software by trial and error, ArtYoung, wbo knows the magic of collegial supportand encouragement; all my humanities colleagues whogave me a home and a family at Michigan Tech; Fred

Erbisch and the Creativity Grants Committee, whofunded a summer of book writing; Bill Powers, aDean with a heart and a fondness for electronic com-position; and finally, Ruthann Ruehr, Dickie Selfe,and all the STC computer consultants who make theCenter for Computer-Assisted Language Instructionthe strange and wonderful place that it is

In addition, this book would be a slim volumeindeed without the information and help I have got-ten from colleagues at other institutions who arewrestling with the problems and potential that com-puters have brought to our profession: Hugh Burns,Helen Schwartz, Dawn and Ray Rodrigues, BillWresch, Lillian Bridwell and Don Rms, Jim Collinsand Elizabeth Sommers, Kate Ktter, and others fartoo numerous to identify individually.

And of course, in the beginning and in the end,there is Dickie; together we work at forging a silliertomorrow.

INTRODUCTION

Some History

There was a time, not too long ago, when Englishteachers were known for their red pens. They gaveassignments, waited a week, and then sat down tohighlight in crimson the obvious errors in spelling,logic, and punctuation in students' papers. Notmuch time was spent thinking about writing as a pro-cess. Revision often consisted of having students do"corrections."

We have changed with the times. For most Englishteachers, the whole idea of compositionincludingprewriting activities, drafting, and revisionhas un-dergone a radical alteration in the last ten years. Theexplosion of research on the processes involved incomposing, which began in the 1970s, has continuedto have a central impact on the teaching of writingwherever it occurs in the English curriculum. Ourincreased awareness of process has influenced not onlythe way we teach composition but the way we teachany class that involves writing. The zesult has been anincreased work load for all of us. We have found thatit takes much longer to work with a student throughlengthy prewriting activities and multiple drafts of apaper than it does simply to examine a written prod-uct in its final form.

In their war against increasing work loads, Englishteachers have turned to writing laboratories, profes-sional tutors, and teaching assistants for help. Thesesolutions, however, have often proven to be expensiveand, in a period of budget reduction and frozen hir-ing, unrealistic.

One ally that continues to provide hope for thewriting teacher is the computer. While an initial in-vestment in these machines and the software thatdrives them can be costly, many teachers feel that,over a period of time, computers can serve as effec-tive, efficient teaching tools. Some instructors havediscovered, for example, that the relatively simpletasks of teaching grammar and usage are easilyadapted to binary logic and that microcomputers can,

for these mechanical tasks, accommodate more stu-dents, with more repetitions, than the most patientteachers can. Thus, computer-assisted instruction(CA1) programs such as PLATO, Houghton Mifflin'sDolphin Language Series, and the University of NotreDame's English Tutorials are able to ot effectively aselectronic workbooks that teach students how to usecommas, avoid dangling modifiers, and recognize thesubject of a sentence. These programs free teachersfor more difficult tasks in the composition classroomlecturing, holding individual conferences, or organiz-ing small group work.

A few pioneers have even begun to create a newgeneration of CAI programs, programs that go be-yond drill and practice to deal with matters of processand content. Hugh Burns (1980), for example, haswritten CAI that provides prewriting or inventionstimulus. Using a hypothesis/support focus, HelenSchwartz (1984) has created interactive CAI for usein literature classes. Other efforts include CAI thatwill help writers compose essays (Witsch 1983), andCAI that combines word-processing functions andprograms for invention and revision (Von Blum andCohen 1984).

What Can Computers and CAI Do?

What can English teachers expect of computers andthe new generation of CAI? Although computers, evenwith the best software, are still unable to un4crstandtext, to make sense out of paragraphs, or woms, theycan do certain tasks very well. The new generation ofCAI will take advantage of the following capabilities:

Recognizing

Many people talk about computers "reading" things;it may be more accurate, however, to say that theycanagain with tit, help of appropriate software"recognize" patterns or arrangements of letters. Thus,computers can recognize and point out a particular

6

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word, phrase, or sentence when it is used in a studentpaper; identify marks of punctuation; find the occur-rences of various linguistic features in any given text,and identify names or numbers. Computers can, withtheir recognizing skill, search for a particular item ina long text and evaluate whether the item matches apreset response or list of responses made up by awriting teacher.

Counting

Given the right kinds of directions, computers canalso count everything they can recognize. They cancount and calculate, for instance, the average numberof letters per word, the average number of words in atheme, or the average length of sentences in any giventext. Computers can count, among other things, thenouns, prepositions, and verbs for syntactic or stylisticanalyses; they can tally the right and wrong answersfor testing situations; they can keep track of thcoccurrences of a specific phrase or clause in a para-graph; or they can count the number of entries in abibliography.

Storing and Record Keeping

In addition to recognizing and counting, computerscan store information and keep records. Appropriatesoftware can, for example, direct computers to recordthe specific responses students make to a writing activ-ity or question; store freewrites, audience analyses,and journal entries; keep drafts or parts of drafts; andsave demographic information or grading infprmationabout students, classes, or groups. This informationcan then be called up and revised by the teacher or bya student.

Branching

With the right software, a computer can allow stu-dents to follow various branches of a program. As aresult, computers can offer a wide choice of differentpaths through a writing-intensive exercise, provideindividualized instruction according to students' previ-ous performances, or vary responses according towhether students provide appropriate or inappropriateanswers.

Evaluating

Because computers can recognize certain patterns andstore information, with the help of intelligent software

they can also evaluate responses by matching keywords or phrases against a preset list of appropriateor inappropriate answers made up by a teacher.

Keeping Time

Most computers now have internal clocks that allowthem to time writing exercises or journal writing epi,sodes, keep track of how long students spend on aparticular activity, and print records of the time stu-dents spend on computer-assisted lessons.

In addition to these capabilities, computers andCAI have advantages over human teachers in certaineducational settings for the following reasons:

Repetition

Some educators maintain that computers, because theyare machines, are inherently inferior to humans asteachers. But because computers are machines, theywill, given the appropriate software, repeat lessons,concepts, and directions ad infinitum and never ex-perience the boredom, frustration, or exhaustion ofoverworked human teachers.

Adaptability

Computers also have the advantage of changing con-tent specialty with the software they use. Thus, thesame machine, using CAI written by several differenthuman experts, can act as a linguistics teacher, litera-ture tutor, reading instructor, and composition spe-cialist. In certain educational settings, where full-timehuman specialists are not available, a computer, withthe right software, can teach courses that otherwisecould not be offered.

Consistency

Once software programs are written, field tested, re-vised, and perfected by an author/teacher, they canbe run again and again on a computer, providing aconsistent and systematic program of instruction thatwill cover the same key concepts for every user.

Availabiiiy

Computers, and the CAI programs they run, can bemade available for instructional purposes twenty-fourhours each day. Students who cannot match theirschedules with those of human educators can haveaccess to mechanical teachers whenever they requirehelp.

What Can't Computers and CAI Do?

Despite the capabilities of computers, and CAI,machines still have some distinct limitations whencompared to human teachers, especially when it comesto teaching writing. Understanding these limitationsmay help people avoid frustration when they usecomputers.

Limitations of Intelligence

Although computer technology has made amazingstrides in the area of artificial intelligence during thelast several years, computers still cannot "understand"even the simplest text as humans can. The humanbrain learns to "know" words in a rich contextualfabric of experience and associations, and, as yet,programmers have not been entirely successful insimulating this kind of knowledge for computers.Thus, although there are sophisticated programs thatallow computers to perform certain linguistic andlogical tasks, computers cannot read a student's paperand understand content, analyze logical structures, orcommcnt specifically on paragraph development inthe same way that human teachers consistently andeffectively can.

Response Limitations

Computers are also limited in their responses to stu-dent writing. Unlike humans, computers cannot mod-ify their responses according to students' moods, theinterest they display in a subject, their body language,or any other of the important considerations thatshape human communication in a conversational situa-tion. Programmers and authors, in their attempts toduplicate human response patterns, can only antici-pate a limited number of answers that users mightgive to certain questions or situations and then desig-nate the response that computers are to make foreach such answer. Because the number of answers toany given question or situation is so iarge, inappro-priate computer responses often result.

Programming Limitations

As an educational tool, computers are also limited bythe imagination and the expertise of the programmersand authors who code and write software. Like anymedium, CAI must be pedagogically sound if it is tobe valuable in the classroom, taking into account indi-vidual learning styles, cognitive strategies, and Ian-

fruroduction 3

guage skills. In addition, if CAI is to be useful inwriting courses, it must be theoretically sound as well,emphasizing rhetorical principles, composingprocesses, and the close relationship between readingand writing.

Perhaps the most important limitation of computersand CAI has to do with the inherent limitations ofthe computer programming operation. Computerprograms are often written by people who are moreconcerned with producing marketable software thanproducing CAI that is pedagogically and theoreticallysound. There are very few software designers whohave extensive educational training or teaching experi-ence, and even fewer who have training in composi-tion or rhetoric.

Computers in the Writing Classroom

With the increasing emphasis on process-based com-position instruction during the last decade, the bur-den on writing teachers has increased dramatically.Teachers who guide students through a series of in-creasingly 1,c.filryid drafts of a paper and offer com-prehensive feedback for each of these drafts are seekingways of lightening their work load.

Computers can offer help in teaching composition.Along with appropriate instructional programs whichtell the machine how to recognize answers, store infor-mation, count items, branch, evaluate, and keep time,computers can teach a wide range of compositionskills, concepts, and heuristics. In addition, such in-struction has the added advantage of being availablefor endless repetitions of the same material.

Some experts point out that computers are limitedin the way they can respond to students' input and,thus, limited in their usefulness in the compositionclassroom. But most of those same experts wouldagree that computers and good CAICAI that isboth pedagogically and theoretically soundhave thepotential for assuming the more repetitious tasks ofcomposition instruction and for freeing the teacher toaddress the creative problems that require a humaninstructor.

Why Write Your Own CAI?

A quick look at the latest composition journal or atour of the exhibits at a national conference on com-position will reveal a plethora of CAI programs thatclaim to be designed for the writing classroom.

4 Cynthia L Se Ife

Unfortunately, too few CAI programs offer muchbeyond electronic workbook material. In general, CAIdesigned for the writing classroom suffers from twosignificant shortcomings. First, such CAI has, in mostcases, simply duplicated the programmed, audiovisualmaterials developed for slides, tapes, and filmstripsover a deal& ago. CAI authors are only now begin-ning to take advantage of the branching or interactivecapabilities of new hardware and software. Second,much of the CAI currently available to compositionteachers focuses only on the surface features of text oron editing and proofreading, two relatively minoractivities within the larger process of composing. It isvery difficult to find commercial CA I that addresseslarger rhetorical issues or the entire spectrum of activi-ties involved in the composing processfrom the firstplanning efforts, through the writing of multiple drafts,to the finifl revision and editing activities. A few pio-neers such as Hugh Burns, Helen Schwartz at OaklandUniversity, the WANDAH (a.k.a. HBJ Writer) team at.the University of California, Los Angeles, and WilliamWresch of the University of Wisconsin-Marinette havebeen able to apply the computer to more complexmatters of process and content in composition class-rooms; nevertheless, their work is the exception ratherthan the rule.

The most obvious reason for the simplistic CAInow available to composition teachers involves thefundamental schism existing between the humanitiesand technical fields. Although both teachers and com-puter technicians have turned their attention towardsoftware design, they have not yet discovered how towork together. Much of the CAI currently on themarket for composition classrooms has been writtenby English teacIlers who have only a limited grasp ofcurrent techniques of software design, or by techniciansfrom computer software companies who have only alimited vision of modern composition theory andpedagogy. The result of this schism is software limitedin its usefulness.

This book describes a process of creating CAI les-sons for the composition classroom that has grownout of our CAI experiences at Michigan TechnologicalUniversity. It has been tested and modified in work-shops with teachers of English at the elementary, sec-ondary, and college levels. This process results in CAIthat evolves organically from the set of theoreticalprinciples, both rhetorical and pedagogiml, that under-lie a writing program. This process uses the talents ofboth composition specialists and computef scientistsin a cooperative, team effort. Using the team approach

allows composition teachers to generate CAI that isboth rhetorically sound and technically sophisticated.

Suggestions for Using This Book

At this point, we would like to offer readers somesuggestions for using this text. In the following chap-ters, the steps for creating successful CAI are arrangedin a progressive sequence that approximates the pro-cess of software design. However, because the printedpage has only two dimensions, we cannot present, atone time, all the information CAI authors will need.When, for instance, in the second chapter, we suggestthat authors start writing a screen-by-screen script ofa CAI lesson, it would also be ideal if we could,simultaneously, present them with all the informationin the subsequent three chapters as well, informationabout lesson design, screen design, and evaluation thatwill necessarily shape the scripts they crcate.

In the traditional print format this book dependson, however, such a simultaneous presentation isimpossible. We can only attempt to minimize theproblems readers might encounter with this linearpresentation by providing the following suggestionsfor using this book.

1. First, read the Introduction to get an idea of thebook's content and organization.

2. Next, read the material presented in ChaptersOne through Seven; don't worry about complet-ing the worksheets. Rather concentrate onsurveying and undorstanding the informationcontained in each step.

3. After reading through the text the first time, goback and review each chapter carefully, this timecompleting the worksheets at the end of eachsection. Refer to various parts of the book asneeded, but complete tht design tasks in theorder they are presented.

4. Finally, allow for the luxury of revision. Youmight get halfway through the design processdescribed in this book before you discover theCAI lesson on which you reality want to workor before you realize that your lesson will re-quire major revision if it is to succeed in yourclassroom. Don't get discouraged. Such realiza-tions are characteristic of design, problem-solv-ing, and writing processes. Very few authors willbe able to go through the entire process witboutmaking substantial revisions of their initial ideasabout a CAI lesson.

9

Overview of the Book

This book describes a process of creating CAI for thecomposi:on classroom. It begins with an examinationof the theoretical principles underlying a compositioncourse or program and moves toward an increasinglyrefined instructional product. For the purposes of ourdiscussion, each of the chapters in this book will de-scribe one part or step of the process. The processitself, however, like any problem-solving process, isboth complex and recursive and must be modifiedfreely to work successfully within a specific writingprogram.

Identifying Assumptions about Writingand Pedagogy

If CAI is to be useful in a writing program, it must beinformed by the same theoretical assumptions thatunderlie the teaching within this program. ChapterOne discusses the importance of identifying assump-tions about writing and the teaching of writing, andof using these assumptiorz to shape CAI projects.

Getting Started on a CAI Project

Chapter Two describes how to get started on a CAIproject by choosing a suitable topic, analyzing thistopic in terms of teaching tasks, defining how theproposed instructional unit would fit into a writingclassroom or progam, sketching an initial overviewof the instruction, and starting to write a screen-by-screen script of the instruction.

Working with a Design Team

Chapter Three discusses how to work with a designteam to create CAI software for a writing-intensiveclassroom or program. Combining the expertise ofspecialists in composition, computer technology, edu-cation, and marketing in a cooperative venture canproduce valuable CAI that is sound in both contentand structure.

Making Pedagogical Decisions about a CAI Lesson

In the initial stages of a CAI project, certain peda-gogical decisions must be made. Authors, for instance,will want to identify the instructional objectives thatform the basis for the CAI, consider the screen andframe types that will be employed to convey theinstruction, and think about the lesson design and

Introduction 5

approach used to structure the lesson. Chapter Fourdiscusses the choices to be made in each of theseareas.

Integrating Response and Evaluationinto a CAI Lesson

Writing CAI also involves making decisions abouthow to respond to the material that students type onthe computer screen. These decisions involve consid-ering how, when, where, or if student answers shouldbe evaluated; whether student answers and studentwriting should be stored; and who should have accessto the storage files.

Thinking about Screen Display

Designing the screen presentation of instructionalmaterial involves making choices about functionalareas, print fonts, graphics, color, highlighting, andother special effects. Chapter Six discusses the issuessurrounding such choices.

Field Testing a CAI Lesson

Much of the real work on a CAI unit must begin onlyafter it is field tested on a targeted student audience.Field tests may involve working with various teammembers, administrators, students, and other teachers.Chapter Seven describes how to set up and implementfield-testing situations.

Spreading the Word about CAI Software

Often, the success of a CAI project depends on com-munication with colleagues. Chapter Eight discusseshow to talk about CAI projects to teachers who don'tuse computers as a tool in their writing classes andhow to fmd other teachers who are engaged in theirown CAI projects.

Sources Cited

Burns, Hugh L., and G. H. Culp. 1980. SimulatingInvention in English Composition through Com-puter-Assisted Instruction. Educationsd Technology20 (8):5-10.

Schwartz, Helen J. 1984. Teaching Writing with Com-puter Aids. College English 46 (3):239-47.

Von Blum, R., and M. E. Cohen. 1984. "WANDAH:Writing Aid and Author's Helper." In The Com-

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puter in Composition Instruction, ed. \VilliamWresch. 154-73. Urbana, Ill.: National Council ofTeachers of English.

Wresch, William. 1983. Computer Essay Generation.The Computing Teacher 11(3): 63-65.

11

1 IDENTIFYING ASSUMPTIONSABOUT WRITING ANDPEDAGOGY

The process of creating CAI, as it is described in thisbook, involves a team of experts working together totake advantage of their combined specialities. Thesuccess of any CAI destined for the compositionclassroom, however, will ultimately depend on you,the writing teacher. Only you can make informed deci-sions about how, or indeed if, computer-assisted in-struction can help you teach students; where it couldfit into your program or your class; which needs itcould address; when such instruction would be bene-ficial; and what content material it is best suited tocommunicate. And, only you can write the initialscripts for the CAI, scripts that tell the computerprogrammer or software designer what you want thecomputer to do.

Before these decisions can be made, however, andbefore a team can been to create a sucmssful piece ofCAI, the composition teacher must answer the fol-lowing questions:

1. What are my students' writing problems?

2. What are my assumptions about writing andcomposing?

3. What are my assumptions about the way writingshould be taught?

This chapter discusses the need to address thesequestions before beinming to create a CAI lessonand provides a systematic way of doing so. In a pat-tern we try to follow throughout this book, we havealso provided sample answers produced by an imagi-nary teacher, named Jean, who teaches first-year com-position at a small, four-year college. In fact, Jean'sanswers are compiled from the answers of teacherswho have responded to these activities in actual work-shops we have given on creating CAI.

At the end of the chapter, you will be asked toanswer each of the questions yourself on a worksheetwe provide.

Whet Are My Students' Writing Problems?

The profession continues to learn how to teach writingmore effectively. Research and scholarship during thelast decade indicate the importance of approachingwriting as a process; of identifying audience and pur-pose in rhetorical situations; of providing both evalua-tive and personal feedback to writers; of recognizingthe essential connections among writing, reading, lis-tening, and speaking. Rather than bring computersinto our classroom because we are enamored of themas electronic gadgets, we should use computers andcomputer-assisted instruction because they can helpus teach students these very important concepts anddo so in a way that complements our own teaching.CAI, in other words, rdce any type of writing instruc-tion, should help us address the specific problemsthat our students exhibit when they compose.

One good way of making sure that CAI relatesdirectly to an assessment of student needs involvesidentifying those needs. For most teachers, this task issecond nature. In fact, most of our pedagogical prac-tices and theoretical assumptions in the writing class-room grow directly out of the observations we makeof student needs. We watch our students, we see howthey write and from what writing problems they suf-fer, and we draw certain conclusions. With each stu-dent we help, these conclusions become stronger,more certain, and our practices are modified.' Here isa list of student writing problems that Jean mighthave compiled after observing her own students.

Example of Identifying Student Writing Problems

Process Problems

inventionplanninggetting startedrevising in multiple draftsediting

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Attitude problemscommitment to writingfear/ apprehensionunderstanding importance of writing in careerrefusal to make multiple revisions

Mechanical Problemsparallelismagreementattributionspellingsexist language

Logic Problemsorganizing paragraphsorganizing essaysdevelopmentgeneral vs. specifictopic sentences

You probably noticed that Jean clustered her stu-dents' writing problems into easily recognizable groups.This categorization will make her task easier whenshe has to decide which problem area she wants toaddress in her first CAI lesson. You might also notethat Jean was as specific as possible in identifying herstudents' writing problems, a characteristic that will,at a later point, help her focus the.CAI lesson thatshe wants to create.

At the end of this chapter, on Worksheet 1: Identi-fying Student Writing Problems, you will be asked tolist those writing problems your students exhibit inmuch the same way that Jean did. Remember, this is abrainstorming task, so identify as many problems aspossible and be as specific Ls possible in your listing.You can turn to that worksheet now and completethe listing task, or you can read the rest of this chapterand finish the worksheet later.

What Are My Assumptions about Writingand Composing?

All teachersthrough experience, observations, andreadinghave amassed a list of theoretical premisesthat inform their teaching of writing. A teacher mightbelieve, for instance, that writing involves a problem-solving process as well as an end product, or that allauthors can benefit from feedback as they workthrough V.; writing process. Teachers test and modifythese premises Iontinually; each student and each

writing-intensive class provides data that support theassumptions or that indicate a need for modification.

These same premises can serve to shape CAI soft-ware. In fact, if these premises are identified and usedto determine the content and approach of a piece ofCAI, the specific goals of the software will closelymatch the goals of writing instruction in general andassure a cohesive approach to teaching writing.Authors who fail to identify their assumptions aboutwriting before they design software run the risk ofproducing mater;Ils that are philosophically unielatedto the rest of their instructional activities.

Following, as an example, you'll see a list of as-sumptions about writing that might have been com-piled by Jean, as she thought about the kind of CAIlesson she would like to design. Examine the list, andsee if you have any theoretical premises in common.

Example of Identifying Assumptions about Writing

1. Writing involves a complex process of planning,drafting, revising, and editing activities that oc-cur in dynamically recursive patterns.

2. Writing to learn (expressive writing, journalwriting, freewriting) is fundamentally differentthan writing to communicate.

3. The development of writing skills is determinedby the developmental process of human learning.

4. Writing, because it involves crystallizing thoughtinto linguistic symbols, necessarily involves learn-ing and thinking.

5. Everyone has a different set of writing problems.

6. Different writing purposes (to persuade, to in-form, to express, to amuse) and different writinbmodes (narration, description, classification, etc.)involve different challenges, skills, and activitiesfor students.

7. Writing and reading are more than complemen-tary skills; they are integrally connected at themost basic physical and cognitive levels.

You probably noted that the assumptions Jeanlisted about writing arc stated in quite general termsand follow no particular pattern of rank or logic. Infact, Jean was asked to take only five or ten minutesfor this brainstorming task and encouraged to recordthose assumptions that came immediately to mindwhen she thought about writing. Later in this chapter,you'll be asked to compile a similar list.

What Are My Assumptions about Teaching Writing?

The observations teachers make of students' writingproblems shape not only their assumptions about theact of writing, but also their assumptions about teach-ing writing. And these assumptions about the teachingof writing, in turn, determine the type of instructionthat goes on within a writing classroom or program.For example, if a teacher assumes that writing in-volves a process as well as a fmal product and shesets her students having trouble with various parts octhat process (invention, for instance, or revising apreliminary draft), then she will teach students process-oriented strategies for solving writing problems. If ateacher believes that all authors can benefit fromfee4back as they engage in writing problems and shenotes that her students have problems shaping theirtexts to a reader's needs, she might incorporate peer-audience feedback into her writing classes.

These assumptions about how writing should betaught should also determine the kind of CAI soft-ware that is used in the composition classroom. Anexample will illustrate the importance of this point.One teacher we know got a $5,000 grant to spend twomonths of her summer vacation writing a short CAIlesson on writing expository essays. She planned thelesson for use by all the teachers in her highschool's writing program for college-bound seniors.Unfortunately, before creating the lesson, she failedto identify the assumptions about teaching writingthat her colleagues in this program shared. The fol-lowing year, to her dismay, the CAI gathered dust onthe school library's shelf and was seldom checked outby her fellow teachers for their classes. They foundthe program, which stressed a rigidly prescriptiveapproach to style, to be of little use in their classesthat, instead, emphasized style as an organic outgrowthof the commuaication situation.

At the end of this chapter, on Worksheet 3: Identi-fying Assumptions about Teaching Writing, you willbe asked to take a few minutes to brainstorm andcompile a list of your assumptions about teachingwriting. In the list that follows, you see what Jeanmight have compiled in response to the same task.

Example of Identifying Assumptionsabout Teaching Writing

1. Students must practice writing often if they areto become better writers.

2. Students must practice writing for different pur-poses and different audiences, and using differ-

Identifying Assumptions about Writing and Pedagogy 9

ent modes. Students must be taught strategiesfor coping with different writing situations.

3. Students must be guided through the process ofwriting and taught specific strategies for use atvarious points of this process.

4. Students must receive critical feedback fromreaders (both peers and teachers) at all stages ofthe writing process.

5. Students must learn to read critically their ownwriting and the writing of othersalways withan eye toward revision.

6. Students must be given instructional help andpractice in mastering their own unique writingproblems in the context of real writing tasks.

7. Students rw.es1 be given sufficient time to prac-tice writing and rewriting.

8. Students must be given chances to succeed inwriting situations, even if this means continuedrewriting efforts.

9. Students should also be shown how other writers,both professional and amateur, solve writingproblems.

You probAly noticed that the pedagogical assump-tions Jean listed in this example are related directly toher students' writing problems and her assumptionsabout teaching writing. This consistency makes sense;Jean's observations of students' writing problems,along with her own experiences as a writer, serve toshape her beliefs about writing and about how best toteach writing, When you complete Worksheet 1: Iden-tifying Students' Writing Problems, Worksheet 2:Identifying Assumptions about Writing, and Work-sheet 3: Identifying Assumptions about TeachingWriting at the end of this chapter, check to see howconsistent your own teaching methods are in relationto the problems your students exhibit as they composeand the assumptions you hold with regard to writing.

Summary

Answering the questions in this chapter is no easytask, but if you pause to think about them now, youmay solve some of the problems involved in writingCAI lessons before you even start. Like any instruc-tion that is ultimately successful, CAI must, in bothconception and practice, grow organically from theideas and activities of individual teachers who havedeveloped, tested, and refined their techniques in

14

10 Cynthia L Se Ife

actual writing classrooms. The tasks outlined in thischapter will help you create this type of successfulCAI.

How should you answer the questions we haveposed in this chapter? If you plan to write CAI lessonsby yourself and for your own classroom, you maysimply want to sit down and examine your own rhe-torical and pedagogical assumptionsthose that aremanifested in the writing instruction you give in yourclasses.

If, however, you are creating CAI that will be use-ful to a number of teachers in a writing program, youmight want to work with that group to answer thequestions. This approach will be especially useful ifthe teachers in your writing program operate theirclasses cn the basis of a common set of theoreticalpremises (e.g., writing involves a complex process, orwriting involves learning and thinking) or if they haveidentified certain teaching practices (e.g., using peergroups to provide reader feedback, or demanding

multiple drafts of a single paper). In such cases, youmight find it more valuable to come up with a set ofgroup answers to the three questions we have posedin this chapter.

The worksheets that follow have been provided foryou as places to answer the questions from this chap-ter. Use them to examine your own theoretical andpedagogical assumptions or as a place to identifygroup assumptions.

Note

I. This particular activity is taken directly fromthe writing-across-the-curriculum workshopsgiven by faculty at Michigan Technological Uni-versity. That it is as readily applicable in work-shops on CAI as it is in workshops on discipline-based composition illustrates the importance offorming all writing programs around the needsof writers.


Worksheet I: Identifying Student Writing Problems

Take five or ten minutes to brainstorm, and list below the writing problems you see your studentsexhibiting. Be as specific as possible.

Now, take the problems you have identified, and organize them into clusters that represent problem areas.List these clusters below.

Cluster 1 Cluster 2

Cluster 3 Cluster 4

Cluster 5 Cluster 6

12 Cynthia L Se Ife

Worksheet 2: Identifying Assumptions about Writing

In the space below, brainstorm for ten or fifteen minutes, and list those assumptions about rhetoric andcompositioa that inform your teaching of writing.

17


Worksheet 3: Identifying Assumptions about Teaching Writing

In the space below, take ten or twenty minutes to brainstorm, and list the assumptions you make aboutpedagogy that affect the way you teach in your composition classroom or program.

2 GETTING STARTED ON ACAI PROJECT

The Introduction discussed in a general way whattasks computers can do for us and what things we arebetter off doing for ourselves. In the last chapter, youlisted 3ome of the specific problems your studentsencounter when they write and some of the premises(about writing and the teaching of writing) uponwhich your composition program is based. Now, youare ready to begin thinking about the specific kind ofCAI project that you want to undertake. In thischapter, we will suggest a series of seven predesigntasks you may complete to help ensure the success ofa CAI lesson. These tasks are listed here.

I. Choose a topic to address in a CAI lesson.

2. Adjust the focus of the CAI lesson.

3. Complete a task analysis of the lesson.

4. Examine the lesson in light of assumptions aboutwriting and pedagogy.

5. Determine how the CAI lesson would fit intothe current writing program.

6. Create a lesson-overview flow chart.

7. Begin writing a script for the CAI lesson.

1. Choosing a Topic to Address in a CAI Lesson

One of the first tasks to complete when starting workon a CAI lesson involves choosing a topic or a prob-lem area around which to focus the instruction. Youidentified in Chapter One a list of problems that yourstudents exhibit when they write (Worksheet 1: Iden-tifying Student Writing Problems). This list will makean excellent starting point for identifying a lesson'scontent, especially if you begin by arranging yourstudents' writing problems according to some sort ofpriority. In the following example, you'll note howJean, our representative teacher, might have takenher original listing and ranked the problem areas sheidentified from 1 ("Deal with these nown to 4 ("Dealwith these lawr").

Example of Ranking of Student Writing Problems

2nd PriorityProcess Problemsinventionplanninggetting startedrevising in multiple draftsediting

1st PriorityA ttitude Problemscommitment to writingfear/ apprehensionunderstanding importance of writing as a careerrefusal to write multiple revisions

4th PriorityMechanical Problemsparallelismagreementattributionspellingsexist language

3rd PriorityLogic Problemsorganizing papers/paragraphsdevelopmentgeneral vs. specifictopic sentences

In ranking these problems as she did, Jean actedon a belief that "an attitude change" had to precedeany positive action on other problems. Also note thatshe thought the students' problems with the writingprocess should receive particular emphasis in herclassroom. After completing this ranking exercise,Jean might decide she should write a CAI lesson thataddressed some of her students' prewriting problems:getting started and invention.

On Worksheet 4: Ranking Students' Writing Prob-lems we will ask you to make a similar ranking of the

19

15

16 Cynthia L Selfe

problem areas you identified earlier, keeping in mindthe order of their instructional priorities in you: class-room or writing program. This ranking shculd pro-vide you with a general idea of a topic area for yourown CAI lesson. You may turn to this worksheetnow and complete this task, or finish reading thischapter first to get an overview of the six remainingpredesign tasks.

2. Adjusting the Focus of the CAI Lesson

Once you have ranked the writing problems your stu-dents encounter and chosen one topic or problemaround which to build a lesson, you can take time todecide how to focus this instruction. How much ofthe problem can you tackle effectively in one CAIlesson? What part of the problem is most importantto teach your students? Of course, your response tothis problem will depend on your own teaching situa-tion. If, for example, you are teaching writing in anelementary school, you might need to choose one partof a writing problem that could be addressed in aCAI lesson lasting between five and fifteen minutes,one that would keep the interest of younger students.If, on the other hand, you are teaching a technicalwriting class at a community college, you might wantto design a CAI lesson around a more complex topicthat might last forty-five minutes or even longer.

It is difficult to make these decisions if you havehad limited chances to try out commercial or home-made CAI lessons written expressly for students likethose you teach. How big a topic is too big? Howlittle a topic is too little? A sound practice in this caseis to draw a diagram that will illustrate your topic onseveral different levels of generality, each level repre-senting the content of a different CAI lesson. Figure2.1 shows how Jean might have represented the CAIlesson addressing her students' prewriting problems.

You'll notice that Jean can now use this diagramto adjust her approach to her planned CAI lesson.She can, for example, start working on the medium-

sized lesson she identified, entitled "Generating Ideas,"which might cover the concepts of brainstorming,diagraming. freewriting, imagining, and listing. If,however, Jean finds this lesson too large or too time-consuming for the students she teaches, she couldmove down a level on her diagram and address pre-writing techniques on a more limited level by focusingon freewriting as a specific strategy.

At the end of this chapter, we have provided anactivity, Worksheet 5: Adjusting the Focus of a CAILesson, on which you may create a similar diagramfor the topic or writing problem you have chosen.You may turn to this worksheet now and begin thisactivity, or you may read the remainder of this chap-ter first. You might want to draw several such dia-grams if you have not made a final decision about thetopic on which you would like to concentrate.

3. Completing a Task Analysis of the CAI Lesson

Before you actually try this next task, you shouldcomplete two important activities: first, choose onetopic or problem you would like to address in a CAIlesson, and second, using the method we explained inthe last predesign task, select a realistic focus for thislesson. If you're still not sure how big your CAI lessonshould be, we suggest starting at the most specificlevel of your diagram. Working on a lesson with aspecific and limited focus is extremely important ifyou are creating your first CAI lesson. By creating asmall, focused instructional packet, you can gauge theeffort and time required for CAI projects withoutmaking too large an investment of energy.

Up until this point in the process of creating a CAIlesson, it is easy, as an author, to think very generallyabout the topic you have chosen to address. The timecomes, however, when it is necessary to identify thespecific concepts or activities you will include in yourlesson. For the next exercise, we will ask you to do atask analysis of the instruction involved in the CAIlesson you are planning, and to anticipate the concepts

Example of Adjusting the Focus of a CAI LessonLarger Lesson

Title: Pitwtiting Techniques

Content genersdng ideasfocusing a topicplanning a paperorganizing a paper

Mediutn-Sized Lesson

Title: Generating Ideas

Content freewritingbrainstormingdiagrammingimage makinglisting

Figure 2.1: Sample of Worksheet 5 Activity

Smaller lesson

Tale: Freewriting

Content: non-stop orautomatic freewriting

untimed freemitingfocused freewritingutifocused freemiting

20

and activities that will be a part of the lesson. Tomake this task easier, picture the activiues you woulduse to explain the lesson's central concepts in a tradi-tional classroom setting. What concepts would youexplain? What intermediate lew.ning steps would youplan for students who want to master the conceptsyou've identified as part of the lesson?

In the following list you'll find a task analysisthat Jean might have done for her CAI lessonon freewriting.

Example of Completing a Task Analysis ofa CAI Lesson

Freewritingpurpose of freewritingtimed or automatic freewritinguntimed freewritingfocused freewritingkeeping a journal

lf, in this exercise, you simply list those conceptsand activities that yoti always cover in connectionwith a specific topic when teaching a writing course,you will find this task to be relatively simple. Indeed,the list above represents five concepts and activitiesthat Jean might explain or use in a class whenevershe introduces the topic of freewriting as a prewritingactivitywhether or not she chooses to use the com-puter as a teaching tool. Because the task-analysis listis a description of the writing activities you havedeveloped and tested as a part of actual instructionalsequences, it can, when complete, serve as a valuableand realistic outline of the CAI lesson you wantto create.

At the end of this chapter, on Worksheet 6: Com-pleting a Task Analysis of a CAI Lesson, you will beasked to compile a similar list for the CAI lesson onwhich you want to work. On a very practical basis,this worksheet will help you estimate the size of thelesson to be planned. You may, after completing thislisting, decide that it would be advantageous to attackthe topic on a more limited level. You may turn nowto Worksheet 6 and complete the task analysis, oryou may finish reading this chapter for an overviewof the four remaining predesign tasks before beginningthe worksheet.

4. Examining the Lesson in Light of Assumptionsabout Writing and Pedagogy

In Chapter Two, we talked about the rhetorical andpedagogical assumptions that form the bases for your

Getting Started on a CAI Project 17

writing program. We also expressed our belief thatany successful CAI would have to address theseassumptions. After all, if a CM lesson doesn't fitsmoothly into your existing writing program or matchyour teaching practices, of what use can it possibly bein your classroom?

To determine where a proposed CAI lesson fitsinto a writing program and to identify how closely itadheres to the teaching practices already establishedas a part of an instructional routine, an authormust look at the context in which the proposedlesson will be used. Below, we have shown how Jeanmight have answered some questions that addresssuch contextual concerns. In this activity, Jeanwould think about how her CAI lesson on freewrit-ing would be affected by the rhetorical and pedagog-ical assumptions she identified on the worksheets atthe end of the first chapter.

Example of Determining the Context kg'a CAI Lesson

Purpose of Lesson

I want this lesson to teach students how to Ilseseveral different freewriting strategies effectively.The lesson should also help students understandthat freewriting activities will help them generate,develop, and explore their ideas before drafting.

CAI Lesson and Assumptions about WritingI. Writing involves a complex process.

Comments: Freewriting, as a prewriting tech-nique, will help show strients that writing doesnot necessarily begin with a full-scale draft. Thislesson should be designed to show freewritingas part of a process that involves thinking andexplaining even before a first draft is begun.

2. Writing to learn is different from writing tocommunicate.

Comments: In this Itsson, the purpose of free-writing as a technique of learnin2 and thinkingshould be stressed. Also, the difference betweenformal transactional writing, used to communi-cate to others, and informal expressive writing,used to learn and discover, should be stressed.

3. Writing involves thinking and learning.Comments: This lesson should prove to studentsthat they can use writing to find out what theythink or remember. Students will see that pre-viously vague or unarticulated thoughts, perhapsthose that were only shadows in long-termmemory, can be crystallized through writing.

21

18 Cynthia L Selfe

CAI Lesson and Assumptions aboutTeaching Writing

I. Students must practice writing often if they areto become better writers.Comments: Students learn to write by practic-ing writing. This lesson should require studentsto practice freewriting on the computer. It won'tjust tell them to freewrite; it will show themhow to freewrite and let them practice freewrit-ing on various topics.

2. Students must practice writing for differentpurposes and audiences.Comments: In this lesson, students will writefor the purpose of learning and discovery. Theywill also practice writing to themselves as anaudience.

3. Students must be guided through the process ofwriting.

Comments: This lesson will demonstrate free-writing techniques students can use during theprewriting stage of their composing process.

As you can see from the example, the purpose ofthis activity is to take the assumptions about writing(idcntified on Worksheet 2) and the assumptionsabout teaching writing (identified on Worksheet 3)and use them to inform the concept and the contentof the CAI lesson you want to create. If, for instance,like Jean, you believe that writing involves a complexprocess and that writing teachers should guide stu-dents through this process, you will want to thinkcarefully about how to design a CAI lesson that leadsstudents deliberately through a series of process-basedactivities on the writing topic you have chosen. At theend of this chapter, on Worksheet 7: Determining theContext for a CAI Lesson, you will be asked to makenotes about the impact your own assumptions aboutwriting and teaching writing will hive on the CAIlesson you want to create. You may turn to this work-sheet now and begin this activity or finish readingabout the remaining three predesign tasks first

5. Fitting the CAI Lesson into a Writing Program

We have just discussed how important it is for theconcept and the content of a CAI lesson to match theassumptions about writing and teaching that form thebasis for a given composition classroom or program.In addition, however, it is the composition teacher'sjob to define how the students' actual use of the CAI

material will fit into the !dstructional sequence. Onlythe classroom teacher, for example, can determinewhether the CAI lesson should be used outside regularclassroom hours; in what room, what building, whatlibrary the materials might be located to ensure max-imum use by students; and if the materials will needto be documented or explained before students areasked to use them. In the list below, we have shownhow Jean might address a similar set of concerns.

Example of Fitting CAI into the WritingClassroom/Program

I. When will students use the CAI lesson? At whatpoint during my instructional sequence do Iexpect them to use the lesson?I'd want them to have used the freewriting lessonsome time before they began to write their firstpaper of the termmaybe the first week or so.

2. Where will my students use the CAI lesson?Since the Writing Lab down the hall is openfrom 8 a.m. to 5 p.m., I'll write the CAI lessonfor their microcomputers (Apples). We also havesome Apples in the library, which stays openeven later. I'll make a copy of it so that studentscan use it there too.

3. How long will students need to spend on theCAI lesson? Will this time be a supplement toor a substitute for regular classroom instruction?I don't want the kids to spend more than onehour or less than a half an hour learning aboutfreewriting. So I have those limits on the lesson.I'll assign this CAI as homeworkto be doneany time outside of regular class hours. Thelesson should &law me to skip the lectures andactivities on freewriting that I usually have todo during the first week of class.

4. Does the CAI neee to be documented or ex-plained before the students use it? Are any sup-plemental reading or writing materials needed?Well, there are tutors in the lab, but I'm surethey won't want to be answering the same ques-tions about how to get started over and overagain. I'd better write an instruction sheet toaccompany the CAI. Actually, the instructionsheet should only tell users how to turn themachine on and put the diskettes in. The rest ofthe instructions should be included in the lessonitself. All reading and writing during the lessonwill be done on the computer screen or with thecomputer keyboard, and students can get a hard

copy of what they did on the printer. As a result,no additional materials will be needed.

At the end of this chapter, on Worksheet 8: FittingCAI into the Writing Classroom/ Program, you willbe invited to answer these same questions about howa CAI lesson will "fit" into your writing program.You may turn to that worksheet now and complete it,or you may finish reading about the two remainingpredesign steps first.

6. Cmtting a Lesson-Overview Flowchart for theCAI Instruction

Most English teachers have had little experience withthose tools of a programmer's trade calledflowcharts.However, as the composition specialist on your soft-ware design team, you will need some vehicle forexplaining your ideas to other team members. Flow-charts, if they're simple and easy to understand, canbe one way of bridging the gap between your initialideas and the team's final execution of the CAIproject. So, put your worries aside. The next sectiondescribes a system of flowcharting that every teachercan understand.

You might have noticed that Jean responded tothese questions as a teacher who was planning todevelop a CAI lesson for use in her own writingclasses; thus, she had only herself to consult. If youare developing CAI for use by several teachers,however, you may have to come to some sort ofconsensus on a set of group answers with your fellowteachers to ensure that the CAI lesson you are plan-ning will be a valuable component of your largerwriting program.

If you have ever used an outline as an organizingaid while drafting a paper, you already know thevalue of flowcharts; they help an author visualize thelarger structure or framework of a writing project.Although some of the more complex flowcharts thatsoftware designers create look like hopeless mazes ofgeometric figures, a simplified form of such diagramscan be very helpful in representing a general overviewof an entire CAI lesson. Hereafter, we will refer tothis special kind of flowchart as a ksson-overviewflowchart because it provides a picture of the entirelesson without going into much detail.

Essentially, the lesson-overview flowchart we willask you to draw in this chapter will be composed ofonly three kinds of building blocks.


Ovals. Called a terminal or connector symbol, anoval marks the beginning of a lesson, the end of alesson, or a jump to another point in the structure ofthe lesson.

Rectangles. Called an operations box, a rectanglerepresents one segment or part of your lesson. Rect-angles can represent sequences of instruction, writingpractice, or skill exercises.

Diamonds. Called decision boxes, diamonds repre-sent a branching of the lesson flow, a point of evalua-tion where you decide in which direction the studentor the instruction should go.

In figure 2.2, you can see a sample lesson-overviewflowchart that Jean might have made from the task-analysis list she identified on Worksheet 6: Complet-ing a Task Analysis of a CAI Lesson.

You'll notice on this lesson-overview flowchart thatJean planned to give students instruction on five mainpoints, represented by rectangles labeled "in;truction."

the purpose of freewriting

timed freewriting

untimed freewriting

focused freewriting

keeping a journal

The lesson-overview flowchart also indicates that, forat least four of these points (timed freewriting, un-timed freewriting, focused freewriting, and keeping ajournal), Jean planned to have students engage in on-screen writing exercises that will be evaluated in someway. She designated the exercises with rectangleslabeled "exercises," and she marked the evaluation ofthese exercises with diamonds labeled "test." Testsinvolve a decision about students' performances onan activity. As Jean indicated with her arrows, anunacceptable answer on these tests would require stu-dents to recycle back through more instruction on thesame point and another exercise. An acceptable an-swer would allow tlygn to go on to the next instruc-tional point.

At this time, you need to think about how you'drepresent your own CAI project in c lesson-overviewflowchart. At the end of this chapter, on Worksheet9: Making a Lesson-Overview Flowchart, you will beasked to draw the first draft of such a diagram. Beforeyou begin the work of creating the lesson-overviewflowchart, however, it would make sense to reviewyour task-analysis list, making sure that you haverepresented each activity and concept to be coveredwithin the CAI lesson you are planning.

20 Cynthia L Se Ife

Example of Making a Lmon-Overview Flow Chart

NotAcceptable

Instruction: Instruction: Exercise:(Begin> Purpose of Timed TimedFreewriting Freewriting Freewriting

Instruaion:Untimed

Freewriting

Exercise:Untimed

Exercise:Focused

Freewriting

NotAcceptable

Test

lnstiuction:Keeping

a Journal

Exercise:Keeping

a Journal

Figure 2.2: Sampk of Worksheet 9 Activity

Test

NotAcceptable

You might also want to review the organization ofthese tasks. Are they in an order that accuratelyreflects a realistic teaching sequence? If not, whatorder might be more appropriate? When you havereviewed your task-analysis list for accuracy, you canthen use it to draw a lesson-overview flowchart. Itmay take several revisions of this diagram to get theelements of your chart just as you want them, but thefinished flowchart will provide you with a basis formaking many decisions about your CAI lesson laterin the writing process.

If you want to try your hand at creating a lesson-overview flowchart, you may turn to Worksheet 9and begin the process of assembling such a diabram.Some readers mny prefer to finish reading the rest ofthis chapter first

7. Beginning a Script of a CAI Lesson

The last predesign task we have identified for thecomposition specialist may be the easiest becauseit involves writing not lists or flowcharts, but goodold-fashioned prose scripts, a task with which we areall familiar.

At the most basic level, writing CAI is no differentfrom writing a script of a lessona written recordthat tells what the lesson should include, how thelesson should proceed, and what student responseswill be acceptable at various points in the lesson.

Writing the first draft of this script, especially ifyou want the computer to mirror your own teachingstyle, is mostly a matter of writing down what youwould say or do in the more comfortable setting ofyour own classroom. However, following a few basicguidelines as you start drafting can help ensure thevalue of a script in later stages of the composingprocess. These brief guidelines are explained in thefollowing items and illustrated in a sample script infigures 2.3 and 2.4.

1. Print the script on copies of Worksheet 10.1Only print between one and twenty-two linesper sheet. Think of these sheets as screens onthe computer. One sheet will contain as muchinformation as (and look just like) one screen inthe final CAI lesson. Each line of the sheetshould contain no more than sixty characters.This will ensure ten character margins on eachside of a standard eighty-character screen.

Example of Scripting a CAI Lesson

Screen Description Purpose of Freewriting

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

II

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

21

Notes:

Columnzo 3o ao so 6o

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91 0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

mann exIerifl5JIeeflflt 1 reev, tin: can hel ou ci s t annlInthe =ale sh dowel/50e thou hts thatll in MI at the back olillour mind. In nacOnninome peo e su nest that writin . IEbecausellit

s stem,linecnennanniOrnol annliaranslatin c o n IMMII Onto a s mbollnin

nnvolves both thinkinn and learninnnilliMI ME MO MEM

In the n onnthan follows, we'll tr to determine if thfinis :rue MOO SEINE MN Ii..

II SUMMEMONME us1 EN MEMOS II ME IIM

II MEM II O N 11010 II 0 OOMMO O O MO II

MONO O OBOE O MO IMMOMOO OlIMOOMOO I MO MOON0 1111111111.11111 II MO IIMOOII OEM MONO II MO MO

wm. umsm.

mom.. m mil ammu mom m . Ui IUIUiusuuu 11 111 MOON<G>o pan <Bannk nimmill>el <S>ave nnd <POrint <MEMO MMO

II OM OUSE insiuuuuu ON MOO


25 26

te.

Screen Description.

Column

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

Example of Scripting a CAI Lesson

Untimed Freewriting, Exercise, p. 3

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91 0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 92 O

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 93 o

I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 94 6

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 95 6

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 6°

0 kanumnsmormrffmmairmmerrin monmunommunlimmonnonnimum Bn_lowcomplete a fr rite on the first consciou memories thatyou have of y parents. Explore how thes memories af feetthe current r tionship you have with you parents.Hit the retur ey twice when vou have f ini bed yourfreewrite. Tr o write at least ten lines of prose,

NMMNII / [Createscroll up

a boxedwithin

areathe

onboxed

the screenarea,

for sso that

udentthey

responses.are not limited

Makein

it sothe

thalength

as theyof

writetheir freewrite.

their responses,Activate the

thedirectional

responsesarrows

II IIIII (1 1)

theiron thework.]

keyboard so that students can scroll up or down within their freewrite if they want to look at any portion of

IIIIIMHHMHIHIIHIH1H1HIIHHIIHIIIIS P I I II.... ..

Notes: [Branching instructions: If response in box is less than ten lines, go toUnsimed Freewrise, Test p. 1. If response is ten lines or more, go toUnsimed Freewrise, Test p. 2.]


28

2. On each script worksheet, write exactly whatyou want the computer to print on the screen.

3. You will probably want to identify a standardline of choices that will appear at the bottom ofmost screens in your CAI lesson. We will referto this as a standard choice line. Among yourstandard choices, think about including suchcommands as <G>o forward one screen, ackup one screen, <Q>uit this lesson, CIDelp, <S>aveand print this response, etc. Some screens inyour lesson, depending on their purpose, mayrequire a nonstandard choice line. (See ChapterSix: Thinking about Screen Display for moreinformation about screen design.)

4. Don't worry about printing out the standardchoice line at the bottom of every sheet; put theinitials SCL (Standard Choice Line) instead.

5. In the upper left-hand corner of each screenworksheet, indicate the task that the screen isdesigned to help you teach. Jean's examr.::shows a screen that is part of a task labeled"untimed freewriting." The screen is part of apractice exercise that Jean might want studentsto try after they learn some basics about whatuntimed freewriting is.

6. For each lesson screen that requires a studentresponse, use the section labeled "Programmer'sNotes" at the bottom of the sheet. In this sec-tion, describe the criteria you want to establishfor testing the students' input, for deciding whichanswers are acceptable and which are not. Thesecriteria will determine which way the programwill branch for individual students. ChapterFive: Integrating Response and Evaluation intoa CAI Lesson will provide further informationon how to handle the evaluation of students'responses in a CAI lesson.

7. Use brackets to indicate material that the com-puter programmer should retrieve from earlierstudent responses. Indicate not only what infor-mation the programmer should supply, but alsowhere (on what sheet or screen) he or she canfind the original response. Using this system, forexample, you can ask students to type a list ofpossible writing topics on an early screen andthen have the CAI lesson call up these topicsand refer specifically to them on later screens.

8. Also use brackets to make notes about specialinstructions for your programmer. If, for ex-


ample, you want students to enter their responsesin a certain area of the screen or to limit theirresponses to a certain number of words, note itin brackets to inform your rirogrammer.

9. Be sure to include clear and complete directionsfor the student and for the programmer. If, forexamp!e, you ask the students to do some writ-ing on the screen, give them some method ofindicating to the programmer when they aredrine with their entry.

Now that you know what scripts look like, you canbegin to create some screens of your own for the CAIlesson you have planned. In fact, at the end of thischapter, we have provided Worksheet 10: Scripting aCAI Lesson, for this purpose. Don't worry if it takesyou quite a while to get the hang of scripting on thegrid we have provided; it may seem awkward andrestrictive at first, but it will save you and your pro-

ammer a great deal of time and a great many head-aches later in the process of developing your CAIlesson.2

Nfites of Caution

Before you spend too much time scripting, you willwant to read Chapters Four, Five, and Six in thisbook. These chapters provide you with additionalinformation and advice about designing CAi that willhave an impact on the scripts you produce. We sug-gest reading these chapters to get an overview of thisadvice before you try to create an entire script ofyour lesson. In light of the information contained inthese chapters, you might also want to revise someparts of your CAI lesson as you have planned it inprevious chapters.

About Using This Book

A caution about process seems warranted at thispoint. We have, in this book, broken down the processof writing a CAI lesson into a series of easy-to-followsteps. The actual process of writing CAI, however, isnever so neat or clean-cut.

Like any process, writing CAI is both recursiveand complex. You may, for example, get as far ascreating a flowchart before you decide to go backand do some more brainstorming about a completelydifferent topic. Or you may choose to spend daysbrainstorming and exploring several different topicchoices before you begin to focus your instruction.

29

24 Cynthia L Se Ile

Don't worry, and don't let the steps we've outlinedhere limit or hinder your own natural problem-solving processes.

We are convinced, in fact, that revision shouldmark efforts throughout the design process. Don't besurprised if, as you work through the steps outlinedin this book, you keep going back to the worksheetsyou have already completed and making changes inthe shape, the content, or the scope of the lesson youare planning. The process of creating successful CAIlessons, like all other writing processes, involves roughstarts, dead ends, multiple drafts, and rethinkings ofthe original concept. It would be a serious underesti-mation of the task to think that any aethor couldtake a straight-line, linear approach to creating sophis-ticated, successful CAI lessons.

Finally, the guidelines we have presented suggestonly one way of approaching the design of a CAIlesson.3 Use what you can, when you can. Adapt oursteps to your writing process and never hesitate to goback, rewrite, revise, and rework your initial ideas.

Summary

In this chapter we have suggested seven predesigntasks that should be completed before work on a CAIlesson is begun. We believe that these preliminarysteps will eliminate a great deal of authors' frustrationonce they begin writing a lesson and also help themavoid disappointment once the lesson is ready for usein an actual composition program. Successful CAIlessons result when authors are deliberate in makingsure that their instructional material is informed bytheir rhetorical and pedagogical assumptions, that itis created carefully and with an eye toward use in areal classroom.

Notes

1. The screen-by-screen worksheets provided inthis chapter are only models. Your computerscreen may allow the use of more characters ineach line or more lines on each screen. Weencourage you to adapt these worksheets to fitthe particular computer on which you will beworking. Consult your programmer if you arenot sure of screen dimensions.

2. The process of screen-by-screen scripting wehave outlined here is certainly not the only suchsystem that exists. Some authors prefer to use a

sheet of large-grid graph paper to represent eachcomputer screen. Other authors use a word-processing or graphics program to producescreen templates and the text that will appearon these screens. We are sure there are manyother such systems. In any case, choose thesystem with which you are most comfortable,and be sure you know the exact screen dimen-sions (characters per line and lines per screen)with which you must work before you beginscripting.

3. Some authors, for example, would say that theprocess described in this book is needlesslycomplex and laborious when compared to theprocess of creating a lesson using a computer-ized authoring system (CDS-1, BLOCKS 82,and CAIWARE-2D are just a few such systems).Authoring systems are designed to facilitate thedevelopment of CAI exercises. A teacher will sitdown at a computer, put in an authoring-systemprogram, and then answerusing the keyboarda series of questions that appear on the com-puter screen: What is the name of the exercise?How many items does the teacher want to coveron this exercise? How are they to be sequenced?What items should appear on the test? Whichanswers should be counted as correct? Howmany times are students allowed to try anygiven exercise? When the questions have beenanswered, the authoring system will produce theexercises as they have been defined by theteacher.

Unfortunately, none of the authoring systemswe have seen (of those that were commerciallyavaileble at tbe time of this printing) were de-signed with composition teachers or writinginstruction in mind. Authoring systems we haveused, for example, often presuppose an objective-question format, which limits the length ofanswers a student may type in, or an objective-testing format, which assumes a "right" or"wrong" answer for each response a studenttypes in. Sucb frameworks are obviously inap-propriate for most writing instruction. Weremain convinced that current systems are ex-tremely limited in their vision of the kind ofteaching that goes on in a composition class-room or a writing lab, that they seldom allowteachers (even those who are willing) to producelessons that reflect the theory and research nowaccepted in the field of writing.

We believe the low-tech, screen-by-screensystem outlined in this book allows for a muchmore open-ended process of lesson design thando the authoring systems we've used, and, fur-thermore, that it can result in lessons that are assound, theoretically and pedagogically, as moreconventional instruction.

We understand that efforts are now underwayat the University of Minnesota to construct anauthoring system that will accommodate theteaching approaches of composition instructors.The project is headed by Lillian Bridwell andDonald Ross.

31

Getting Started on a CA! Project 25

26 Cynthia L Se Ife

Worksheet 4: Ranking Student Writing Problems

In the space provided below, rank the clusters cf student writing problems you identified on Worksheet 1:Identifying Student Writing Problems and give a few examples of the problems that typify each cluster.

Rank Rank

Cluster Cluster

Rank Rank

Cluster Cluster

Worksheet 5: Adjusting the Focus of a CAI Lesson

Larger Lesson

Title:

Content

Getting Started on a CA! Project 27

Medium-Sized Lesson Smaller Lesson

Title:

Content

33

Title:

Content:

28 Cynthia L Selfe

Worksheet 6: Completing a Task Analysis of a CAI Lesson

In the space provided below, identify the topic around which you would lilce to organize your CAI lesson.Next, list the concepts that are crucial to an understanding of this topic and the activities you wouldemploy in your classroom to teach this topic. At the bottom of the page, make any notations you maythink of for adapting the topic, or the tasks you have identified, to the medium of computer-assisteuinstruction.

Topic:

Subtopics:

Notes:


Worksheet 7: Determining the Context for a CAI Lesson

Use your answers from Worksheet 2: Identifying Assumptions about Writing, your answers fromWorksheet 3: Identifying Assumptions about Teaching Writing, and your evolving ideas about the CAIlesson you want to write to answer the following questions:

Purpose of Lesson

CAI Lesson and Assumptions about Writing

I.

Comments:

Comments:

3.

Comments:

4,

Comments:

35

30 Cynthia L Selfe

CAI Lesson and Assumptions about Teaching Writing

Comments:

2.

Comments:

3.

Comments:

4.

Comments:

Worksheet 7 continued

3 6


Worksheet 8: Fitting CAI into the Writing Classroom/Program

Use your own experience in the classroom and your evolving ideas about your CAI lesson to answer thefollowing questions:

1. When will students use the CAI lesson? At what point during my instructional sequence do I expectthem to uw the lesson?

2. Where will my students use the CAI lesson?

3. How long will studems need to spend on the CAI lesson? Will this time be a supplement to or asubstitute for regular classroom instruction?

4. Does the CAI lesson need to be documented or explained before the students use it? Are anysupplemental reading or writing materials needed?

3 7

32 Cynthia L. Selfe

Worksheet 9: Making a Lesson-Overview Flow Chart

Using the three types of symbols we discussed earlier in this chapterovals, for beginnings and endings;rectangles, for "instruction" and "exercise" segments; and diamonds, for "test" activitiescreate alesson-overview lbw chart of your CAI lesson.

Worksheet 10: Scripting a CAI Lesson

Use copies of this grid 13 determine what part of your lesson will appear on each screen.

Screen Description.

Column

ill I

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

Notes:

101 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

201 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

3o1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

41 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

so1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

6o

3 WORKING WITH A DESIGNTEAM

In previous chapters, we described the tasks of choos-ing a topic to address in a CAI lesson, deciding howthe lesson would fit into an existing writing programor classroom, and scripting an initial draft of thelesson. But how, after starting on a CAI project, doauthors proceed? How do they take the idea of a CAIproject from its initial conception to the point whereit can be used by students in a writing classroom orby other faculty in a writing program?

In most cases, the process of creating a polishedCAI lesson requires the talents of more than oneperson. As English, rhetoric, or composition teachers,we are seldom trained to master the fields of softwaredesign, programming, statistics, or marketing. Andyet, all these specialties may be required to produce asuccessful piece of CAI. To resolve this dilemma, wesuggest forming a design team, a group of specialistswith complementary talents who can work togetherto take an initial idea and turn it into a valuable CAIlesson for use in the composition classroom.

This chapter discusses how to form and workwith a design team to create CAI lessons for writing-intensive classes. The following pages address threecentral questions connected with such a venture:

I. How does a design team work?

2. Who leads the design team?

3. Who should be included on the design team?

As you will see, the central theme of this chapter isthat very few people have expertise in all the areasdemanded by a complex CAI project and that evenfewer have the time necessary to tackle such a projectalone. Software design teams, modeled on similargroups that function in industry and business settings,represent collections of specialists with complementaryskills. Such groups provide a range of expertise in theareas we have identified and make it possible to pro-duce CAI lessons that are technically sophisticated,theoretically sound, and pedagogically effective.

How Does a Design Team Work?

The basic concept of a design team is far from new.Any group or committee that has pooled the talentsand skills of individuals to accomplish a desired goalhas experienced the advantages of such a team. Inthis text, the term "design team" will be used to referto a specially formulated group of experts who co-operate to create CAI lessons or software for writing-intensive classes or programs.

Although design teams of the kind that we describeshare a common goal (that of producing CM for thecomposition classroom), they differ widely in theirconstitution. Generally speaking, the design teams weare describing are formed and led by compositionspecialists who have a personal stake in creating CAIlessons for composition-intensive classes. As a result,the membership of a design team will depend on thepersonality of this team leader and the requirementsof the CAI project under consideration.

An economical team, for example, may consist ofa simple collaborative effort on the part of twocolleagues with complementary skills. Other designteams will have more elaborate memberships and willinvolve students as well as teachers. The team we willuse for discussion purposes throughout this bookconsists of four members: a composition specialist, aprogrammer, an educational specialist, and a market-ing specialist. We should add, however, that any num-ber of other experts could be valuable contributors toa team effort. Depending on the CAI project beingplanned, the team might want to involve linguists,reading specialists, cognitive psychologists, literatureteachers, or other experts.

Because design teams are shaped by the academicinstitutions within which they function, their internalstructure, methods of operation, and support theyenjoy will also vary widely. Some teams, for instance,meet regularly, much like a committee, to considertht progress being made on a CAI project. Other

41

35

36 Cynthia L Se lfe

teams are less formal, communicating via telephoneconversations or in casual hallway meetings. In addi-tion, depending on the personality of the compositionspecialists who head the team, some groups tend tobe leader-oriented and others to be marked by aloosely democratic structure. Finally, some designteams are fortunate enough to have access to institu-tional financial resources that buy released time fortheir members during the summer or even the aca-demic year. Other teams must rely on all-volunteerefforts from their members.

In short, there are no rules governing the formationand operation of a software-design team. These groupssucceed best when they are responsive to the settingin which they are formed, the motivation of theirmembers and leaders, and the nature of the CAIproject they will tackle.

Who Should Lead the Design Team?

Perhaps the most important member of the designteam, at least as that group will be represented in thisbook, is the composition specialist. As the primaryauthor of the CAI lesson, the composition specialistacts as team leader, content specialist, and curriculumexpert. We do not make this claim lightiy, nor as amanifestation of chauvinistic pride in our profession.A basic premise of this book is that the best and mosteffective CAI lessons for use in composition classroomsgrow organically from the needs and the philosophyof a srtcific writing class or writing program. Thecatalyst for this process, and indeed the focus of theteam effort, must be the teacher of composition.

The composition specialist's role, however, maychante with the progress of the project as indicated infigure 3.1.

Early in the project, the composition specialist, asthe primary author, may take a central role in thesoftware-design effort: making initial philosophicaldecisions about the value and the place of CAI in acomposition program or classroom, the pedagogicaland rhetorical assumptions !4:vn which CAI shouldbe based, and the possible COMent of individual CMlessons. In addition, the composition specialist willprobably have to assume the burden of getting theproject off the ground, lining up funding for theeffort, identifying the other members of the designteam, and consulting with these individuals.

As the project progresses, after the compositionspecialist has focused the concept and content of thelesson, created a satisfactory overview of the instruc-

tion, and drafted a successful screen-by-screen scriptof the lesson as it will appear on the computer mon-itor, h, or she may find it easier to rely on othermembc of the design team. The programmer, forexample, may start to become more prominent in thedesign process, translating the author's instructionalmaterial into a code that the computer can under-

CompositionSpecialist

theoretical decisionspedagogical decisions

content decisions

Early Stages of Project

CompositionSpecialist

Programmercoding

testing program partsdebugging

Middle Stages of Project

MarketingSpecialist

market analysispublishing contacts

financial advice

Later Stages of Project

Figure 3.1: Design Team Roles

42

stand. At this point, the composition specialist maystill serve as an active consultant, advising the pro-grammer on specific program requirements.

At the later stages of the project, when the initialround of coding (programming) is done, the composi-tion specialist and the programmer may fade into thebackground for a short period, while a different teammember, such as the educational consultant, takesover the field testing of the lesson and suggests revi-sions based on this field testing. Other team members,such as the marketing specialist, for instance, mayalso assume a more active role in the later stages ofthe design process, especially if the team plans todisseminate the CAI lesson to a wider audience.

At every stage of the project, however, the compo-sition specialist, as team leader, will want to monitorthe decisions being made with regard to the CAIlesson to ensure that it remains faithful to the originalintention of the instruction and to the premises thatunderlie the writing classroom or program in which itwill be used. For example, it is the compositionspecialist who will need to explain the theory and thephilosophy behind the writing activity when a pro-grammer suggests that multiple choice answers wouldbe better for the lesson than essay answers becausethey are "easier to program."

Similarly, it is the compositioa specialist who willwant to assume the responsibility For monitoring thepedagogical integrity of the lesson as a piece of writinginstruction. It will be up to the composition specialist,for instance, to answer team members who suggestthat every one of the students' written responses in aCAI lesson should be evaluated as correct or incor-rect. In such cases, by drawing on experience inwriting-intensive classes as well as recent research andtheory in the field of writing, the composition spe-cialist can illustrate how writing involves learning andthinking regardless of whether or not activities areassessed formally.

Who Should Be Included on the Design Team?

As we noted earlier, any number of specialists cancontribute to the success of a design team. As theteam leader, however, the composition specialist willprobably assume the primary role in determining ateam's membership. Membership decisions will alsobe a function of the CAI project itself; different les-sons require the talents of different specialists. Alesson on syntax, for example, may require extensiveconsultation with a linguist; a lesson on the writing

Working with a Design Team 37

process may involve a cognitive psychologist as amember of the design team.

For the purposes of this discussion, however, wewill leave the choice of content-area specialists up toyou. As the plans for your CAI lessons become morefirm, the decisions about content-area consultants willclarify themselves. What we can do in this section issuggest some guidelines for selecting three otherexperts commonly invited to join a software designteam: a programmer, an educational specialist, and amarketing expert.

Choosing a Programmer

According to the team structure we describe in thisbook, a programmer translates the author's writtenscripts into a code using some computer language(BASIC, COBOL, Pascal, C) or an authoring lan-guage (a specialized computer language that allowsprogrammers to use abbreviated commands to ac-complish complex tasks more efficiently). Optimally,the team's programmer should be proficient in anumber of computer languages. With this skill, theprogrammer can choose a language that runs on thecomputers in any given educational setting or oncertain popular brands of computers that are foundin a number of different settings. Knowledge of a"transportable" programming language can be espe-cially important if the team plans to market the CAIlesson for use by other teachers.

In addition, the programmer should be interestedin and enthusiastic about the team's CAI project. Aprogrammer who is disinterested or even antipathetictoward writing and writing instruction may turn outto be a drain on the group's time and energy. Aprogrammer who writes frequently or who struggleswith writing problems may be able to provide somenew perspectives on the very topic the team is treatingin the CAI lesson.

Perhaps the most important qualification for ateam programmer is that he or she be able to com-municate clearly in terms that all group members canunderstand. For this reason, we suggest interviewinga number of prospective programmers and choosingthe best possible applicant for the design team. If, ininterviewing a programmer, you find yourself feelingleft out, stupid, or inadequatego no further. Youneed a Fogrammer who can explain very technicalmatters in plain language, one who can documentprograms in clear English. If the programmer cannotcommunicate during a short interview, it is likely that

38 Cynthia L Selfe

he or she will be of little help in thrashing out com-plex problems in a meeting of the design team.

As the composition specialist and the primaryauthor on your design team, beware of programmerswho tell you that things can't be done or that there isonly one way of translating the group's ideas intocode. The job of a programmer is to choose a lan-guage and coding algorithms that will do what youwant. A good programmer will not begin an interviewby asking you to change the CAI lesson you haveplanned to accommodate a favorite programming lan-guage or a personal conception of the way computer-assisted instruction should look.

If you are less than confident in dealing withprogrammers and these feelings keep you from beingeffective in communicating as you interview program-mers for your design team, try auditing a beginningprogramming class at your local community college,adult school, or university. Such a course, even ifyou don't complete it, will help demystify computersfor you and provide explanations of the logicalprocesses in which computers can engage. It willalso allow you to acquire a vocabulary that you canuse to trade ideas with the programming member ofthe design team.

Where do you fmd a programmer? Perhaps thebest place to look is right in your own college, highschool, or classroom. Often college students majoringin computer science are excellent candidates. Quitefrequently, these students must complete an indepen-dent, large-scale programming project as part of theirdegree. In any case, they are eager to undertake acoding project for a minimal hourly fee. One hintmay be useful, if you are looking for college studentsto act as members of your design team: look forsophomores or juniors who have completed theirstudy of several programming languages, but who alsohave one or two years of study left before they moveon. These individuals prove to be especially helpful ifthe CAI project you have in mind will extend over alonger period of time.

Increasingly, high school students are also becom-ing skilled enough to undertake a large programmingtask. With tht:.2e students, look for maturity as well asknowledge of several programming languages. Youwill be communicating with these people about verysophisticated concepts and tasks, and they must havethe intellectual maturity to understand you.

Of course, students are not the only answer to yourprogramming needs. Often, colleagues express interestin projects that involve collaboration across normal

curricular boundaries. You might try trading yourservices as coauthor, editor, or proofreader with acolleague in computer science for the time he or shespends on your CAI lesson. The same approach canbe used with professional programmers who work inindustrial settings. Although these people may chargemore than you could afford if you were to hire them,they may be persuaded to trade their services for yourexpertise on a project they want to undertake. In allcases, make sure that the programmer you choose hassome interest in your project, either because thisperson is a writer or because he or she believes in theimportance of the instructional goals you are tryingto achieve with your CAI lesson.

A final suggestion for choosing a programmerinvolves keeping track of the individuals you considerfor this position. Be systematic about recording infor-mation as you interview programming candidates sothat you can eventually make an informed decisionabout the person you ask to join the team. Keepingthorough records of the programmers you interviewwill also allow you to replace, as expeditiously as pos-sibk, programmers who, for one reason or another,might have to leave the design team in the middle ofyour project. Constructing and filling out a standardinterview form for each programming applica r... willassist you in this effort. In figure 3.2, you see one ex-ample of such a form as it might have been completedby Jean when she formed her software-design team.

At the end of this chapter, we have provided youwith an interview form, Worksheet II: Choosing aProgrammer, that you can use to gauge the suitabilityof the programmers with which you talk. It shouldalso provide you with a record of the informationyou obtain in interviewing situations.

Choosing an Educational Specialist

Choosing an educational specialist to serve on thedesign team may not involve the same problems aschoosing a programmer, but such a specialist can,nonetheless, be an important member of the group.The educational specialist can provide advice on therange of cognitive skills the CAI lesson is addressing(z.g., Is the lesson engaging students in higher levelskills like synthesizing and analyzing informationrather than just asking them to memorize informa-tion?), the presentation of the information (e.g., Arestudents asked to respond actively to instruction onalmost every screen?), and the field testing and evalua-tion of the lesson itself.

Name.


Example of Choosing a ProgrammerDoria McNulty

Address. 1629 Austin St., Columbia, MO 49931

Telephone. 443-4983

Programming Languages: (circle)

COBOL

(BASIC ) CSITBOD

C

Others. LISP

Authoring Systems/Languages: CDS 1, COMMON PILOT6LITO1').

Ability to Communicate/Explain Ideas in Plain Language:

celle medium

Willingness to Find a Way to Do What I Want Done:

excellent medium

Interest in Project:

excellent medium

poor

poor

poor

Comments: McNulty has an undergraduate degree in Liberal Arts and says that she enjoyed herwriting classes in college. She also emphasized her strengths in writing documentationfor her programs. She exhibited enthusiasm about the Freewrite design project andhinted that she may be willing to exchange programming time for editing help onseveral professional articles she is trying to write.

Figure 3.2: Sample of Worksheet I I Activity

45

40 Cynthia L Seife

Again, as primary author and team leader, youmay want to interview several educational specialistsbefore deciding which one would be the most ame-nable to your ideas about CAI. In choosing aneducational specialist, look for someone who has hadexperience with computerized instruction. Such a per-son can suggest motivational devices that might beadded to your program (graphics, timed exercises,scoring competitions, games, rewards), ways to indi-vidualize the instruction that the lesson offers (menus,answer-dependent branching, retrieval of previousresponses), and creative methods of assessing the ap-propriateness of a student's written responses (search-ing for key words or phrases, providing self-evaluationguidelines, providing matching samples).

The educational specialist can also supervise thefield testing and evaluation of the lesson at variousstages of completion if he or she has had some experi-ence in evaluating educational materials and theireffectiveness. In the later stages of the project, theeducational specialist should be able to construct asystematic plan for testing each important element ofthe CAI lesson to measure its impact on studentlearning. This kind of modularized testing can providespecific suggestions for revising the weaker or lesseffective parts of the CAI lesson. In Chapter Seven:Field Testing CAI Lessons, we have made some addi-tional suggestions about field testing that you maywant to go over with the team's educational specialistduring the later stages of the CAI project.

Settling on remuneration for an educational spe-cialist's time may exercise your creativity. Someauthors suggest thinking in terms of alternatives totraditional educational funding sources: trade profes-sional services (editing, proofreading, coauthoring)for consulting time, pay a nominal fee, or offer partof the profits from the lesson if it is to be marketedfor a larger audience.

Although educational specialists with the ideal qual-ifications outlined above may be harder to find thanprogrammers, we still suggest that you be systematicabout recording impressions of the people you ap-proach. You might only interview two or three educa-tional specialists for your design team, but it neverhurts to keep track of individuals' qualifications. Youmay find, later in the design process, that such infor-mation comes in handy. For example, keeping carefulnotes on an educational specialist who mentions con-tacts in the state educational agency during an inter-view may allow you to remind the team of possiblefield-testing populations or marketing spheres near

the end of a project. In figure 3.3, you will see onesample of an interview form for educational specialistsas Jean might have completed it.

At the end of this chapter, we have provided asimilar form, Worksheet 12: Choosing an EducationalSpecialist, to help you keep track of the educationalspecialists you interview.

Choosing a Marketing Specialist

If, as the primary author of a CAI lesson, you areplanning to disseminate this product to a largeraudience than those teachers within your department,you may want to ask a marketing or business specialistto join the design team. A good business consultantcan plan an initial marketing strategy for the CAIpackage, write product descriptions and hardwarespecifications, contact publishers and software distrib-utors, and conduct final product negotiations.

As the composition expert on yonr team, you willneed to work closely with any business consultant.He or she will have to know, for example, whom yousee as the target audiences for the lesson (remember,although students will use the lesson, teachers, prin-cipals, and lab directors may be the people who buyit), what the members of this audience value in a CAIlesson (teachers may value instructional content pri-marily, while principals are looking for reasonableprices, and students for motivating instruction), andfinally, what the customers need in terms of productsupport (documentation, accompanying handbooks,follow-up technical services).

Again, you will have to negotiate with marketing'specialists about the return they expect for investingtheir time in your project. If you Pre convinced thatyour project will sell well in the open market, youmight be able to promise a portion of the eventualprofits. You might also be in a position to trade pro-fessional services (editing, proofreading, ghostwriting)for consulting expertise in the field of marketing.

Finally, we suggest filling out a short interviewsheet on each marketing specialist you interview forthe design team. These sheets will provide pertinentdata on each candidate and can help you compare thequalifications of the various individuals before youmake a final selection. In figure 3.4, you can see asample form for interviewing marketing specialiststhat Jean might have completed during the process ofputting together her own design team.

At the end of this chapter, we will provide youwith a similar form, Worksheet 13: Choosing a

Example of Choosing an Educational Specialist

Name. Dan Beemer

Address. 202 S. 4th St., Columbia, MO 49931

Telephone- 443-5963

Areas of Specialization:


CAI: Beemer is just out of college, but he did take several courses on educational uses of CAIwhile he was at the State U. He "terns eager to try a full-scale project.

Evaluation/Testing: Reports taking two courses on educational testing and evaluationoneunder Dr. E. Kelter. He suggested several books that might be goodbackground reading for the team:

Godfrey & Sterling, The Elements of CAI Burke, CAI Sourcebook

Field Testing. Has never really tested any CAI although he says he is familiar with severaldifferent systems for observing students as they use CAI and recording theirreactions. Has had experience with protocol analysis.

Writing: Is certainly positive about writing. Says he is writing his own science fiction novel.

Ability to Communicate/Explain Ideas:

excellent



medium

medium

poor

poor

poor

Comments: Beemer is young but extremely enthusiastic about the Freewriting project. I like hisfrankness and his ideas about testing methodology.


4 7

42 Cynthia L. Se Ife

Nanr:

Example of Choosing a Marketing SpecialistSandra Kelley

Address- 2243 Cobalt Ave., Columbig, MO 49931

Telephone. 442-8853


CAI: Kelley teaches in the Business Department. She is thinking about trying to set up herown software marketing operation on the side. She has worked with computers in herown field and has used quite a few CAI programs designed for business and industry.

Publishing Contacts: She reviews business software programs for several small publishers:LIVEWARE and NEWSOFT. Says she knows the editors there.

Marketing Software: Only her reviewing experience. Hasn't really marketed any softwareyet. Seems familiar enough with marketing principles in generalthough.

Writing: Hated English in college, but doesn't 'seem to mind writing for professional reasons.She did say that she thought writing was important for people in her field.

Ability to Communicate/ Explain Ideas:

excellent medium


Eccelle medium


excellent medium

poor

poor

poor

Comments: Very quiet, but seemed determined about starting her own business. When she talked aboutmarketing, enthusiasm increased.


Marketing Specialist, to help you keep track of themarketing specialists you interview for the designteam. You may want to turn to that section now andlook over this worksheet.

Summary

In this chapter, we have discussed how design teamswork; talked about the role of the composition spe-cialist in leading such a team; explored the formationof a typical design team consisting of a compositionspecialist, a programmer, an educational specialist,and a marketiiig specialist; and discussed the contribu-tions each of these members can make to a CAIdesign project.

Ultimately, however, the choice of team membersrests with you, as the team leader and primaryauthor, and will be determined by your own uniquesituat,on. Thus, the suggestions we have providedwill be useful only if they are modified to fit aspecific project. Some authors may find, for example,that they can function perfectly well with only a two-person team consisting of a composition specialist anda programmer. In such cases, the rather formalprocesses we have suggested for interviewing andrecord keeping may prove unnecessary. In other cases,authors may choose to combine the expertise of threeor four composition specialists, a cluster of program-mers, an educational specialist, and a marketing spe-cialist. For these situations, the process we haveoutlined may seem more valuable. In any case,we encourage you to experiment with the talent youhave available to create a design team that will func-tion effectively. Do not let our suggestions constrain


either the size or the makeup of the team that yougather together.

As team leader, you will also be responsible forfunding the team's efforts, and this might well proveto be the hardest part of your job. Although you candonate your own time to the project, it may be hardto corvince other team members to do the same. Inthe previous sections, we suggested some alternativesto traditional sources of educational funding, but weencourage you not to let these ideas limit your think-ing about funding. Continue to explore public- andprivate-sector grants, research and curriculum-devel-opment awards from local and national professionalorganizations, and scholarships.

In addition, do not overlook those sources in yourown backyard; most educational institutions havesome source of funds for innovative pedagogicalprojects. If you can convince administrators that yourCAI lesson will make a significant contribution tocommunication curricula or to the education of stu-dents in general, you might have a good shot at suchmonies. Although these discretionary awards are be-coming scarce as school budgets are tightened, theincreased emphasis on computer-assisted educationmay, in itself, lend weight to your arguments.

One final note, every design team differs slightly inmakeup, membership, and function. As a result, andin an effort to talk directly to an audience of ourcolleagues, we have structured the remaining chaptersof this book so that they explore the team-designprocess from the perspective of the composition spe-cialist. As team leader, you will have to translate andthen apply the advice you find within these pages toyour own team situation.

4 9

44 Cynthia L Selfe

Worksheet 11: Choosing a Programmer

Name:

Address.

Telephone:

Programming Languages: (circle)

PASCAL

BASIC

Authoring Systems/Languages:

COBOL C

SNOBOL Others-

Ability to Communicate/Explain Ideas in Plain Language:

excellent medium


excellent medium


excellent medium

Comments:

poor

poor

poor

Working with a Design ream 45

Worksheet 12: Choosing an Educational Specialist

Name-

Address:

Telephone.


CAI:

Evaluation/Testing:

Field Testing:

Writing:


excellent medium


excellent medium


excellent medium

Comments:

51

poor

poor

poor

46 Cynthia L Selfe

Worksheet 13: Choosing a Marketing Specialist

Name.

Address.

Telephone.


CAI:

Publishing Contacts:

Marketing Software:

Writing:


excellent medium


excellent medium


excellent medium

Comments:

52

poor

poor

poor

4 MAKING PEDAGOGICALDECISIONS ABOUT ACAI LESSON

The process we have outlined thus far involves choos-ing a topic for a CAI lesson, focusing the content andpresentation of this lesson, and carefully analyzingthe principles upon which the lesson will be based. Inaddition, we have discussed how to begin drafting ascreen-by-screen script of the CAI lesson you want tocreate. Like all rough drafts, however, this initial scriptwill probably undergo a number of major revisionsbefore you are satisfied with it. In fact, writing CAI islike writing anything else; it is a process of refiningand approximating, sometimes by very small steps.This chapter will discuss three important pedagogicalconsiderations to keep in mind when you begin thetask of revising a CAI lesson:

I. Define instructional objectives fcr the CAIlesson.

2. Identify possible screen types, or frame types,for use in the CAI lesson.

3. Think about concepts such as lesson design, les-son approach, and audience appropriateness inrelation to the CAI lesson.

Defining Instructional Objectives

One of the first projects you will want to work onafter writing a rough draft of a CAI lesson, is defin-.ing more precisely the instructional objectives for theinstruction. Many teachers with whom we haveworked cringe at the thought of writing instructionalobjectives. However, given the process vse have out-lined thus far in the book, this task should be a rela-tively painless one. You have already identified thegeneral purpose of your CAI lesson and detailedthose assumptions about teaching and writing thatwill inform this lesson. These predesign activitiesshould facilitate your efforts to write instructionalobjectives for the lesson.

Instructional objectives, as we will talk about themin this book, are statements about the things authorswant students to know or do after they complete a

CAI lesson. To write objectives, then, authors mustdefine the specific goals they want to achieve withtheir instruction before it is ever written. For mostteachers, this task takes quite a bit of thinking, and,at least in some ways, it seems to take some of thefun, the freshness, the improvisation out of teaching.Most of us modify our educational objectives as weteach, as we sense and respond to subtle clues aboutthe mood, the interests, the momentum of our stu-dents on any given day. When we have to define thedesired outcomes of a class artificially, before we evermeet with our students and size them up with a prac-ticed eye, some of this spontaneity is lost.

And yet, especially with computer-assisted instruc-tion, such careful anticipation and planning is neces-sary. We write CAI lessons, for the most part, so thatwe don't have to be there with our students at everystep of the learning process. Instructional objectivesforce us to articulate more precisely vague learninggoals so that we can trust computers to do some ofthe easier teaching tasks for us.

In the following example you'll see two objectivesthat Jean could have written for her CAI unit onfreewriting. As you read these examples, note thateach objective has three essential parts:

I. a context ("given . . ." and "using the . .

2. an action ("list" and "write"), and

3. testing criteria for measurement ("at least fifteenpossible freewriting topics" and "for at least tcnminutes").

Example of Identifying Instructional Objectives

Subtopic: 2.0 Timed Freewriting

Objective: 2.1 Given instructional screens thatexplain what timed freewriting and brain-storming are and a short narrative writingassignment, students who use this CAI willbe able to brainstorm a list of at least fifteenpossible freewriting topics.

53

47

48 Cynthia L Sege

Objective: 2.2 Using the list of possible topicsthey have brainstormed, student users will beable to choose one topic and do a timedfreewrite on it for at least ten minutes.

Jean's examples demonstrate several characteristicsthat would make a team's later design efforts easier:

I. She used a numbering system that identifies howeach instructional objective is connected to thosetopics identified earlier in her task analysis (seepage 17). The instructional objectives, identifiedhere as Jean's, are numbered 2.1 and 2.2 becausethey correspond with the second topic on hertask-analysis list: timed freewriting. Using thissame system, she would number those instruc-tional objectives associated with the first topicon her task analysis 1.1, 1.2, and so on. Objec-tives associated with the third topic on her taskanalysis would be numbered 3.1, 3.2, etc.

2. As measurement criteria, Jean's examples in-clude things that the computer can do easilycounting fifteen brainstorming entries and keep-ing time for ten minutes. Although computerscannot read and understand prose, they cancheck students' responses in these other ways.

3. Jean's objectives were directly informed by thestated purpose of her CAI lesson and by theassumptions she identified about teaching andwriting. Looking back at pages 17-18, for in-stance, you can see a direct link between Jean'stheoretical and philosophical assumptions andthe applications of these assumptions in the CAIlesson she is planning.

At the end of this chapter, you will be asked towrite a series of instructional objectives for the CAIlesson your team is planning. This task will involvewriting a great many objectives, each of which is asso-ciated with one of the topics included in the taskanalysis you did earlier (see Worksheet 6: Completinga Task Analysis of a CAI Lesson).

This activity, although time-consuming, is alsobeneficial; it requires you to make concrete youridentification of the specific concepts and strategiesyou want to teach in connection with your CAI les-son. In fact, writing instructional objectives like theones we have shown you here has several additionaladvantages.

I. Writing instructional objectives requires authorsto identify a learning context within which stu-dents are expected to function. As a result,

careful plans must be made for moving studentsfrom step to step through the lesson. Althoughthis regimented anticipation might seem artifi-cial now, it will pay added dividends in well-thought-out CAIespecially if each objective isdirectly informed by previously stated assump-tions about teaching and writing (see Work-sheet 7: Determining the Context for a CAILesson).

2. Because all objectives stipulate some action thatmust be performed by students (e.g., "brain-storm a list," "choose a topic," or "do a timedfreewrite"), they encourage active instructionalcAperiences for students.

3. Because all instructional objectives include test-ing criteria for measuring successful completion,they serve as valuable methods of field testingand evaluating the effectiveness of a CAI lessonduring later stages of the design process.

At the end of this chapter, we have provided Work-sheet 14: Identifying Instructional Objectives on whichyou will be asked to write instructional objectives forthe CAI lesson your team is planning. You can turnto that worksheet now or read the remainder of thischapter first to get an overview of the rest of thematerial it contains.

Whenever you begin the task of writing instruc-tional objectives for your CAI lesson, you will wantto go back and look at the topics and activitiesincluded in your original task analysis (i.e., Work-sheet 6: Creating a Task Analysis of a CAI Lesson)and in your screen-by-screen lesson script. In this way,you can double-check your earlier work and makesure your plans for the CAI lesson are complete. Youmay find that the process of writing instructionalobjectives suggests new activities or topics that youdid not think of earlier. Feel free to add these itemsto your task-analysis list.

Identifying Possible Screen Types

When we explained how to write the first draft of aCAI script, we encouraged authors to write downexactly "what you would say or do in the more com-fortable setting of your classroom" so that the CAIlesson would mirror that teacher's normal style ofinstruction. We hoped, in this way, to avoid limitingauthors' imagination by suggesting that only certainkinds of screens or frames (the amount of material

that appears on a computer screen at any one time)could be used in a CAI lesson.

At this point in the process, however, you may beinterested in seeing the variety of screen types thatother CAI writers use. Unless you have seen quite afew different CAI programs in operation, it may bedifficult to imagine the teaching techniques that canbe used on a computer screen. In this section, we willsurvey a range of screen types to expand the repertoirefrom which you can draw in writing the next draft ofyour script. We will also ask you to identify where, inyour script, you think some of these screen typesmight be useful.'

Introductory Screens

The very first screens that students see when theysit down to use your CAI will be the introductoryscreens. Figure 4.1 shows one example of an intro-ductory screen. These screens may give the title of theCAI lesson, the title of the series in which the lessonis contained, the author's name and affiliation. Inaddition, introductory screens may provide copyrightinformation; identify the grade level (or levels) forwhich the CAI is most appropriate; and provide infor-mation about the courseware's publication, distribu-tion, or maintenance.

Because these screens introduce students to the CAIthey are going to be using, it is important that theyestablish the tone that will be maintained throughoutthe lesson. In general, introductory screens are mosteffective when they are kept to a minimum; mostusers are quickly bored by these essentially passiveframes. To reduce the number of introductory screensthat must appear at the beginning of a lesson, someauthors differentiate between optional and manda-tory introductory information. Mandatory introduc-tory screens appear for all lesson users every timethey access the lesson. Optional introductory screensare kept hidden unless specifically requested by indi-vidual users. This optional arrangement makes for amore direct and efficient path through the CAI lessonand keeps students from being bored by unnecessaryscreens if they use the CAI lesson more than onceor twice.

Orientation Screens

In longer lessons and in lessons that are part of aseries, students may need additional information afterthe introductory screens to orient themselves. This isespecially important because users cannot "see" all of

Making Pedagogical Decisions about a CAI Lesson 49

a CAI lesson in one glartt.. Unlike a lesson in a bookthat students can leaf through quickly to see how farthey have come and how far they have left to go, thebulk of a CAI lesson is hidden in a machine. This factcan be not only disconcerting to students but incon-venient if they have only limited amounts of time towork at the computer.

Orientation screens may locate the current lessonwithin a map of the entire series, provide informationabout how long the lesson takes to complete, give abrief prose statement about the purpose of the lessonor the series, or explain in general how the lesson isto proceed. The orientation screen in figure 4.2, forinstance, helps student users gauge their progresswithin a long instructional sequence by highlightingtheir current position on a graphic lesson map.

Like mandatory introductory screens, mandatoryorientation screens are best kept to a minimum. Thereis no reason, however, to limit the number of optionalorientation screens that student users can access. Themore such information you can make available tostudents, the less chance they have to become lostand frustrated when using your CAI lesson.

Help Screens

In lessons that contain complicated directions, it maybe useful to provide screens that explain commands,menus, or keystrokes. Some series contain a sequenceof help screens, also called "user's tutorials." Studentscan access these screens the first few times they usethe material and can skip the material on subsequentexposures when they become more familiar with thecommon structure shared by the related lessons. Fig-ure 4.3 illustrates a short help :(creen that explainsthe use of special function keys for a program calledWordsWork.

In general, help screens, too, are most effectivewhen they are optional rather than mandatory. Theoptional arrangement makes for a more direct paththrough the lesson and keeps students from beingbombarded by unnecessary hdp information.

Menu Screens

In most lessons, teachers find it useful to providestudents with choices of one sort or another. Atsome point in a CAI lesson, for example, a teachermay want students to choose between instruction on"timed" or "untimed" freewriting, or to decide whetherthey want to write sonnets, haiku, or blank verse.Menu screens allow instructors to present students

55

50 Cynthia L Se lje

WordstAlorkPersonal Narratives

Written by:

Cynthia L. Selfe, Ph.D.

Billie J. Wahlstrom, Ph.D.

Figure 4.1: Sample Introduction Screen

REVIEW

A MAP OF WORDSWORK

Narratives

PLRN POLISH

<G>o forward, ack up, <H>elp, rint, <Q>uit

Figure 4.2: Sample Orientation Screen

5 6


Help on WordsWork's Function Keys

Fl - GO OK will move you forward

in the program.

F2 - MOVE UP is used to select

menu options up and scroll

text up.

F3 - TYPE FILE will print a copy

of your writing. It is on

only if you have a printer.

F4 SHOW MAP will show you a

map of the lesson; your

position is highlighted.

FS - MENU will return ;a the

menu which led you to your

current position in the pro-

gram.

<G>o forward. <13>ack up. <C)>ult.

FG - GO BAD( will move you back-

ward in the program.

F7 - MOVE DOWN is used to select

menu options and scroll the

text down.

FB - SHOW FILE will let you review

your writing on the screen.

19 - HELP will show you this scren

which xplains the uses of the

function keys.

Fle - QUIT will let you exit from the

program.

rint. <H>elp

Figure 4.3: Sample Help Screen

with specific options from which to choose. Figure4.4, for example, illustrates two different menu screenswhich ask students to choose the direction of theirown instruction. On these screens, students maketheir choices by marking them with movable, high-lighted boxes.

Menu screens, when they provide the opportunityfor more than one choice of instructional sequence ordirection, represent branches in a computer program.The more branches an author builds into a CAI les-son, the more individualized it will become for eachstudent who uses it.

Inst.-uction Screens

Perhaps the simplest screens authors write for a CAIlesson contain material they want the student to learn.These instruction screens, for example, might list forstudents the characteristics of memoranda, explainthe differences between writing transactional andpoetic discourse, illustrate the concept of paragraphcohesion, define subordination as it relates to style, ordemonstrate the effect of word choice in a particularsentence. The screen in figure 4.5, for instance, in-structs students by providing them with two exampletext passages to read and compareone passage thatillustrates "telling" and one that illustrates "showing."

57

Although a substantial percentage of screens in anyCAI lesson will be instructional in nature, try not touse more than one or two in sequence. Instructionscreens are presentational in nature, they are essen-tially passive rather than active, and can become bor-ing when not interspersed with screens that demanduser activity.

Exercise and Testing Screens

At various points in your CAI lesson, you will askstudents to complete on-screen exercises that requirea knowledge of the writing instruction that has beenpresented. We will call frames that ask for this kindof material "exercise screens." You might, for exam-ple, use an exercise screen to ask students to writea series of short character sketches, to summarize in asentence or two their process of proofreading a paper,to list the characteristics of a good business letter, tocompare the appeal of two prose passages, or to iden-tify the focus of another student's paper. In figure 4.6,we provide a sample exercise screen that asks studentsto identify a character's motivation as illustrated in ashort text passage.

CAI for writing classrooms can present specialchallenges for designing such screens because theresponses that writing exercises require can be quite

52 Cynthia L Se Ife

Personal Narrative Menu

What would you like to do? Use the high-

lighted bar to select your choice. Then

press the "return" key.

1. Review the keypoints

2. Plan your narrative

The Keypoints of Writing a Personal Narrative

On which keypoint would you like to work?

Use the highlighted bar to select your

choice. Then press the "return" key.

1. Narratives tell WHY and HOW.

3. Narratives follow a plot outline.

4. Simple narratives are ordered chronologically.

5. Other narratives use flashbacks.

G. Narratives have a purpose.

2. Narratives make a point.

8. Narratives SHOW rather than TELL.

Figure 4.4: Sample Menu Screens


Carefully read and compare the two examples below:

Telling:John fixed breakfast.

Showing:John, stifling a yawn, shuffled to the

kitchen, opened the refrigerator, and removed

the ingreeients for a hearty breakfast. While

rsading the sports page of the Times, he absent-

mindedly cracked two brown eggs into a sizzling

skillet, dumped a cup of milk over a large bowl

of slightly stale Fru.t Loops, and downed three

cups of lukewarm coffee. He was ready to

start the day.

<G>o forward. ack up, rint, <Q>ult, <H>elp

Figure 4.5: Sample Instruction Screen

Jean Ann calmly punched four large holm; in the

bottom of the orange canoe. She had let her brother

off the hook before, but it was time to teach him a

lesson. The boat slowly filled with water and sank,

stern first, into the lake.

Why did Jean Ann act as she did? Why did shepunch holus In the canoe? In the highlighted.

scrolling area below, write a paragraph or two

that explains her motivation.

Press tho "return" key twice when you are

finished, and wa'll go on.

Figure 4.6: Sample Exercise Screen

5 9

54 Cynthia I.. Selfe

long and complex. Traditionally, CAI authors havethought in terms of limited responses for writing exer-cises: one-letter, one-word, or one-sentence answersthat can fit on the same screen with the question thatprompts them. Figures 4.7 and 4.8, for example,represent two screens that allow for very limitedresponses on the part of users. However, teachers ofcomposition often want much longer responses fromtheir students in writing exercises: a paragraph, a ten-minute journal write, a lengthy brainstorming list, anaudience analysis. In Chapter Six: Designing ScreenPresentations for a CAI Lesson, we will suggest howcomposition teachers can work around the limitationsof single-screen reponses for writing exercises.

Testing frames are special kinds of exercise screens.On such screens, the responses students give aresubsequently used to evaluate their performanceaccording to specific criteria identified in the lesson'sinstructional objectives. The testing screen in figure4.9, for example, comes from a lesson on discourseaim. The lesson is designed to evaluate students'responses as "correct" if they match the entries on ateacher-designated list of appropriate answers thathas already been programmed into the computer.Other examples of testing criteria might include ask-ing students to list "at least five elements" to considerwhen analyzing a rhetorical situation, to identify "atleast four kinds of cohesive ties" employed in a sampleessay, to produce a paragraph that includes "at leastseven out of ten vocabulary words," or to rearrangeeight scrambled sentences so that "at least seven ofthem" follow a designated organizational pattern.

Because the answers given on testing screens areused to decide whether students have successfullycompleted an instructional objective, these screensdetermine how the program will branch in subse-quent screens. If, for example, a student gives anunacceptable response on a testing screen, the CAIcan branch to an appropriate message ("Not exactlythe answer your teacher would have wanted, Ramon"),give more information about a response that wouldbe acceptable ("You need to produce at least threemore examples ^f summative modifiers"), and cyclethe student thruugh additional instruction and/ orpractice screens before proceeding with the remainderof the lesson. Figure 4.10, for example, shows a CAIscreen designed as a branch for student users whoprovide an inappropriately short response to a journal-writing assignment.

The most difficult task associated with creatingtesting screens is figuring out how the computer can

evaluate students' responses to an exercise as accept-able or not acceptable. If the testing criteria are sim-ply measured ("explore your response to this story ina journal write lasting at least five minutes," "list atleast ten possible topics for a research paper on acontroversial issue," "write at least ten lines of prosethat describe the experience"), this task is easy. Thecomputer is quite capable of timing the duration of awriting activity and counting items.

However, in CAI destined for the writing class-room, a method for testing studerts' responses on anexercise screen cannot always be defined so simplyfor the computer. You may, for example, want to askstudents to summarize the plot of a story in a para-graph that they are to compose. Because computerscannot read and understand such a response, youhave to be inventive in identifying testing criteria thatthe computer can measure. In this case, for instance,you could identify for the computer a list of keywords that an appropriate paragraph would contain.You could then ask the computer to search the stu-dent's paragraph response "for at least five words"that match this list. Using another approach to inven-tive evaluation, you could also provide a sample ofan acceptable paragraph response and ask students tocheck their own worka tactic best reserved for olderor more highly motivated users.

One way of applying the information we have justprovided you on screen types and assuring the qualityof the screens you have already begun to design inyour script draft involves filling out a systematic,quality-control checklist for each screen type used inyour CAI lesson. In the following paragraphs youwill see how Jean might have filled out a similarchecklist for the instructional screens in her freewrit-ing lesson.

Example of Controlling the Qualityof Lesson Screen Types

Using the scale below, rate the statements thatfollow: 5 = very satisfied, 4 = mostly satisfied,3 = can't decide, 2 = mostly dissatisfied, or 1 =very dissatisfied.

Total number of Instructional Screens 208

5 Instructien screens are clear and easy tounderstand.2 Instruction screens are interspersed withexercise screens to provide students with anactive learning situation. (Goal: Plan no morethan two instruction screens in a row.)


Here is the first example:

DECEASED: Julia daarmala, 49, of

Toivola, Michigan. died of leukemia at 8:00

p.m. on October 19, 1983, in Portage Lake

Hospital. Friends can send contributions tothe American Leukemia Foundation.

Okay, Pet, was this piece written to

nform, ersuade, <A>muse, or <E>xpresspersonal feelings? The piece may have a

combination of mpre than one aim or purpose.

Type in the letter(s) identifying the aim(s) or

purpose(s) of this writing on ONE line, and press

the -return- key to go on to the next screen.

ack up, <Q>uit, <H>elp, rint

Figure 4.7: Sample of Limited-Response Exercise Screen

Okay, Bill, try this practice item:

1. Cinderella loses her slipper.

(I)ntroduction, (R)ising action, (C)Iimax, or

(F)alling action?

Type your response in the highlighted box

below. Press the "return" key twice when

you're done, and we'll go on to the next

screen.

ack up, <Q>uit, rint, <H>elp

Figure 4.8: Sample of Limited-Response Exercise Screen

61

56 Cynthia L Selfe

What are the four basic PURPOSES or RIMS for

writing?

Type your answers in the highlighted area below.

Use only one line per answer. When you are

finished, press the -return- key twice, and we'll

go on to the next screen.

Figure 4.9: Sample Testing Screen

Constance. for this Journal-writing activity

your teacher wants you to write at least

twenty lines ln your lectronic Journal.

You wrote only two lines. Think about your

topic for a few minutes. and do blt more

brainstorming if necessary. Then writs at

least ighteen more lines of prose ln the

scrolling. highlighted area below.

O, raid free to change your idea for topic

if you come up with some new thoughts.

Press tha 'return' key twice when you are

done. and we'll move to the next screen.

Figure 4.10: Sample Branch for an Inappropriate Response

62

4 Complicated instruction screens have op-tional help screens associated with them forstudents who become confused.

Notes: From looking at the notes for my script,I see that I have far too many passive in-structional screens and not enough emercisescreens. I also have too many instructionalscreens one right after the other. I want totry to break up these sets in future drafts ofthe script.

At the end of this chapter, you will fmd Worksheet15: Controlling the Quality of Lesson Screen Types.This worksheet will encourage you to read over thefirst draft of your script and fill out a short quality-control checklist for each of the different screen typesyou have included in it. You can turn to this work-sheet now, or read the remainder of this chapter firstto get an overview of the remaining pedagogicallyoriented review tasks we will be asking you to do.

Considering Pedagogical Approaches in a CAI Lesson

In addition to writing instructional objectives andthinking about the various types of screens to use in aCAI lesson, authors also need to make decisionsabout the general pedagogical approaches to take inpresenting the content of such a lesson. Authors mustdecide, for example, how to structure a lesson andchoose an appropriate pedagogical approach for thestudents who will use the lesson. This section willbriefly address these two major pedagogical issuesand encourage you to think about them in relation tothe particular CAI lesson you are planning.

Lesson Design

From experience, you know that writing instructionvaries widely from teacher to teacher. Writing instruc-tion that takes place on the computer is no different.Depending on a teacher's personality, teaching style,and the students he or she is addressing, an instructormay want to take advantage of one or more of thefollowing lesson-design strategies in a CAI lesson.

Linear

Lessons based on a linear model represent the sim-plest and, therefore, the most common type of CAInow available. As figure 4.11 indicates, such lessonspresent every student with the same material in the


ALL STUDENTS

Introduction

Exercise 1

Exercise 2

Conclusion

Figure 4.11: Map of a CAI Lesson Oiganized on aLinear Model

same sequence. Because students and teachers canbecome quickly bored with lessons designed in alinear fashion, this type of instruction is often criti-cized for having only a short useful life in a classroomor lab setting.

Although some experts feel that linear instructionmay be appropriate for some of the simpler materialpresented in a writing course (drills on comma place-ment, vocabulary improvement, or spelling, for exam-ple), it is hard to justify its use for lessons that addressmore complicated, sophisticated, or abstract conceptsinvolved in writing (e.g., invention, style, process).

Branching

CAI lessons that incorporate branching can allowstudents to take alternative routes through the instruc-tion. As figure 4.12 illustrates, branching often occursafter a test screen: students who provide an appro-priate response to such screens are sent along oneinstructional path, and students who give an inappro-priate response are sent along a different path.

A CAI lesson, for example, can be designed sothat it branches to provide different feedback messagesfor acceptable and unacceptable answers ("Well done,Alice . . ." or "I'm not convinced you understand,Don") or so that it branches to provide individualizedinstruction in the form of additional practice exer-cises, amplification of key terms, or challenging, extra-credit writing problems.

58 Cynthia L Se Ife

ALL STUDENTS

Introduction

Exercise I

Students providing Students providingjappropriate answer inappropriate answer

Exercise 2 Exercise 3

Conclusion

Figure 4.12: Map of a CAI Lesson Organized on aBranching Model

If a teacher typically instructs students on two orthree different levels of knowledge or sophistication,he or she might want to structure a CAI lesson sothat it branches to different tracks or levels thatremain consistently different throughout the lesson.Consider, for instance, a CAI unit on writing personalnarratives. In such a unit, a teacher might want stu-dents on the highest track to work on longer writingassignments, consider more subtle distinctions of style,or try more difficult techniques of foreshadowing,ellipsis, or point of view. For those students whochoose the middle or lower tracks, a CAI lesson canoffer expanded explanations, shc rter writing exercises,or additional outside reading.

Branching or tracking structures can also be usefulfor students who occasionally miss class. A CAI les-son can provide one pathway through the instructionthat reviews material already presented in class andanother pathway through the instruction for studentswho have attended class regularly.

Branching CAI lessons have both advantages anddisadvantages when compared to linear CAI instruc-tion. Because branching lessons require a great dealmore planning and writing, they take more time andexpertise to produce than do more simply structured

lessons. However, the structure of branching lessonsoften makes them more amenable to complex con-cepts in writing instruction and easier to adapt tomost instructors' personal teaching styles.

Changing

CAI lessons can also be designed to change with everyuse. For example, generative programs can contain"banks" of prose samples, writing assignments, orinstructional segments which are selected on a ran-dom basis. Every time such a lesson is used by astudent, it will look different and provide new chal-lenges. In figure 4.13 we have provided a screen thatmight be found in a generative lesson for a writing-intensive classroom.

Adaptive programs 'learn" from the answers ofevery student who uses them. Such lessons, forexample, could store students' critical evaluations ofa paragraph and then use these evaluations to changeor adapt the instructional material they present forfuture users. Figure 4.14 illustrates a screen that mightbe found in an adaptive lesson for a writing-intensiveclassroom.

CAI that changes for individual users, like CAIthat branches, generally requires more planning andmore time to produce than does linear instruction.

Lesson Approaches

To a great extent, personal teaching style can bereflected in the tone of a CAI lesson. If your writinginstruction focuses on process rather than product,group :vork rather than lecture, discovery rather thanrote leaning, your CAI lesson can reflect this orien-tation. Below, we have suggested several distinct tonesyour CAI lesson can take.

Games

A game-like approach is especially suitable for lowergrades, although many teachers of college studentsknow how seductive computer games can be to youngadults as well. In fact, the United States Air Forceand Army have found computer games useful in theirtraining of pilots. Games can be as challenging, ascomplicated, and as sophisticated as any other typeof instruction, and, if you can accomplish your instruc-tional objectives within a game-like lesson, your CAImight be all the more popular. Figure 4.15 providesan example of a screen that might be found in agame-like lesson for a writing-intensive classroom.


Kelly. I'm going to generate a paragraph that you

can use to practice the proofreading skills you just

learned.

Below. I have given you a menu of mistakes that we

have covered. in the highlighted box, type in the

numbers of those mistakes you'd like me to include

in your proofreading paragraph. Choose at least

three. Press the 'return key twice when you are

done and we'll go on.

1. fragments

2. run-ons

3. parallelism

4. comma splices

5. noun-verb greement6. dangling modifiers

<E>o forward. <130back up. <lb.how menu. <>vit. rint. *Delp

Figure 4.13: Sample Screen from Generative CAI Lemon

Jennifer, your classmates did not think this para-

graph was effective in appealing to its audience.

They rated its success at on a Scale of 10.

Below. I have reproduced a few of their answers

so that you can examine their reasoning:

Figure 4.14: Sample Screen from Adaptive CAI Screen

65

60 Cynthia L Se Ile

Drill and Practice

This approach, sometimes referred to as the "elec-tronic workbook," provides students with instructionand exercises on a certain topic. Generally, becausethis approach is most easily adaptable to a simplequestion-and-answer format (multiple-choice, fill-in-the-blank, short-answer) it is used to present basicmaterial rather than more advanced or complicatedconcepts. Figure 4.16 provides an example of a screenthat might be found in a drill-and-practice lesson fora writing-intensive classroom.

Some experts feel that the drill-and-practice ap-proach has a place in composition classrooms becauseit can be useful for presenting instruction on topicslike grammar, spelling, or reading comprehension.Other experts feel that this approach is actuallyharmful. They claim that drill-and-practice CAIfocuses students' attention on minor, surface-levelproblems and takes away from the time they spendworking on larger and more comprehensive problemssuch as invention, revision, or development.

Simulation and Problem Solving

Because computers can store great amounts of rm.%rial, they are perfect for scenario, or simulated C93t.work, teaching. A technical writing instructo-example, can write a CAI lesson that will !students with information about a mock companyits personnel, its correspondence, its products, itsresources, and then set up a series of simulated com-munications problems that can be solved with thisstored material. Figure 4.17 provides an example of ascreen that might be found in a simulation-type les-son for a writing-intensive classroom.

If you enjoy using the problem-solving approachin teaching writing, you can also create CAI lessonsthat will guide students through the steps of solvinga rhetorical problem and keep rtzords of their pro-gress at every point along the way. In figure 4.18,we show an example of a screen that might be foundin a problem-solving lesson for a writing-intensiveclassroom.

Inductive or Deductive

CAI lessons can be constructed to move studentsinductively from examples to rules (called EGRULinstruction) or deductively from rules to examples(called RULEG). Figure 4.19 shows two screens, thefirst of which might be found in an inductively basedlesson for a writing-intensive classroom and the second

of which might be found in a deductively based les-son for a writing-intensive classroom.

If you are creating a CAI unit to cover a topicgenerally presented in a discovery-learning situationwithin your writing classroom, an inductive approachmight be appropriate. For topics that you generallycover in a lecture situation, a deductive approachmight be preferable.

Tutorial

Some teachers tend to confuse the tutorial approachwith a drill-and-practice format, but carefully designedtutorial CAI can provide students with much morethan a question-and-answer session. CAI built aroundthe tutorial approach can contain, among other things,explanations of writing concepts at several differentlevels of sophistication or completeness, banks ofstudent compositions which are analyzed or gradedby teachers, descriptions of expert and novice com-posing strategies for specific writing assignments, andsuggestions for getting started on writing problems.Figure 4.20 provides an example of a screen that

be found in a tutorial program designed for alab.

meness

:lig CAI that will be of lasting value in a writing1gram fy classroom necessarily involves a careful

Analysis cif ..:adience and teaching style. A teacherrr,.!st consider, for example, what strategies andapproaches have proven effective with students in thepast or how the students' age, interest, and back-ground might affect the presentation of a particularconcept.

Most experienced teachers carry out these delib-erations almost unconsciously as they plan or evenconceive of a lesson. Then, they adjust the lessonpresentation in the classroom as they see students'attention shift, as they sense impatience with anunnecessary explanation, or as they catalogue themisinterpretations that students share at the end of alesson. However, because CAI is most often usedwhen teachers are not present to adjust their presen-tations to such subtle cues, authors must anticipatehow students will receive the instruction and thenadjust the instructional decisions they make duringfield-testing efforts. (See Chapter Seven: Field Test-ing CAI for a more complete discussion of this topic.)Below, we have listed three important issues you mayconsider to help ensure the appropriateness of a les-son for a given population.

Making Pedagogical Decisioi:s about a CAI Lesson 61

Identify the author of the following passage.

Make your selection with the highlighted bar;

then press the "return" key twice to go on.

"London, that great cesspool into which

all the loungers of the Empire are irre-

sistibly drawn.'

Shakespeare Hardy

Saroyan

Right Wrong

Hawthorne

Churchill

Your Score:. I 24

<G>o forward. <8>ack up. c">1.low menu. <Q>ult, r1nt, <H>elp

Figur!, 4.15: Ssr.ipk Screen from a Game-Like CAI Lesson

Below each word, correct the

spelling according to the "I-

before-E" rule you have

learned. Press the "return"

key twice when you are done.

wiegh recieve decieve nieghbor repreive

<G>o forward. ack up. <S>how menu, <Q>ux t. r1nt, <H>e1p

Figure 4.16: Sample Sciten for a Drill-and-Practice Lesson

67

62 Cynthia L Se lfe

Dan. your letter of application succeeded. You

got the Job as a technical communicator in the

Marketing Division of IMPCO.

This is your first day on the Job, and your

supervisor. Ms. McCulley, has asked you to

plan two-hour workshop for the other techni-

cal communicators on the use of graphics in

marketing brodhures.

Use the scrolling. highlighted area below to make

an outline and Jot down some notes for this

Presentation. Press the 'return key twice when

you are finished. and we'll go on.

<S>o forward, <13>ack up. 4:5:41ow menu, <0>ult. rtnt. <H>alp

Figure 4.17: Sample Screen from a Simulation Lesson

Raoul, in the scrolling, highlighted area below,

record the strategies, techniques, activities, and

processes you used to plan the first draft of the

memoranda you just wrote. Be as accurate and

complete as possible in remembering what you did

and thought.

Figure 4.18: Sample Screen from Problem-Solving Lesson

Making Pedagogical Decisions about a CAI 63

EGRUL Screen, inductively based activity

Sam, we have read poems by three modern feminist

poets: Sylvia Plath, Adrienne Rich, and Anais Nin.

In the highlighted, scrolling area below, identify

what you see as the common themes these poets

examine in their works. When you are finished,

press the 'return key twice to go on.

<11>lo forward. ack up. <Dhow menu. <>ult. rtnt. <2.15oe1p

1

RULES Screen deductively based activity

Sam. the three modern feminist poets we have

studied--Sylvia Plath. Adrienne Rich. and Rnals

Nin--all xamine common themes in their poetry:

--the marginality of women

--the strength of women

--the need to create a new reality for women

In the scroiling. highlighted area below. give exam-

ples of how these trms are treated in individualpoems. Press the 'return- key twice when you are

finished. and we'llim on.

<G>o forward. 413>avk up, <5`..4,ow menu, 43X>ult. 47>rint. 431>elp

0111MINOS- WANWINYINMIWIleiZ.AWVIMINNIIMMIC

Figure 4.19: Sampk EGRUL and RULEG

69

64 Cynthia L Se lje

Stylistic Appropriateness and Readability

Because the prose passages, directions, and sampleessays contained in most writing-intensive CAI placeheavy demands on the reading skills of students, it isbest to analyze the stylistic characteristics that affectreadability during the early design stages.

For authors who gmerate their scripts with the helpof a computer and a word-processing program, thistask can be made considerably easier and more system-atic. Stylistic-analysis programs such as Writer's Work-bench (Bell Laboratories) and Grammatik (WangElectronic Publishing); or readability programs suchas Reading Level Analysis (Berta Max, Inc.) orReadability (Micro Power and Light Company)should provide help in analyzing prose passages. Ifauthors do not use a computer to help generate thematerial for their scripts, they can still apply tradi-tional stylistic analyses or readability formulas to theirwork by hand.

Persona

The CAI lesson you create can employ any teachingpersona you choose to invent. Some authors prefer atransparent persona, relatively free of personality.Figure 4.21, for example, shows a screen with a rela-tively transparent persona.

Other authors, however, prefer to employ a personathat shares their own sense of humor, concern forstudents' feelings, and enthusiasm for subject matter.Figure 4.22 shows a screen on which a definite personais used by the author to simulate her own teachingstyle.

Still other CAI authors enjoy creating a personathat adopts an approach quite unlike their own inorder to provide their students with a variety ofinstruction and approaches.

In any case, authors will want to make sure thatthe persona (or personae) they choose to create willappeal to their students and enhance rather than dis-tract from the learning that is to take place.

Special Effects

Most microcomputers now offer a variety of specialeffects, and your main problem will be isolating thosetechniques that will help you accomplish your instruc-tional objectives.

Special effects allow authors to emphasize certainwords, sentence% or paragraphs on a screen throughhighlighting (also called reverse video), underlining,

flashing, special character sets; to control the tempoof a lesson by presetting delays of a second or morebetween example questions and answers; or to capturethe attenton of students with graphic displays, anima-tion, or scrolling text. In Chapter Six: DesigningScreen Presentations, we will discuss these strategiesfurther.

When a CAI lesson is field tested, authors shouldsatisfy themselves that the special effects they haveemployed in their lw.ons do not distract studentsfrom accomplishing the instructional objectives theyhave defined.

To apply the information we have just providedabout pedagogical approaches to your own CAIdesign effort, you may want to take some time tore ,iew your lesson plans and your script as they nowstand. You will, of course, want to consider the basicdesign pattern of your lesson, the tone or approachyou want to take, and the appropriateness of thematerial for the audience to which you will be aimingthe lesson. In the following list, we staw how Jeanmight have completed a similar task.

Example of Considering Pedagogical Approach

I. What design pattern (linear, branching, changing)does your lesson follow as it now stands? Givenyour assumptions about instruction, in general, andabout writing instruction, specifically, what designpattern do you want your lesson to follow? Arcrevisions necessary? If so, what form will theserevisions take?

The lesson as it stands now is quite linear becauseI only have a skeletal outline of the main paththrough the material. What I want to add now is"side tracks," branches of the material designedespecially for my advanced and slower learners.

2. What approach (game, drill-and-practice, simula-tion or problem-solving, inductive or deductive,tutorial) best describes your lesson as it now stands?Given your assumptions about instruction, in gen-eral, and about writing instruction, specifically,what approach do you want your lesson to follow?Are revisions necessary? If so, what form will theserevisions take?

As it now stands, the lesson is oriented aroundsolving a parthailar writing problem by using free-writing techniques. So it is part problem-solvingand part tutorial. I like this approach and want tokeep the focus on a realistic writing problem eventhough I provide tutorial instruction as well.


Tutorial, Writing Dialogue for Narratives Exer. al

Brenda, you have accessed the tutorial lesson on

writing dialogue for narratives. This lesson can

offer you help in the three areas identified below.

Use the highlighted bar to make your selection,

then press the -return- key twice, and we'll

go on.

Writing realistic dialogue

Punctuating dialogue

vs,<G>o forward. <Bieck up, <S>now menu, <Q>uit, rint, <K>elp

Firrure 4 'V: Sw...*T'''....-aten from a Tutorial CAI Lesson

Ft' ' ..,......../ :rat

I 4. The prince puts the glast's slipper on Cinderella's_

foot, and it fits.

What element of plot does this sentence

represent? Type you letter in the

highlighted space, and then press "return.-

i

(I)ntroduction, (R)ising action, (C)limax, or (F)alling

action? >

Correct.

I think the slipper scene is the CLIMAX of

the story. It is the moment of highest ten-

sion that occurs after all the complications

have happened.

<G>o forward, ack up, <a>uit,<T>rint, <X>elp

Figure 4.21: Sample of Transparent Persona

71

66 Cynthia L Selfe

The prince puts the glass slipper on Cinderella's

foot, and it fits.

Can you tell me what. element of plot this

sentence represents? Type your letter in the

highlighted space, and then press "return."

(I)ntroduction, (R)ising action, (C)limax, or (F)alling

action? >

I agree, Pat.

I think the slipper scene is the CLIMAX of

the story. It is the moment of highest ten-

sion that occurs after all the complications

have happened.

<G>o forward, ack up, <Q>uit, rint, <H>elp

Figure 4.22: Sample of Persona That Mirrors Teacher's Personality

3. Think once again about your targeted studentaudience. Are the style and reading level, the per-sona, and the special effects included in your les-son appropriate for them as it now stands? Dothese elements directly support your assumptionsabout instruction, in general, and about writinginstruction, specifically? Are revisions necessary? Ifso, what form will these revisions take?Most of the activities I use in the lesson are takenright from my classroom, although till; -t they aremanifested in a more traditional form. :1 the activ-ities are appropriate in my classroomand I think,from observation, they arethen they should befine for this lesson.

At the end of this chapter, on Worksheet 16: Con-sidering Pedagogical Approaches, you can exploreyour thinking about the issues of lesson design,approach, and appropriateness much as we haveexplored Jean's thinking in the last example. Somereaders may want to turn to this worksheet now andcomplete it. Others may prefer to read a few morechapters of this book before continuing their designefforts.

Summary

By the time you finish the tasks identified for thisstage of CAI production, you will be well on yourway to creating a valuable piece of courseware thatwill support the teaching in your writing classroom orprogram. Although the process of creating CAI, aswe have outlined it here, may seem long and eventedious at times, its success will be demonstrated byyour final producta product that will be appropriatefor your students and your classroom.

We have asked you to complete three tasks in thischapter, each of which is designed to help ensure thepedagogical soundness of the CAI lesson you areplanning.

Defining the instructional objectives of CAI. Thisactivity requires authors to identify, in a precise man-ner, those things they want students to be able toaccomplish after using t urticular CAI lesson.

Identifying screeN 'ypes. This activity providesauthors with exposure to a range of possible screenformats to use in a CAI lesson and a ,ks tt 4it theythink about how to use various screen types in theCAI lesson they are planning.

Thinking about lesson design, approach, andappropriateness. This nctivity reminds authors ofthree important issues involved in designing CAI thatreflects their own personal teaching style and asksthem to explore the impact these issues might haveon the lesson they are planning.

In the next two chapters, we will explore moreissues that will help you revise the first draft of yourCAI script as you ready it for the programmer andeducational specialist on your design team.

From experience, we can attest to the importanceof refming your script as much as possible before itgoes into program form. Changes at the later stage ofprogramming are not only more costly, but muchmore time-consuming than those completed earlier.

Note

I. Many of the screens included in this chapterhave been taken directly from Words Work (aCAI program developed at Michigan Techno-logical University by Dr. Billie Wahlstrom andme in connection with Michigan Tech Software)or suggested indirectly from my other work withDr. Wahlstrom. For the permission to use theWords Work screens, I thank Billie Wahlstrom,my coeditor; Tim Nelson, President of Michi-go., Tech Software; and Michigan TechnologicalUn Nersity. For the inspiration on the screens /have used indirectly, I thank Billie Wahlstromalso. We think so much alike that it is impossibleto trace the exact ownership of our ideas.

73

Making Pedagogical Decisions about a CAI Le.!son 67

68 Cynthia L Selfe

Worksheet 14: Identifying Instructional Objectives

Before beginning this worksheet, review those topics and activities you identified in Worksheet 6:Completing a Task Analysis of a CAI Lesson and in the draft of your screen-by-screen lesson script. Makesure you have identified all of the concepts that you want to cover in connection with the stated purpose ofyour lesson. Revise or expand the original task-analysis list you compiled in light of this review.

In the spaces labeled `subtopic" below, fill in an item from the revised task-analysis list you havecompiled. After each subtopic or activity you identify, list and number the instructional objectivesassociated with finishing that particular segment of instruction. Be as complete as possible, and make surethat each instructional objective contains a context for learning, an action that students must do, artesting criteria for evaluating the successful completion of the objective.

Subtopic-

Objective

Objective

Objective

Subtopic:

Objective

Objective

Objective


Worksheet 15: Controlling the Quiiity of Lesson Screen Types

For the activity described on this worksheet, you will need your rough draft of the screen-by-screen scriptfor your CAI ksson,

Go through this screen-by-screen script old, in the top right-hand corner of each pr.ge, code the screentype using the following designations.

IS Introductofy ScreensOS Orientation ScreensHS Help ScreensINS Instruction ScreensES Exercise Screen.;CS Concluding Screens

Others

Use the scale below to indicate your satisfaction with how each screen type meets the criteria indicated.

I. Total number of IS

= very satisfied4 = mostly satisfied3 = can't decide2 = mostly dissatisfied1 = very dissatisfied

Mandatory introductory materials (those screens presented to every user) are brief enough toavoid frustrating students who access the CAI more than once.

Mandatory introductory material is complete enough to provide students with theinformation they need to identify the lesson (author, publisher, copyright, title of lesson, titleof series, etc.).

Optional introductory screens (those that users can choose to sek.ct) provide sufficientexplanation for students who may need further information about the lesson or how to use it.

__ All introductory scroens establish an appropriate tone for the remainder of the lesson.

Notes:

75

70 Cynthia L Se lje

2. Total number of OS

Mandatory orientation material is brief enough to avoid boring students who use the CAImore than once.

Optional orientation material is complete enough to inform a novice us( r of the important- facts (length of lesson, placement in series, purpose, procedure).

- All orientation material is clear and easy to understand.

Notes:

3. Total number of HS

Help screens are located in optional branches to avoid boring students who use the CAI more_ than once.

Optional help screens are complete enough to provide the information novice users need(explanaf :'ns of cursor control, menu use, prompts, key strokes, etc.).

All help screens are clear and easy to understand.

_ Help screens are easy :or students to find and access.

Notes:


76

4. Total number of menu screens

Menu screens are clear and easy to understand.

Menu screens arc easy io use.


Menu screens do not confuse students by asking them to route themselves through too manylayers or branches of the program at one time. (Goal: plan no more than three different menuscreens in a row.)

Complicated menu screens have optional help screens associated with them for students whobecome confused.

Menu screens accurately reflect the structure of the lesson.

Notes:

5. Total number of INS

Itistruction screens are clear and easy to understand.

Instruction screens are interspersed with exercise screens to provide students with an activelearning situation. (GoaL plan no more than two instruction screens in a row.)

Notes:

Complicated instruction screens have optional help screens associated with them for studentswho become confused.


72 Cynthia L Selfe

6. Total number of ES

- Exercise screens are clear and easy to understand.

Exercise screens contain dear, concise directions. They give students all parameters necessaryfor succeeding on exercises. (Examples: where on the screen to respond, when to respond,

_____ how long response should be, time limits for a response, nature of response, etc.)

Notes:

Complicated exercise screens have optional help screens associated with them for studentswho become confused.

7. Total number of CS

_ Concluding screens are clear and easy to understand.

Concluding screens give students clear directions for fmishing the lesson. (Examples: what todo vech the writing produced as a result of the lesson, how to get a hard copy of their writing orhow to store it in their own files / disks, what lesson to access next, how to get off the computer,

_ where to put lesson materials, when to check in with a teacher or tutor.)

Complicated concluding screens have optional help screens associated with them for students_ who become confused.

Notes:

Worksheet 1.5 continued

7 5

Making Pedagogical Decisions about a CA I Lesson 73

Worksheet 16: Considering Pedagogical Approach

To complete this worlotheet, you need a draft of the screen-by-screen script foryour CAI lesson and copiesof the ve,rk you did for Worksheet 2: Identifying Azumptions about Writing, Worksheet 3: IdentifyingAssumptions about Teaching Writing, and Worksheet 7: Determining the Context for a CAI Lesson.

Review your work on each of these documents, and then answer the e,-oestions below.

I. What design pattern (linear, branching, changing) does your lesson follow as now stands? Givenyour assumptions about instruction, in general, and about writing instruction, specifically, whatdesign pattern do you want your lesson to follow? Are revisions necessary? If so, what form willthese revision; take?

2. What approach (game, drill and practice, simulation and problem-solving, inductiveor deductive,tutorial) best describes your lesson as it now stands? Giveu your assumptions about instruction, ingeneral, and about writing instruction, specifically, what approach do you want your lesson tofollow? Are revisions necessary? If so, what form will these revisions take?

3. Think once again about your targeted student audience. Are the style and reading level, thepersona, and the special effects included in your lesson appropriate for them as it now stands? Dothese elements directly support your assumptions about instruction, in general, and about writinginstruction, specifically? Are revisions necessary? If so, what form will these revisions take?

79

5 INTEGRATING RESPONSEAND EVALUATIONINTO A CAI LESSON

In the last chapter, we suggested some pedagogicalissues to think about in connection with your CAIlesson and discussed how to revise the first draft of ascreen-by-screen script in light of these deliberations.In the next few pages, we continue to explore CAIfrom a pedagogical point of viewthis time with aneye toward the responses, those made by both stu-dents and teachers, that will be a part of your lesson.The first part of this chapter discusses the two majorkinds of responses that a CAI lesson can include andoutlines the advantages and disadvantages of each.The second part of the chapter discusses the ethicalissues involved in evaluating students' responses towriting activities in a CAI lesson.

Responding to Student Input

In the most basic sense, there are two ways to respondto the material students type on eke computer screenwhen answering questions, writing issignments, andcompleting activities in a CAI lesson.

1. The lesson can provide answer-specific responsesthat will trigger certain types of feedback (and/ orevaluation) based on the words or phrases st, -dents type into the computer.

2. The lesson can provide open-ended responsesthat will not provide feedback specific to stu-dents' input.

Answer-Spedfic Responses

Although answer-specific responses to students' inputare desirable because they help individualize instruc-tior, they are also more difficult to incorporate in alesson and are limited by the intelligence of computersin general. Answer-specific responses are created byanticipating and listing the entire range of "correct"answers students could give in any particular situationand then programming the computer to match thislist against actual student input. If the computer finds

S

a match (or a specified number of matches), the stu-dent input is given a "correct" response. If there is nomatch or only a partial match, an "incorrect" or "par-tially correct" response is given.

A teacher could, for instance, use an answer-spe-cific activity in asking students to identify the themeof a paragraph. In constructing this activity for aCAI lesson, the composition specialist would have tofirst, choose an appropriate paragraph and state thetheme of this passage in his or her own words; next,compile a list of key words and phrases that could beincluded in a "correct" identification of this theme,including on this list as many synonyms, near syn-onyms, dialect and slang rephrasings as possible; then,stipulate, for a programmer, exactly which combina-tions of these terms or how many of these terms mustbe included in an answer for it to be deemed "correct."

As you might guess, this type of response is mucheasier to compose for questions that require simpleanswersanswers that don't vary widely, that consistof one letter, one word, or a specified number ofitems that are easily counted. The answer-specificscreen represented in figure 5. i, for instance, asksstudents to type in the number of journal entries theyhave completed since their last session on the com-puter. For the exercise on this screen, a "correct"answer has been defined by the teacher/author as fiveor more entries. Unfortunately, not all studoritt. re-sponses to questions and not all writing assignmentsin a process-based composition classroom are as easyto define or anticipate.

The advantages of answer-specific responses aretantalizing for authors who are creating their ownCAI. If such responses are constructed cardully, theycan provide different feedback for appropriate, in-appropriate, and partially appropriate answers. Forexample, an answer-specific response could match astudent's answer against a list of anticipated "correct"answers constructed by the teacher. If a student'sresponse did not match the requisite item or numberof items on the "correct" list, the lesson would branch

75

76 Cynthia L Stife

to a series of screens that explain the problem andsuggest extra practice. Figure 5.2, for example, showsa screen from a lesson on brainstorming that mighbe appropriate for a student who offers a responsethat does not match one on the "correct" list. If theanswer did match appropriate items on the "correct"list, the lesson woulo ()ranch to a series of screensthat would offer praise, additional instruction, ormore challenging activities. The screen in figure 5.3,for instance, might be an appropriate follow-up framefor a student whose response was identified as correct.If the student's response was a partial match, theanswer-specific activity could branch to a series ofscreens that would ask for rephrasing or further elabo-ration. In figure 5.4, we provide an example of fiscreen that could be used for a student's partiallycorrect response in a brainstorming lesson.

There are also disadvantages connected to answer-specific responses, however. Because it is almostimpossible to anticipate all the acceptable or unaccept-able answers to a question (particularly those subtleand complex questions that seem to abound in writing-intensive classrooms), answer-specific responses some-times result in inappropriate feedback which frustratesor confuses students. In figure 5.5, for instance, youcan see a screen from a lesson on nutshelling thatprovides inappropriately positive feedback to a stu-dent's incorrect answer. The teacher who defined "cor-rect" and "incorrect" answers for this activity did notanticipate the problem of students who had not at-tended :lass or heard the initial lecture on nutshelling.

Dr. Billie Wahlstrom, coeditor of Words Work (aserie of process-based CAI lessons for compositionclassrooms), tells a story about the problems associatedwith answer-specific responses. In one lesson, Wahl-strom wanted students to read a paragraph about ayoung woman breaking up with her boyfriend andgive their interpretation of the main character's moti-vation. Although Wahlstrom tried to anticipate keywords in every possible "correct" answer studentsmight givecompiling a "correct" list of more thanthirty-five words such as mad, angry, jilted, break up,out of love, stepping out, etc.the first student tofield test the software got an "incorrect" response to a"correct" answer because he used an unanticipatedphrasepissed off.

Some experts feel that the difficulty involved inanticipating acceptable responses for answer-specificCAI may encourage authors to deal with simplisticquestions and answers and, further, that it may limitthe use of these responses in writing instruction that

addresses more complex rhetorical concepts. Thereare, however, any number of answer-specific activitiesthat work well in a process-oriented compositionclassroom. As long as answer-specific screens arebased on current research, theory, and pedagogy inthe field of composition, they can serve a valuablefunction in a CAI lesson destined for writing-intensiveclassrooms. We suggest experimenting with answer-specific responses in appropriate situations throughouta CAI lesson and observing the strengths and weak-nesses of individual questions during the field testingof your CAI lesson.

Open-Ended Responses

Open-ended responses offer alternatives to answer-specific responses. Open-ended responses give thesame message to users, regardless of the answer orthe material they provide. Open-ended responses donot require CAI authors to compile lists of "correct"answers against which student input can be evaluated.Open-ended responses, however, do create activitiesthat ask or encourage students to evaluate their owninput. On the screen represented in figure 5.6, forinstance, students are asked to identify the revisingstrategy that seems most valuable to them. The re-sponse to this input is open-ended. Regardless of thestrategy typed in, the screen tells students to taketheir printouts for use in a later tutoring session.

There are ceitain advantages to using open-endedresponses. Like answer-specific responses, they caninclude models of correct answers. Figure 5.7, forexample, shows an open-ended response screen thatidentifies the three characteristics of a correct answerand encourages students to evaluate their own work.In addition, open-ended responses, because they arenot dependent on anticipating the content of a stu-dent's input, never give inappropriate messages.Rather, they encourage students to make their ownresponsible decisions about how to proceed throughthe lesson--whether they need more practice, furtherexplanation of a concept, or increased challenge.

Because open-ended responses do not evaluatestudents' input, they may be particularly suitable forwriting instruction for two reasons. First, questionsor activities that employ such responses encouragethe risk-taking that writing teachers often value. In aprivate conversation with a CAI lesson that is non-judgmental, students may feel free to try out new andunfamiiiar writing styles or techniques. Second, open-ended activities may be particularly suitable to com-position instruction because they can allow students

Integrating Response and Evaluation into a CAI Lesson 77

Okay, Fred, how many lines did you

write in your journal since the last

time we talked to each other?

In the highlighted space below, type

in the number of lines. Press the

"return" key twice when you are done.

<G>o forward, ack up, <Q>uit, rint, <H>elp

Figure 5.1: Example of an Answer-Specific Response That Can Be Easily Evaluated by Computer

Well, Kelly, I'm not sure that you have mastered

the strategy of brainstorming yet. You only

listed one possible topic to compare or contrast.

Please chot/... ,..,le of the options below. Adjust

the highligh:-A area below using the arrow keys;

than press the "return" key to enter your choice.

1. Quit this lesson and take vour list to a teacher.

2. Back up and try the brainstorming task again.

Figure 5.2: Example of ScrrAn That Suggests Extra Practice or Help

82

78 Cynthia L Se Ife

Excellent brainstorming session, Kelly!

You compiled a list of twenty-four

possible topics to compare or contrast

in your paper.

I'm going to show youl another way of

generating ideas by using analogies. It is

a bit harder to learn than the last stra-

tegy you used, but it is an extremely

powerful tool for solving writing problems.

<G>o forward, <E>ack up, <Q>uit, rint, <H>elp

Firw: 5.j: Example of Screen That Branches to More Challenging Instruction

Diana, the last brainstorming entry in your

electronic'journal is missing something and

is, therefore, only partially correct.

You did compile a list of sixteen possible

topics to compare and contrast, but you

forgot to date your entry. Your teacher needs

this information for recordkeeping purposes.

Let's go back one screen and enter the date.

Hit the "return" key when you are ready to

go back.

Figure 5.4: Example of Answer-Specific Response to a Partially "Correct" Answer

83

nt


Mrgaret. in the space below, identify the theme

of your paper in one sentence. This activity is

a form of the "nutshelling" strategy.

Press the "return" key twice when you are done,

and WI: gu on.

Great, Margaret. The one sentence pu typed

in the highlighted area is a very concise

statement of your theme.

Now let's go on to other revising activities.

<G>o on, ack up, <Q>uit, <H>elp, rint

Figure 5.5: Example of an Inappropriate Response to an Answer-Specific Item

Ron, wa're near the end of this lesson on revising.

In the highlighted 'zrea below, identify the

revising strategy that has proven most helpful

to you. Tell why this strategy is so effective.

When you're done, hit the 'return key twice,

and I'll print what you've written.

Good job, Ron. Now, take this printout with you

next time you go to the Reading/Writing Center.

You can discuss it with your tutor.

<G>o on , ack up , r int , <Q>u 1 t , <H>e I p

Figure 5.6: Example of an Open-Ended Response Screen

84

80 Cynthia L Sere

Okay, Dan. The retelling of the story that you completed

on the previous screen should have made some mention of

the fol!'iwing events:

* Samantha was able to locate her mother.

* Her mother died of typhoid soon thereafter.

* Samantha left New Bedford to go west.

Check the printout of your retelling to make sure

that it mentions each of these important events.

If you included all three, you are done with this

comprehension and retention

If you issed one or mors of the events, you had

better re-read the story riefore the next test.

Hit the 'return" key f.0,-,;4 to end this Lassion.

Figure 5.7: Example of Open-Ended Response Screen That Models a Correct Answer for Student?Self-Evaluation Effort

to find their own way throap,'ri writing problem, tofollow their own thinking p.cterns to a logicalconclusion.

If we believe currently accepted language theorieswhich indicate the act of writing--ini ond qfa way of thinkiny about a subject, it follows thatopen-ended responses can be used when we want toavoid limiting cr artificially directing creative problemsolving at early stages of the writing process. Forexample, open-ended responses might best be em-ployed when we want to leave students alone, to ietthem find their own way through a writing problem,to discoveras they struggle to maniNiate observa-tions ald to encode their thoughts logically in a lin-guistic syn.: ,01 systemwhat they are thinking abouta topic. In these cases, teacher-focused, answer-specificevaluation may be constraining.

These way advantages, however, suggest relateddisadvantages. Open-ended responses, because thefrequeatly rely on student judgment or interpretation,are subject to abuse. Younger or less serious studentsmay see open-ended responses as tempting opportuni-ties to sabotag,' instruction or may simply fail tounderstand the importance of being rigorous in com-paring their answers to the appropriate models pro-vided by the teacher. Moreover, because activities

designed to use open-ended responses are not con-structed to "recognize" the appropriateness of studentinrut, they provide what some teachers considerlimited information for grading purposes. This criti-cism, however, rm.; not necessarily be valid. Examine,for instance, the opei,'.,nded response screen reprt-sented in figure 5.8. It is true that this screen is notdesigned to send any information to the teacher'srecordkeeping file on whett-tr the quJent providedan approprii or inappropriate answeronly thestudent wiU judge this. However, even with this open-ended response the author can structure the activityso that the computer automatically tords for theteacher the length of the student's answer (words,lines, sentences, paragraphs), the time it took to write,and the number of times the student attempted thatactivity. The machine can also list the additionalpractice the ,..:',4;ent attempted and print out the re-sponse for later irz in a teacher-student conference.

As you think about the material we have just pre-sented on open-ended responses, you may want toexamine and ctitique individual 0174A-ended responsescreens that you have already designed for the firstdraft of your screen-by-screen script. What follows isa checklist that should prove valuable for these cri-tiques. We have completed it as Jean might have for

85

Integrating Response and Evaluation into a CAI I r.;(.11 8 1

Sam, use the scrolling, highlighted area below to

provide Art with some feedback about Draft 41.

Tell Pr. .-f:Ich one of the three character sketches

seemed N-Jst realistic to you and why. Be as specific

as possible in your response. Hit the "return" key

twice when you are finished, and we'll go on.

4

<G>o forward. ack upc rint. <Q>uit, <H>elp

Teacher's Recordkeeping File

Peer Critiquur: Dan rzAlly

number of words: 7.4

number of lines' 4

number of sentences: 3

number cf paragraphs: 1

Time spent on critique: 0 hours, 4 mins., 35 secs.

Critique 3 of 4

Critique practice exercises 1-5

Figure 5.8: Open-Ended Response Scum and Recoidkeeping Data Sent to Teacher's Fde

86

82 Cynthia L Se Ife

an open-ended screen she desigricd. it't the end of thischapter, we have provided a similar checklist, Work-sheet 17: Critiquing Open-Ended Response Screens,for use with your own script.

Example of Critiquing Open-EndedResponse Screens

NO Does this open-ended response screenrequire a model of an "appropriate"response? If so, is one provided?

NO Does this open-ended response screenrequire students to identify the ap-propriateness or the inappropriate-ness of their own answers? If so, arestudents given clear criteria for evalu-ating their responses?

YES Can students' input to this particularactivity be displayed on the samescreen as this open-ended response?If not, can students easily back up toview their input?

NO Does this opcn-ended response screentell or suggest to students what to donext?

Notes: Provide a "model" answer on an optionalhelp screen so that students can refer to it ifthey don't immediately understand theevaluation criteria I give on this screen inan abbreviated form.

Scripting Responses

If you, or your design team, has completed a screen-by-scr.en script of your CAI, you have alreadysketched out the kinds of responses the computershould make to students input for each activity. In

eie material in the preceding section, however,yot may want to go back over the screen-by-screenIesn script and revise the responses you have identi.,fled. Below, we have included Eve suf..-estions forrevising scripting responsrs. At the end of this chapteryou will have the opp:irtunity to apply these guide-lines to your own script.

I. Always provide a nicidel or explanation of a"correct" or appropriate answer, whether stu-ients provide appropriate, partially appropriate,or inappropriate answers themselves or not.These model explanations can act as additionalinstruction. In figure 5.9, for instance, only thelast two words in the first line of the screen

would have to be altered to make it appropriatefor a "correct" or an "incorrect" answer. Themodel of the "correct" answer that takes up thebulk of the screen would remain the same re-gardless of the students' input.

2. Create and label lists of appropriate, partiallyappropriate, and inappropriate responses whichcan be used throughout the lesson. Notice theseresponse rAs that Jean, our sample teacher,might have composed.

Examples of Scripting Answer-SpecificResponses

"Appropriate" Re.zoonse List (ARL)Good job, [name].Your answer is correct.[N, right.E iame].Vet; ,.fod, [name]."Partially Appropriate" R.vonse List (PRL)Not exactly, [name].You've got it partially correct.I only recognize part of your answer, [name].At least one part of your answer is correct,

[name].

"Inappropriate" Response List (IRL)No, [name], I do not recognize that answer

as correct.Sorry, [name], that answer is incoirect.[Name], your teacher does not consider that

response to be acceptable.That is not riclit.

Thk, technique um add variety to the instruc-tion. At the end of this chapter, on Worksheet18: Scripting Answer-Specific Responses, youwill have the opportunity to construct your ownanswer-specific response lists.

3. Use a standard set of symbols to describe re-sponses in your screen-by-screen script. We haveillustrated one way of labeling responses in fig-ure 5.10. Notice that line 2 uses bracketed direc-tions to tell the programmer to choose any oneof the responses from the Appropriate-ResponseList (ARL). Regardless of what system you usefor labeling responses, remember that the pro-grammer on your team must be able to under-stand and follow your notations.

4. Whenever possible, keep the student's answeron the screen along with the response you give.

Integraing Response and Evaluation into a CAI Lesson 83

Bernard, your answer is partially correct.

A memorandum is a short, timely form of

communication. You sho,:ld also have

mentioned that memoranda are internal

messages, sent within organizations.

Tf you want to reread your answer, back

up one screen.

<G>o forward, ack up, <Q>uit, rint

Figure 5.9: Example of Screen with Explanation of Correct Answer

The screen in figure 5.11, for tance, is effi-ciently designed to ask students d question; ac-cept their input in the scrolling, highlighted area;ard provide .n open-ended response by theteacherall .;ai the same frame. When it is notpossible to arrange everything you want on thesame screen, make sure that students can backup and review their answers in light of the re-sponse you have given. The screen depicted infigure 5.9, for e-..acc?k, provides students theopportunity of ,';..:;g.',:ep" in the instructionalsequence by movrikg lei the choice line at thebottom of the screen ard pressing the letter "B."

5. Whenever possible, on the same screen as aresponse, tell students what to da next or tiskthem what they would like to do next. Thescreen response in figure 5.12, for example, tellsstudents who provide inappropriate answers thatthey will undertake an additional practice exer-cise on the "I-beforc-E" spelling rule. The screendepicted in figure 5.13 asks students to decidefor themselves if they require additional practiceon the spelling rule. Whichever approach youchoose, provide clear directions to keep studentsfrom becoming confused.

As you think about the guidelines we have justpresented on response screens, you may want to re-view and rewrite some of the response frames youhave already designed for the first draft of your ownscreen-by-screen script.

Response and Evaluation

Whatever methc ' CAI lesson employs to respondto student input answer-specific responses, open-ended responses, or a mixture of bothit must havesor '! way of t-alurving student performance andreporting the results of this evaluation. Evaluation,however, especially in co'hnection with writing, can bea complex issue, involving a number of ethical deci-sions. On the following pages, we have hied to antici-pate some of the questions authors might have aboutevaluating students' input in a CAI lefson.

Why Evaluate Students Written Workin a CAI Lesson?

There are several rcasons. First, because studentsoften use CAI outside the classroom, without thebenefit of a teacher's presence, evaluation serves

88

Example of Labeling Response Inserts

Screen Description. Instructional, Appropriate Response

Column

:4 2

3

6

8

9

10

11

12

13

11

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

501 2 ' 1 5 6 7 8 9

101 2 3 1 5 6 7 8 9

z o1 2 3 1 5 6 7 8 9

3 o1 2 3 1 5 6 7 8 9

4 4I 2 3 1 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 1 5 6 7 8 9 6°

hoose f ori AR

purpose( 1 r e I i t i on y ou i d en t i f i e one m t h oft blishin C 0 h e r ence in a piece o W I n disc n

Figure 5.10 Labeling Responses in Script by Referring to Response Lists

90

oo

Integrating Response and Evaluatf In into a CAI Lesson 85

What is the biggest strength of your draft as it

now stands, Dan? In the highlighted space below,

identify this strength In a one-sentence nutshell.

Hit the -return" keu twice when you are finished.

Okay, Dan. Think about this strength. How can you

capitalize on it in your next draft? Wh6n you are

ready to answer this question, go on to the nextscreen.

<G>a forward, ack up, <Q>uit, rint

Figure 5.11: Example of Teacher's Response on the Same Screen as Student's Input

Choose the correct spelling from the choices

below. Use the arrow keys to move the high-

lighted box around the correctly spell':o word.

Then press the "return" key twice . 9r r!n.

recieve riceive receive recive

No, Doris. The correct spelling is RECEIVE.

Let me prov?de you with more practice on

the "I before E" rules. Hit the "return- key

when you are ready, and we'll go on.

Figure 5.12: Teacher's Directionr on the Same Screen as Student's Response

91

86 Cynthia L Selfe

Choose the correct spelling from the choices

below. Put the box around the correctly

spelled word.

recieve riceive receive recive

No, Dorie. The correct speliing 1.s RECEIVE.

Do you want some additional practice on

the "I before E" rules?

<Y>es, more practice <X>o, go on to next rule

Figure 5.13: Example of Screen That Allows Students to Determine Direction of Instruction

Ruthann, in this lesson, your teacher wanted

you to learn about three different Jourr...i-

oriting strategies: timed freewrites, associa-

tional explorations, and focused extracts.

You were to produce at least 2 Journal entries

using each strategy and to write for an averageof 5 minutos per entry.

Below, you'll see a chart that tells you how many

Journal writes of each type you ..r.oduced and the

average time !.jou spent on entries of each type.

TImed F Its. 4 ntrles 19 mlnutes

Assoc. ExploratIons 2 ntrles 17 mlnutes

Focused Extracts 3 ntrles 23 mlnutes

<G>o forward, ack up, <Q>ui t, rint., <H>mfd

Figure 5.14: Example of Screen That Identifies Students Performance on Instructional Objectives

92

important function of providing some way of judgingsuccess in learning. A good evaluation system willapprise student users of their progress and give thema realistic idea of how they have performed on theinstructional objectives identified by the teacher asthe basis for the lesson. The screen represented infigure 5.14, for instance, ioentifies not only the lesson'sinstructional objectives ("learn about three differentfreewriting strategies: timed freewrites, associationalexplorations, and focused extracts"), but also the cri-teria for judging success on these objectives (". . . pro-duce at least two journal using each strategy. . . write for an average el. ro-autes per entry"),and students' individu., :-.a.ance data for self-evaluation purposes.

Second, building evaluation into a CAI lessonmakes it possible to individualize instruction by vary-ing the material students will receive according to theappropriateness or inappro,tiateness of their input.Without some form of evaluation, either student- orteacher-based, there would be no way to determinewhen a student should receive additional instruction,or when a program should branch to further explana-tions, practice activities, enrichment material, or writ-ing assignments.

Third, if a system of evaluation is carefully planned(if such a system is related directly to instructionalobjectives and based on a teacher's assumptions aboutteaching in general and teaching writing specifically),it can help authors judge the effectiveness of a CAIlesson. For instance, each of the instructional objec-tives you identified earlier for your CAI lesson (Work-sheet 14: Identifying Instructional Objectives) outlinedspecific criteria for evaluating student success. If youals c. build a system of recordkeeping into your CAI(one that sends infr rmation to the teacher's file de-scribing every student's performance on each of theinstructional objectives you have identified), you candetermine which lesson activities are most consittentlyeffective in teaching those concepts you considerimportant and which activities need revising becausethey are ineffective in their instructional approach. Inthis sense, evaluation can also help you in revisingand field testing a CM lesson. We will discuss moreabout field-testing strategies in Chapter Seven: Plan-ning a Field-Testing Program for a CA1 Lesson.

When Should Students Be Evaluatedin a C'AI Lesson?

Each of the instructional objectives authors identifyfor a CAI lesson should have some method of evalu-

Integrating Response and Evaluation into e CAI Lesson 87

ating student progress attached to it. If this caveat isfollowed, the author can evaluate student progresscontinually, with each activity and concept presented.However, timing is crucial in determining the iype ofevaluation to use. Let's look, for example, at an in-structional objective that Jean might have used forher CAI lesson on freewriting.

Example of Identifying Instructional Objectives

Given instructional screens that explain what timedfirt ,sr:ting and brainstorming 4.: -.: and given a shortnarrative writing assignment, .:ients will be ableto brainstorm a list of at 1 fifteen possibletopics.

in this activity, Jean's purpose is to expose studentsto the concepts of timed fzeewriting and brainstorm-ing and to make sure they try these prewriting strate-gies in a realistic setting. At this early point in thecomposing process, Jean w!-.-,uld probably want toemphasize creative, imaginative thinking. She wouldnot want to encourage her students to turn on theirinternal "editors" too early. This central goal, then,would determine her evaluation planhaving thecomputer simply count the number of items on thebrainstorming list. As the sample objective indicates,she would not include in this evaluation effort anyattempt to determine the quality of the ideas thatstudents listed, accurate spelling, grammatical correct-ness, or even appropriateness for the writing assign-ment, Although these evaluation activities might beappropriate in other lessons or activities that Jeanmight plan later, the prewriting period is, most likely,not the time to include them.

How Can I E luate Students'

The purpose- h nstructioe ohjective within alesson shouis; t,;,;terr.. ,ine the form and structuce ofevaluation. Sorn. Azctives might be best evaluatedin terms of quality ("Is this paper ready to be read byyour peer group?"), others in terms of simple quantity("How many times have you rewritten this paper?').Performance on some objectives might best be evalu-ated by the students themselves. students, for example,might be the best judges of whether they need morepractice writing memoranda or if they need more timeto explore an interesting paper topic. Other objectivesmight be best evaluated by the teftche:. In tN...te cases,CAI authors can anticipate "correct" 01 appropriateanswers Ind have the computer compare student inputwith this list.

88 Cynthia L Se Ile

As you read over thc list of instructional objectives*hat you compiled on Worksheet 14: Identifying In-

ictional Objectives, think about whether any of the'sowing methods of evaluation might be appropriate:

Counting

Computers can count almost anything: time, words,phrases, sentences, transitions, lines of prose, passiveconstructions, adjectives, practice eAercises, etc. Thesuccessful accotrekineet ii ...Elm objectives can beevaluated simply by kiumber of things aseudent types on the screen. "I h4 screen represented infigure 5.15, for instance, was &signed for an instruc-tional 7-'4.jective that judged users' success on a revisionactivity by counting entries.

M atching

Computers can match student input against 'correct"or appropriate answers anticipated by a teacher. Thismatching function permits fill-in-the-blank questions,short-answer quesfite.ts, or multiple-choice questionsto be evaluated. Some essay-length questions can alsott rvnluated in a limited sense using this method. ACAI author could, for example, construct a list ofkey words or phrases that an appropriate essay answersho,"d contain and search students' input for a speci-fied number of these words or phrases. The screen infigure 5.16 illustrates this kind of "matching" strategyfor essay questions. The author of this screen haswritten an essay question to be answered by studentusers in the scrolling highlighted area and has pro-vided a "matching" list of appropriate answers anddirections for the team programmer on how to employthis list in the program for evaluating students' success.

Modeling

A lesson can provide students with an appropriate oran inappropriate model and ask them to compare itto their own version in specified ways. As demon-strated in figure 5.17, a teacher could, for example,pr,Ivele a stylistic analysis of three aut.' ;ors' works asmodels, ask students to analyze their own styles, andthen ask them to compare the results for themselves.If such activities are constructed carefully, models donot have to be narrowly prescriptive.

Discussing

Students' success on certain instructional objectivesmight best be evaluated by a teacher, a tutor, or apeer. A CAI lesson can give students directions to

consult any of these individuals for feedback on spe-cific activities. The screen depicted in figure 5.18, forexample, directs students to take the hard copy theyhave produced during a CAI lesson on letter writingand exchange with classmates for a peer critique.

What Do I Do with Evaluation Information?

Once a teacher has evaluated students' performanceson an instructional object;ve, what can or should bedone with the information? Ag..:n, the purpose of theinstruction should influence this decision. If timelyevaluation information is important for a student'sprogxess in a lesson (rather than for a teacher's record-keeping purposes), a CAI author can choose to dis-play the evaluation information on the computerscreen as students fmish individual activities within alonger lesson, without sending such data to a teacher'srecordkeeping file. The screen in figure 5.19, for in-stance, might appear for the students' benefit at theend of a short lesson segment on reducing wordinessthat exist: within a longer lesson on style. In othercases, an author may want to have evaluation infor-mation printed out in a tabular form at the end of afull lesson. Figure 510 shows an example of students'performance data as presented in a table at the end ofan entire lesson on proofreading.

If evaluation information is important for a teacherto see, a CAI author can choose to send students'performance data automatically to a recordkeepingfile for periodic review by the ityuctor or have itprinted out for students to Ining to their ncAt confer-ence with the teacher. The screen in figure 5.21, forinstance, represents data froir a p.roofreading lessonthat haT, been stored in a tabu/Ai f ithin a teacherrecordkeeping file.

Authors of CAI lessons shouW ntdecisions about where to send evaluatiw.will directly affect the way in which students approacha CAI lesson, just as similar decisions affect studentperformance in a traditional instructional setting. Stu-dents might, for example, feel less inclined to takechances with their writing or to try new tee,, iiesand strategies if they know that their attempts will bescrutinized and evaluated by a teaeher. Often studentsare attracted to CA! because :.'itey can take riskswithout worrying about another human seeing their

iting; if you value this kind of activity, you maywant to honor *he privacy of the student-computerrelationship by denying any A-.;s to material writtenduring a CAI session.


Objective: After practicing 5 revision strategies, students will be able toidentify at least 2 appropriate strategies to use in revising a draft ofa paper they produce.

Gloria, in the highlighted area below, identify

at least two revision strategies that you feelwould be helpful in revising the current draftof your paper. Number each strategy.

Press the "return- key twice when you are done.

Good Job, Gloria. You have identified three

strategies that might prove valuable in yourrevision effort.

<G>a forward. <9>ack up. <VII>uit, rint

13: Instructional Objective That Can Be Evaluated by Counting

III some lessons, teachers may prefer to let studentsr-toose what to do with the written material theygenerate via computer and the evaluation informatics,-generated in a CAI session. The screen depicted infigure 5.22, for instance, asks students to determinethe ultimate destination of their written drafts. Theauthro of thir screon was content with suggestingvarious possibilities for feedback and leaving thefinal decisions up to student users. In other lessons,teachers may want to keep closer tabs on student per-formance. If you do choose to have material sentautomatically to a teacher's file or to a peer's file, besure to inform students at appropriate points khrough-out the lesson that the material they write will becomepublic property.

After reading the n'aterial we have just presented onevaluation, you may ;.nt to review and rethink theevaluation approaches you use on certain screens inyour ot-n CAI script. The following list shows howJean might have completed such a review, using theworksheet we provided for this purpose.

Example of Reviewing Evaluation Approaenes

Activity: Timed freewriting, practice #11. Are the evaluation ir structions for this activity

clear for the progranuner? Is a standard set ofsymbols used to designate responses for appro-priate, partially appropriate, and inappropriateinput?

Check out labeling conventions with the consul-tant. See if we can decide on a numbering systemfor the screens.

2. Is the method of evaluationcounting, match-ing, modeling, discussingin accord with thepurpose of the instructional activity? Am I evalu-ating what I want to evaluate in the way itshould be evaluated?Might have too many "counting" evaluations.I notice that I evaluate most journal tntriesby counting the number of linesthat doesn'tgive enough information about content of stu-dents' entriestr; modeling good answers and

95

90 Cynthia L. Se Ile

Programmer's Directions

An "appropriate" response for this screen should include at least two of theterms listed below:

conflictcareerElaine

choicetestfail

cheatanswersalternative

Denna. In the scrolling. highlighted area

below, Identify the conflict that acts as

the focus of this passage.

Elaine xamined her alternativevthere wereonly tuo. She could cheat, or she could take

the test and fall. Falling meant dropping out

of school, giving up all hope of career,

abandoning her aspirations. She picked up her

book and started scribbling the answer, on the

cover.

In idintifying thls conflict, use some of the

key terms from the passage itself. Hit the

'return key twice when you are finished.

fo-ward, <39>ack op, rint, <V>ult, <X>elp

1.111111106.

Figure 5.16: identifying a List of "Appropriate" Matches for Student Input

letting them evaluas tt "wn entries on someactivities.

3. What kinds of evaluati, ;nformation will resultfrom this activity? A table listing the number of"correct" or "incorrect" answers? A count ofelapsed writing time? A hard copy of a writingassignment? What form will this informationtake?For each journal entry, I want a count of the

-0' lines and words written, a measure4ed writing time, and some indication

. Anted the writer is with the effort.evaluation information sent? To

ceachiers? Students? Is this decision consisntwith the purpose of the instructional objectiveconnected to this activity?

I want the end cs themselves to remain privateso that students will take some chances in theirthinking. I do want some data on entry length,time spent, etc.

At the end of this chapter, on Worksheet 19:Reviewing Evaluation Approaches, we will providethe opportunity for you to think about evaluationapproaches in a format similar to the one you havejust seen. Some readers may want to turn to thisworksheet now and begin the process of reviewingtheir approach to evaluation. Others may want tocontinue reading before they proceed :with their review.

Summary

This chapter covered some of the issues connected toresponsesboth teacher and stu.lcnt responsesin a


Terry, here are the results of our study on adjective use.

Terry's Draft Authors 41 42 43 44

51 4 S 4 3 2

52 3 3 1 2 B

53 3 7 4 11 G

54 2 S 5 3 3

55 1 2 1 G 4

SG 3 5 4 3 2

57 6 3 1 2 B

SB 5 4 4 3 3

59 5 2 2 2 1

510 2 3 5 1 4

511 3 2 3 B 7

Avg. 3.3 Avg. 3.7 3.1 4.0 4.7

Given our previous discussion of adjective use, can you draw any

conclusions from this data? Hit the "return" key twice to go on totha next screen.

111.

Figure 5.17: Example of a Model That Is Not Narrowly Prescriptive

Doug, you have reached the end of this

lesson on writing effective business

letters.

Take the draft of the letter that you

have produced to the next meeting

of your Technical Writing class.

Exchange letters with one member of

your critique group, and then revise

it before letting the entire critique

group comment on it.

<G>o forward, ack up, <Q>uit, <H>elp, rint

Figure 5.18: Example of Screen That Encourages Students to Discuss Their Work with Peers

97

92 Cynthia L Selfe

Good job. Laurie. You were able to reduce the

"lard" factor of that last passage by 54%.

Other students who have tried this exercise

average a reduction of 51%. Congratulations.

<G>o forward, <8>ack up, <Q>uit, rint

Figure 5.19: Evaluation Information at the End of a Single Activity

Hugh, you have reached the end of this lesson on

proofreading. In the table below, you will find a

summary of your scores on the three practice

exercises.

U of Errors of Errors Class

Exercise in Original You Corrected Avg.

1 37 23 27

2 34 28 26

3 35 31 30

<G>o forward, <8>ack up, <Q>uit, rint, <H>elp

Figure 5.20: Evaluation ia Tabular Form at the End of a Lesson

98

Integrating Response and Evaluation intu a CAI Lesson 93

\://::::::-ProofreadingClass: Technical Writing, Section 3

Dates: 3/14-3/21 1986

Exercise #1 42 #3 Avg.

L. Smith 43 37 48 42

D. Duval 27 36 37 33

S. Beam 40 43 45 42

C. Kirkish 35 35 38 36

D. Clawson 33 34 31 32

R. Apprevit 22 39 40 34

K. Hintz 37 44 45 42

Class Avg. 34 38 40 37

Figure 5.21: Examples of Teacher's Recordkeeping File

Suzette, choose one of the options below by

moving the highlighted area with the arrowkeys. When you have marked your choice,

press the "return" key twice to enter your

selection.

Send this draft tc my teacher for grading.

Send this draft to my peer-critique groupfor written feedback.

Send this draft to my private file.

Figure 5.22: Screen That Lets Students Decide What to Do with Written Material

99

94 Cynthia L Selfe

CAI lesson. The first part of the chapter discussedtwo different ways to respond to student input.

The use of answer-specific responses requiresauthors to anticipate and create a list of "correct" orappropriate answc.s to /esson questions; tell the com-puter to check student input against this list for full,partial, or negative matches; and provide a bank ofappropriate messages for each kind of match. Answer-specific responses are advantageous because theyindividualize instruction. These items are, however,difficult to construct because they rely on the teacher'sability to predict a complete and accurate list of "cor-rect" or appropriate variations for an answer.

Open-ended responses do not use a system of scan-ning student answers and matching them a;dinst alist of "correct" answers. Rather, these msponses give

the same message to all students regardless of theirinput. Open-ended questions are advantageous becausethey allow students to assume the responsibility fordetermining whether their answers are appropriate,partially appropriate, or inappropriate. Open-endedresponses may not always be suitable for younger orless motivated users because they rely on students'judgment.

In connection with these two basic kinds of re-sponses, we also listed five suggestions for scriptingresponses.

The second part of this chapter discussed questionsthat authors of CAI lessons might have had aboutevaluating student responses: why, when, and how toevaluate students' written work, and what to do withevaluation information.


Worksheet 17: Critiquing Open-Ended Response Screens

To complete this worksheet, you need a copy of the latest screen-by-screen draft of your CAI script. Gothrough the script, and identify each of the activities for which you want to provide open-ended responses.Then, for every opewended response you have planned, answer the following questions.

YES NO Does this open-ended response require a model of an "appropriate"response? If so, is one provided?

YES NO Does this open-ended response require students to identify the appro-priateness or the inappropriateness of their own answers? If so, are studentsgiven clear criteria for evaluating their responses?

YES NO Can students' input to this particular activity be displayed on the samescreen as this open-ended response? If not, can students easily back up toview their input?

YES NO Does this open-ended response tell or suggest to students what to do next?

96 Cynthia L. Se Ile

Worksheet 18: Scripting Answer-Specific Responses

To complete this worksheet, you need the latest draft of your screen-by-screen lesson script. Go throughthe script, and mark every activity that requires an answer-specific response to student input. Then, finishthe four tasks we outline on this worksheet, and use the answerVecific response lists you create to revisethe screen-by-screen script as needed. Be sure to employ a standard set of symbols or labels in the script tokt a programmer know what kind of response is needed.

I. Create a list of responses for appropriate or "correct" answers.

"Appropriate" Response List (ARL)

2. Create a list of responses for partially appropriate or partially "correct" answers.

"Partially-Appropriate" Response List (PRL)

3. Create a list of responses for inappropriate or "incorrect" answers.

"Inappropriate" Response List (IRL)

4. Create and label a list of miscellaneous responses for use in special situations.

"Miscellaneous" Response List (MRL)

ex. MRL1 Please think of at least [number] more topics.

MRL2 [name], if you matt further help on this concept, go see a tutor or your teacher.

MRL3 [name], go back to the last screen, reread the directions, and try again.

102


Worksheet 19: Reviewing Evaluation Approaches

To complete this worksheet, you need the latest draft of your screen-by-screen lesson script. Go throughthis draft, and identify each activity which involves an evaluation of student input. Using a copy of thisworksheet for each activity, answer the questions listed below.

Activity:

I. Are the evaluation instructions for this activity clear for the programmer? Is a standard set of symbolsused to designate responses for appropriate, partially appropriate, and inappropriate input?

2. Is the method of evaluationcounting, matching, modeling, discussingin accord with the purposeof the instructional activity? Am I evaluating what I want to evaluate in the way it should be evaluated?

3. What kinds of evaluation information will result from this activity? A table listing the number of"correct" or "incorrect" answers? A count of elapsed writing time? A hard copy of a writingassignment? What form will this information take?

4. Where is the evaluation information sent? To teachers? Students? Is this decision consistent with thepurpose of the instructional objective connected to this activity?

103

6 THINKING ABOUT SCREENDISPLAY

A piece of instruction that appears on a computerscreen, simply by virtue of being displayed via anelectronic medium, will differ from a similar piece ofinstruction that is presented on the pages of a conven-tional textbook. Some of these differences are obvious.On a computer screen, images of letters or objects areetched phosphorescently on an electronic medium. Ina book, they are inked on a page. On a computerscreen, instruction requires electric power and elec-tronic circuitry. On the pages of a book, instructionneeds no such equipment.

In some ways, computer screens, because they canbe programmed to take advantage of time, provide amore flexible instructional medium. For example,computer screens can make text appear and disappearbit by bit, highlight phrases for a specified amount oftime, flash certain words on and off to attract atten-tion, or erase and rewrite material when directed todo so by an author or programmer. Books cannottake advantage of timed displays in this same way.

Instruction presented on a computer screen, how-ever, also has a number of disadvantages when com-pared to instruction presented in a book. The materiaiappearing on a series of computer screens, in thebroadest sense, is linearone screen must followanother, one screen must be erased before anotherappears. As a result, scanning and skimming may bemore difficult on a series of screens than in a book.Some users think that advancing a computer displayusing a keyboard is more distracting than simplyturning a page. Display quality may also cause prob-lems. Screen resolution on certain computers doesnot always permit the clearest presentation of textand graphics, and some users may find screen displayshard to read for this reason. Finally, the computeris still considered by some individuals to be anontraditional print medium, and, as such, it mayinspire !ess than total confidence. Fortunately, ourstudents are being exposed to computers at increas-ingly early ages and are becoming more comfortablewith computer use.

In working to refine successiw drafts of a CAIlesson, authors should thinlc about how the uniquemedium of the computer screen will affect instruction.Authors must learn, for instance, how to be consistentin using the various areas of a computer screen (called,hereafter, functional areas) to ensure consistency fromscreen to screen throughout a lesson.' Without sys-tematic attention to the location of instructionalinformation on a computer screen, a CAI lesson canbe hopelessly confusing and frustrating for studentsto use. In addition, authors must decide how, and towhat extent, to use the special Iffects available on acomputer in presenting instructional materials.

In thk chapter, we discuss two broad areas ofconcern in connection with designing screens forCAI lessons.

1. How can an author identify those functionalareas that are needed in a CAI lesson, plan andarrange these areas, and use functional areas inrevising a screen-by-screen lesson script?

2. Hcw ern an author recognize and identify spe-cial effects, plan these effects, and determinewhich effects will enhance instruction?

Identifying Functional Areas

Most CAI lessons set apart consistent areas orlocations on computer screens for certain types ofmaterial. These areas, called functional areas, are usedto promote consistency and keep students from be-coming disoriented as they move from screen to screenthroughout a lesson. Organizing instructional materialin consistent functional areas allows students to orientthemselves quickly to each screen and, as a result,facilitates concentration on learning tasks. An examplecan help explain the concept of functional areas. Infigure 6.1 we show two screens that follow one anotherin sequence, but do not take advantage of consistentfunctional areas.

99

104

100 Cynthia L Se ife

Metaphor, Key Point U3, Exercise U3

Sometimes poets use metaphor

to dramatize a point. Look at

the following excerpt from the

beginning of Anne Bradstreet's

"The Author To Her Book."

Thou 1E-formed offspring of my feeble brain.

Who after birth did'st by my side remain.

Till snatched from thonce by friends, less wise than true.

Who thee abroad exposed to public view . . .

<G>o f o rwa r d <13>a ck up , <S>how menu , <Q>u 1 t , r in t

ack up

<S>how menu

t

rint

Metaphor,

Key. Point C4,

Exercise U3

It is difficult, however, to

sustain a metaphorical comparison

over a longer piece.

On the next screen, you'll see the

rest of Anne Bradstreet's poem. As

you read it, judge for yourself how

successful she was in sustaining

her metaphor. Is the last of the

poem as effective as the first?

Figure 6.1: Two-Screen Series Which Does Not Use Consistent Functional Areas

The first (or top screen) in this sequence sets upsome expectations for the next screen: users expect tofind tha certain typts of material (teaching informa-tion, dire,tions, prompts for student response) appearin the same general location on the next screen(bottom screen). Because the information on thesecond screen does not appear in the same location,users will experience momentary confusion. The sameconfusion would confront readers of books if the texton one page ran horizontally while the text on thenext page ran vertically.

For a contrast, look at the same sequence of screensin figure 6.2. This time we have designed both screensso that they employ consistent functional areas.

If you are like most readers, you found the lattersequence easier to read than the former, because itemploys a consistent use of functional areas.

The type of screen an author is designing (instruc-tional screen, help screen, response screen, etc.), willhave quite a bit to do with the functional areas to beincluded. Below, we have identified the most commonkinds of functional areas seen in CAI. Read thedescriptions, and keep your own script in mind.

Instruction

The great majority of screens in a CAI lesson will beteaching or instructional screens. On these screens,and for some other types of screens (help screens orintroductory screens, for example) most authors willwant to set apart a fairly large area for text andgraphic displays that teach. As figure 6.3 indicates,this instructional area can shrink or expand accordingto the amount of material that must be presented.However, the area itself should be consistently located.

Because the instructional area is so important inmost CAI lessons, it is probably best located near thecenter of the screen. In Figure 6.4, for instance, thefunctional area containing instruction must share thecenter of the screen with the functional areas con-taining orientation information and screen prompts.Thus, all three areas compete for the viewer's atten-tion. As figure 6.5 shows, the central area of a screencan also be used for giving feedback on student input,another form of instruction.

Directions

Especially on screens that require students to type inresponses, most authors designate a special, centrallylocated area for directions, as in figure 6.6. Generally,although not always, this area should be close to the

Thinking about Display Screens 101

area in which students type their responses. Again, aconsistent location is the key; students should alwaysknow where to look for directions.

Student Responses

CAI destined for a writing-intensive classroom (espe-cially one that emphasizes a process-oriented ratherthan a product-oriented approach) must be designedto accommodate longer responses from students thanmost other types of CAI. For this reason, it is oftenimportant, especially on response screens, to set asidea generous area for student input. On the screendepicted in figure 6.7, for instance, the relatively largefunctional area for student responses is highlightedand boxed.

The area for student responses should also incor-porate a standard symbol (such as ">", "?", or "*)that indicates where the user should start typing mate-rial. Often this symbol flashes to rivet students' atten-tion on the response area. To allow this area toaccommodate longer responses from students, scroll-ing can be used so that input moves or "scrolls" upwithin the boundaries of the response areaall otherareas of the screen remaining fixed. If you choose touse this scrolling technique, it is usually advisable toprovide students with options that allow them toscroll up and down so that they can review what theyhave written and add additional text.

Choices and Menus

Almost every screen in a CAI lesson should contain afunctional area devoted to choices (also called menus).Main menus in a lesson can be used to give studentslarge-scale choices in material or individualized pathsthrough the instruction. Local menus can be used toprovide a choice of options in a particular writingexcrcise or in a multiple choice question. Most authorswant each screen of their CAI lesson to offer studentssome standard choices: move forward one screen;back up one screen; quit the program; see help, menu,or orientation screens; get their writing printed onpaper; or send their writing to a computer file. Oftenthese standard choices are displayed in one line at thebottom or top of each lesson screen. On the screendepicted in figure 6.8, for instance, the functional areadevoted to choices or menus is highlighted and locatedat the bottom of the screen. These choice lines,because they afford student users some measure ofcontrol over their instruction, are one method ofhumanizing computer-assisted instruction.

106

102 Cynthia L Selfe

Metaphor, Key Point 03, Exercise 03

Sometimes poets use metaphor

to dramatize a point. Look at

the following excerpt from the

beginning of Anne Bradstreet's

"The Author To Her Book.-

Thou ill-formed offspring of my feeble brain.

Who after birth did'st by my side remain.

Till snatched from thence by friends, less wise than true.

Who thee abroad exposed to public view...

<G>o forward, ack up , <S>how menu, <Q>u t., r in t

Metaphor, Key Point 04, Exercise 03

It is difficult, however, to sustain a metaphorical

comparison over a longer piece.

On the next screen, you'll see the rest of Anne

Bradstreet's poem. As you read it, judge for

yourself how successful she was in sustaining

her metaphor. Is the last of the poem as effec-

tive as the first?

<G>o forward, ack up , <S>how menu, <Q>ui t , r int

Figure 6.2: Two-Screen Series Which Does Use Consistent Functional Areas

107


Wordiness, Key Point Ul, Exercise Ul

<G>o forward. ack up. <S>how menu. <Q>uit. rint. <N>glp

Figure 6.3: Instructional Area

Reader Response,

Key Point t12,

Exercise 1:11

<G>o forward

<8>ack up

<S>how menu

<Q>ui t

rint

Your response to this poem,

Reggie, will differ from the

responses of mther people.

Your past experiences, educa-

tion, associations, upbringing

will all shape the way you

interpret those words the

poet put on the page.

In this way, you write a poem

every time you read a poem.

Figure 6.4: Non-Central Location of Instructional Area

108

104 Cynthia L Se ife

Alliteration Key Point 48, Exercise U7

Figure 6.5: Feedback in Instruction'al Area

Limericks, Key Point U5, Exercise U5

Directions

<G>o forward, <13>ack up, <S>how mom, 4:13>u1t, r1nt, *Delp

Figure 6.6: Functional Area for Directions

109


Memoranda, Key Point UG, Exercise 113

Billie, in the highlighted window below, write your

critique of the librarian's memo. Write as much as

you want: your words will scroll up within the

window. Use the directional arrows on your key-

board to review your text. Hit the-return-key twice

when you are done.

<G>o forward. ack up. <S>how menu. <0>ui t . r in t <H>e 1 p

Figure 6.7: Functional Area for Student Input

Lesson: Persuasion Key Point #: B Exercise #: 7

Okay, Dan. Take a few minutes to read

Nixon's -Checkers- speech in the work-

book we have provided.

Rs you read, make notations in the

margin about the persuasive appeals

Nixon employs.

Cloice Lim

Figure 6.8: Functional Area for Choice Line

110

106 Cynthia L Selfe

Error Messages

Especially on screens that require students to type insome sort of response, authors will want to designatea specific area in which error messages (messagestelling students that their input is problematic in someway) appear. Figure 6.9 shows a screen in which thefunctional area for error messages is nested within thefunctional area for student responses.

Orientation Information

Some experts suggest devoting one line of each screenin a CAI lesson to orientation informationinforma-tion that tells students what lesson they are workingon and where in that lesson they are currently located.In figure 6.10, the functional area for orientationinformation is located in a highlighted bar across thetop of the screen. An alternative to setting aside afunctional space for an orientation line (which reducesthe size of functional areas that can be devoted toinstruction or student responses) is providing an"orientation" choice in the standard choice, or menu,line. Students can then choose to access orientationinformation when they feel the need to do so.

Planning Functional Areas

There are a few important guidelines to rememberabout functional areas when designing screens for CAIlessons. We have outlined them in the following list.

1. Identify the various types of screens your CAIlesson now uses (instructional, introductory,exercise-testing, orientation, etc.). For each kindof screen you identify, list the functional areasthat will be required, and then design a screenprototype. This prototype can then be used as atemplate for designing all other screens of thistype. In figure 6.11, we have included samplescreen prototypes for an instructional screen, anexercise-testing screen, and a menu screen.

2. Be consistent in locating functional areas. Eventhough you might have different templates forexercise-testing screens, instructional screens,and help screens, reserve the same general loca-tions for the functional areas they have incommon. For example, always place choice, ormenu, lines on the last line of a screen, whetherthat screen is used for displaying instruction,exercise-testing, or introductory material.

3. A rectangle or square is the easiest functionalarea with which to work, both for you and yourprogrammer. You can make rectangles long andnarrow (see the prompt line at the bottom ofthe screen in figure 6.8) or short and wide (seethe instructional area in figure 6.3), but avoidletting one functional area intrude into the spacedevoted to another functional area. In figure6.12, for instance, the functional area reservedfor choice prompts at the bottom of the screencuts into the functional area reserved for instruc-tion in the center of the screen.

4. Use special effects consistently to provide visibleborders for functional areas. For example, al-ways use the same border to designate the func-tional area devoted to student responses. Figure6.7, for instance, represents a frame from a CAIlesson on writing effective memoranda. In thislesson, the author has chosen to box the func-tional area devoted to student responses as aconsistent visual cue for student users. Similarly,figure 6.8 shows a screen from z lesson thatmakes a consistent use of reverse video to high-light the functional area devoted to the standardchoice, or menu, line.

5. Experiment with using various methods of clear-ing and filling entire screens and individual func-tional areas. An author can choose to eraseindividual functional areas that must be clearedfrom the screen, leaving intact those that do notchange from frame to frame. In the two-screensequence represented by figure 6.13, for instance,the author has cleared and replaced only thetop half of the screen (the functional areadevoted to directions), leaving the bottom por-tion of the screen (the functional areas devotedto students' responses and to the standard choiceline) unchanged. Ask the programmer on yourteam to demonstrate the difference betweenclearing a screen or functional area with a poperase (images disappear at once, creating adistinct visual break) and a wipe erase (imagesdisappear more slowlyusually character bycharacter or line by lineand in a definite direc-tion: from top to bottom, bottom to top, or sideto side).

Filling screens or areas can also be done withdifferent techniques such as time delays (ananswer is displayed one full second after a ques-tion is displayed) or directional fills (a story


Revision. Key Point 43, Exercise U41

List and number each problem you see with your

first draft. Hit the -return- key twice when you

are done.

<G>o forward, <8>ack up. <5>how menu. <0>ult. rInt. <I1>elp

Figure 6.9: Functional Area For Error Messagm

Orientation Information

11111111111111111111111111

Elements of Plot

Climax

Plot ilk

Incident ** *

3 *

Plotilk

*

Incident * *

2 **

Plot *Incident *

I

Introduction **

*

*

*Falling

* action

<C>a forward. <I:Nick up. <S>how menu. <>ult. rint. <H>elp

Figure 6.10: Functional Area for Orientation Information

112

!08 Cynthia L Se Ile

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Prototypes for Screens

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MEMEMEMOMMINEMMEMMEMMEMMUMMEMEMEMMOMMENEMEMEMMIMMOMMIUMMMEMMEMOMMIIMEMEMEMEMEMOMMMEMEMEMEMMEMMEMMEMINEMMBUMMEMEMMIIMMEMMEIMMEMMEMEMMOMMEMMEMMAMMOMMEMEMMEMMINMEMOMMEMMEMEMEMMOMMIMMEggggg*MM&SEMSEgggigEgEMWEMOggE giaggEMMEM a anaammomommmemassmon a awn anmanaan asnamoaso gammon nasomaansmismommmomamnimmaaossaan 00820Mg00 MKS Xggrg monammans EMgEMSMOMMENEMMMOMEMMEMMEg Ng0 gROgg000 g itgRI 0g2 PAMS2g0PAO gMEMMEMEMMINIMEMEMOMMO%x00%0Ogg0 0 SO 4:,083 0£800M800MOMMEMMMINIMMEMIlx00xE0%tqW,g038 EZx % 4. maama mmommominInstruction :::.gEm,leat%om.mmsmosemmsnmomm:.:........0m.0.,.00.mo.g0.880 .0memonmonsom EMEMMEMMIRMMEMMEMMOIx0iMxIgNxVM x:,i:Mxg :f2M A** M M EMMEMMERMmomaminamann an an 0M800 U0 SV%x00%00% 0% 0 00 00801111.111111MEMMOMMEMMEOgg0 00 00%00 os%an%amP.aa as MZ E0g 00g00MMEMEMMEMOMIIMMEM ::: .12$0 X0M OM igNi%g0 0 g0:. 00 00 OOM 0 MMEMMEMMMUMMER 00x00 %0M 008%00 3E0 0 ,.0*%E0g 0 0x8800g00g OMMUMMEMIIMMOMMEIMMEMEMEMEMMMOMMIMMEMMEMEMIMMIMMINIMMEMMEMMEMMIIMMEMEMEMMEMEMMEMMEMMOMMEMMEMEMEMMOMMEMMEMENEMMEMOMMMEMMEMMOMMEMEMMEMMEMMEMMOMMENEMMEMEMMOMMOMEMMEMMEMMEMOMMEMEMEMEMOMMMEMOMMEMEMMMOMMMOMMIIMMEMMEMEMMMOMMEMM EMMOMMOMMNNIIIMMMMMEgggEggig gaMgg igg lgawicel.holeM g g omaxenammommommumammommommminsummilmmomm ninommomminommEmmommommmomm

Column20 60I 2 3 4 5 6 7 9

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Column20 A SO 60

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Figure 6.11: Prototypes for Instructional, Exercise-Testing, and Menu Screens

113


Lesson: Persuasion ftin Point #: 4 Exercise #: 5

Bill, you can work with different types of

modifiers to add some flair and sophioti-

cation to your persuasive prose.

On the screens that follow, we will study

two specific kinds of modifiers: resumptive

modifiers and summative modifiers. You'll

find uses for both struc-

tures in the persuasive

assignment you are now

writing.

<G>o forward,

ack up,

<Q>uit,

rint, <H>elp, <O>rientation, <11>enu

Figure 6.12: L-Shaped Functional Area That Intrudes into Another Functional Area

displayed line by line and from top to bottomto increase suspense).

6. Whenever possible, let students control the les-son environment, especially the rate at whichscreens are displayed, the direction in whichscreens move, and the duration of a lesson. Whendealing with computers, human beings shouldfeel as if they are in control, as if they havepower over the technology they are using.Teachers and CAI authors can empower theirstudents at the most basic level by providing"move forward," "move backward," and "quit"options in the prompt line for each screen.

After reading the information we have just providedon screen design and functional areas, you may wantto review your own CAI script and come up withsome new screen designs. The first step in such areview involves identifying the functional areas thatyou need for cach type of screen used in your lesson.In figure 6.14, we show how Jean might have accom-plished such a review using a worksheet to keep trackof her thinking.

As figure 6 .14 indicates, Jean completed the reviewtask for two types of screens in her script: menuscreens and instructional screens. She identified twofunctional areas that she needed to include on her

menu screens (a choice area and a directions area),and three functional areas she needed to include onher instruction screens (an area for instruction, anarea for orientation information, and an area forchoices and menus). Later, Jean would complete asimilar activity for the other types of screens sheincludes in her CAI script.

The second step we suggest for reviewing screendesigns in your lesson involvrs creating templates.Figure 6.15 shows a template that Jean might turncreated for the menu screens in her freewriting lesson.

Jean's template for menu screens, you may havenoted, provides a location for the two functional areasshe identified in the last activity: an area for choicesor menus, and an area for directions. This frameprotocol, or template, will make a useful tool for ateam programmer. Because it has been constructedon a sheet that identifies columns and rows, theprogrammer will know exactly where on each screento locate text from the script.

At the end of this chapter, we provide two work-sheets to help you with your own screen-design efforts:Worksheet 21: Planning Functional Areas for a CAILesson and Worksheet 22: Designing Screen Displays.On these worksheets, you are invited to identify func-tional areas for each type of screen in your lesson andcreate screen templates for use in revising your screen-

1 1 4

110 Cynthia L Selfe

Below, make a record of your character's

physical appearance, George. Try to con-

centrate on those minute details that make

him or her a special person.

Hi t the "return" key twice when you are done .

<G>u forwavd, ack up, <5>4,ow menu, <Q>uit. rint. <H>elp

Can you think of a few more details, George?

Try for some that will help bring your chara-

ter to life.

Hi t the "return" key twice when you are done.

<G>u forward, <15>eck up, <S>bow menu, (37>ult, rInt, <H>elp

Figure 6.13: Two-Screen Series That aears a Single Functional Area

T h i n k i n g about D i s p l a y Screens 1 1 1

Example of Planning Functional Areas for a CAI Lesson

Screen Type 1:

Menu Screens

Functional Areas Needed:

an area for the menu choices themselvesan area for menu directions

Notes:

Only small area needed for directionsuse almost the same directions each time.

Screen Type 2:

Instructional Screens


an area for the instruction itselfan area for orientation informationan area for menu choices

Notes:

Check with programmer to verify screen dimensionspreserve 20-character margins on each side.Orientation information should go at top of screen, choices at the bottom.


by-screen lesson script. You can turn to these work-sheets now and complete the activities or finish readingthe rest of this chapter first.

Identifying Special Effects in a CAI Lesson

The use of the computer screen as a medium forinstruction allows authors to take advantage of certainpresentation techniques that are usually eye-catching.Often referred to as special effects, these techniquesmay include the use of color, special typefaces, sound,animation, or time delays. Among other things, theseeffects make it possible to enhance the presentationof instructional material, focus students' attention onone segment of the screen, or identify the placementof student input. In the list that follows, we haveidentified the various kinds of special effects thatauthors of CAI can employ. Read this list, keeping inmind the project you are planning.

Timing

Dynamic special effects can be created by using thecomputer's ability to tell time. Authors can, with thehelp of a programmer, design screens so that theyappear line by line or sentence by sentence at desig-nated intervals. This effect, for example, can be usedto advantage in doze-type reading activities that askstudents to predict the information that will appear

next. Authors can also design time-delay screens thatdisplay a question and wait a predetermined timebefore displaying an answer, underlining a request, orflashing a prompt for student input.

Color

Some computers have the ability to display informa-tion in different colors. Color can be used to highlightletters, sentences, or paragraphs; to mark areas inwhich students type responses; or to emphasize partic-ularly important directions. To take advantage of thisspecial effect, a computer must have a color monitor.Ask your team's programmer for information aboutthe color capabilities of the computer you plan to usefor your lesson.

Recall

Screens can be designed so that they display materialthat students typed earlier in the lesson. The screen infigure 6.16 shows how such a recall feature can work.In a review activity located at the end of a session,the computer recalls and displays a list of main pointsstudents identified in an wieder reading comprehensionactivity. Such special effects are especially useful in aprocess-based writing classroom because they areamenable to activities that require recursive attentiont n material.

116

a

Sample Template for Menu Screens

Sam Desc Tipfion:

Column

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Figure6.15: Sample Template for Menu Screens

118

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Animation

CAI lessons can animate all sorts of things. Authorscan make sentences, words, and paragraphs movefrom one location to another, display a plot linethat extends itself with each additional narrativeevent; or show a revision in the making. Again, thesophistication of the animation your computer canhandle may be limited. Check with the team pro-grammer for details.

Underlining, Flashing, Reverse Video

CAI lessons can employ underlining (regular or time-delayed), flashing (blinking items), and reverse video(highlighting to call students' attention to single let-ters, clusters of words, paragraphs, sentences, nouns,passive constructions, or anything else you mightwant. In figure 6.17, for example, the aut:lor callsstudents' attention to a passive construction in aresponse by highlighting the sentence element on thescreen. Flashing can alternate between two colors,regular and reverse-video, or on and off.

Graphics

Authors can design screens in a CAI lesson to takeadvantage of a wide range of graphic elements: boxes,lines, arrows, pictures, borders, bars, concrete poetry,etc. The team programmer can identify the graphicsdisplays that can be produced on the computer forwhich your lesson is designed.

Scrolling

A computer screen can display only a limited amountof material at one time. However, material can bescrolled (moved onto the screen) vertically or hori-zontally. This technique is especially helpful in manag-ing lengthy passages that students write. A long pieceof prose or poetry can be scrolled automatically or atthe command of the user.

Typefaces and Sizes

Some computers allow authors to select (or design)and use different typefaces an a CAI lesson screen;bold, Elizabethan English, sans serif, italic, andshadowed faces are common. On some computers,authors can also adjust the size of fonts.

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Sound

Some lessons that authors design may benefit fromthe addition of sound. For example, a teacher mightwant to have the computer beep or buzz after studentshave written for five or ten minutes, or sound analarm when classes are about to change. Some com-puters can generate and reproduce human speech,although this effect is not commonly found on equip-ment purchased for student use.

Add-Ons

Special effects can also be obtained through the useof light pens (penlike attachments that allow studentsto mark, draw, or write directly on the screen),graphics tablets (small pads on which students candraw images which appear on the computer screen),or movement devices (joy sticks, roller balls, or dialsthat allow users to direct screen image; with handcontrols). Keep in mind that these ada-ons can beexpensive and are not common on most computerspurchased for student use.

Planning Special Effects for a CAI Lesson

There are a few important guidelines to rememberabout special effects when designing screens for a CAIlesson. We have outlined them in the following list ofsuggestions.

I. Consult with experts. Not all computers canprovide the same special effects. The technicalpeople who maintain the computers or the teamprogrammer should be consulted before anauthor begins designing special effects into thescreen presentations of a CAI lesson.

2. Keep it simple! Used inappropriately, whistles,bells, or flashing colors may distract, rather thanfocus, users. Consider the purpose of the instruc-tion, the age of the students, and the number oftimes a lesson will be used when planning specialeffects.

3. Review successful CAL Choose those programsyou like the most and take notes cn whichspecial effects are employed, when these effectsare used, and how Lltey are used. Then tryadapting some of the same techniques to yourown CAI.

114 Cynthia L Selfe

II

Lesson: Improving Comprehension Exercise #: Final Exam

Ann, here are the three main comprehension

points you identified when you first started

this lesson.

1. Computers can't "read" like us.

2. Engineers are working to develop

artificial intelligence in computers

that resembles our own intelligence.

3. "Human" language is the main barrier in

this effort.

<G>o forward, ack up, <S>how menu, <Q>ui t, rint, <1-Delp

Figure 6.16: Recall as a Special Effect

Lesson: Style Exercise #: G

Jamie. I spotted the following passive

construction in your draft. Did you have

a purpose for using a passive construction

rather than an active one?

Dur university fails to educate students

in the skills they will need when they

graduate.

participate in real problem-solving

activities.

to

<Y>es <N>o

Figure 6.17: Reverse Video as a Special Effect

120

4. Field test special effects. When there is a ques-tion about whether a particular special effectworks, arrange to have a small sample of yourtarget audience try it out or test the effect on asample of colleagues who come in contact withthis target audience. In the written surveys usedas part of a field-testing effort, ask specificquestions about whether a special effect distractsfrom or enhances your lesson.

5. Think about transfer. If you plan to have otherteachers in a department, school, or district usea CAI lesson, limit special effects to those thatare commonly found en most available com-puters. Including more sophisticated effects, suchas color displays, for instance, may limit thekinds of computers to which a CAI lesson willbe transferable. Talk to the programmer and tothe marketing expert on your team about whichcomputers handle the special effects you desireand which computers are the most popular withthe target audience you have identified. Then,choose special effects accordingly.

6. Be precise about identifying special effects onscreen-by-screen lesson scripts. As you go backto revise the screen-by-screen script for yourCAI lesson, be sure to make systematic notationsabout the special effects you want on each screen.The more information you can provide the team'sprogrammer about the effects you want toachieve, the easier his or her job will be.

After reading this section on special effects, you mightwant to review your own CAI script to evaluate howwell such effects have been employed in the lessonyou are planning. We think it is worth your while tolocate each screen that requires special effects, docu-ment these effects thoroughly for the team program-mer, and systematically check your original decisions.Figure 6.18 shows how Jean might have undertakensuch a review for one screen within her freewritinglesson. Jean's observations and notes are recorded ona special worksheet designed for this purpose.

As you can see, Jean has planned to use two dif-ferent special effects on the screen she is reviewing:colored areas and blinking characters. She wants thestudent response box on the screen to be a light bluein color, and she wants the cursor (the > sign) in thisbox to blink. Although Jean has thought carefullyabout the use of both special effects, she has made anote to field test how effective the use of color is withstudents in her target audience. Making systematic


notes, like Jean's, on the use of special effects will notonly provide valuable information for the team pro-grammer (who must know exactly where each specialeffect is to be located, what it is to look like, and howlong it is to last) but also important direction for laterfield-testing efforts.

At the end of this chapter on Worksheet 23: Think-ing about Special Effects in a CAI Lesson, we willprovide you with similar worksheets to use in review-ing the special effects for your own CAI lesson.

Summary

In this chapter, we discussed why displays on a com-puter screen can be, at once, both more flexible andmore limited than those in a more conventional printmedium like a book. We mentioned that, unlike aprinted page, the computer screen can take advantageof the dimension of time to present information in apredetermined sequence or pace, but that it is essen-tially a linear medium that requires users to becomefamiliar with the concept of having only one screenvisible at any one time.

We also introduced the concept of functional areasas a means for organizing screen displays and sug-gested reserving different functional areas for in.struc-tion, directions, student responses, choice lines, errormessages, and orientation information. We suggestedthat authors make these decisions depending on thetype of screen display (teaching screen, exercise-testingscreen, help screen, etc.) being planned.

Special effects that could enhance screen displayswere also coveted briefly. We suggested trying a varietyof effects, among them timing, color, recall, anima-tion, underlining, reverse video, flashing, graphics,scrolling, typefaces and sizes, sound, and add-ons.When planning special effects to include in your CAIinstruction, do not forget to field test those effectsthat have the potential of distracting learners.

Note

1. For the term functional areas and for many ofthe concepts I cover in this chapter, I am in-debted to Jesse M. Heines and his text ScreenDesign Strategies for Computer-Assisted Instruc-tion. In this chapter, I attempt to adapt andapply Mr. Heines's thinking to the field of com-position instruction.

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116 Cynthia L Selfe

EXAMtlie of Thinking about Special Effects in a CAI Lessonsawn. 2.3 Automatic Freemiting Sequence

Special Effect 1: color-blue Line Numbers: 12-18

Explanation: Use to identify location for student responsesentire scrolling, boxed area is blue. Box

outlined in darker blue. See Exercise-Screen template for box location.

Special Effect 2: blinking Line Numbers 12

Explanation: The > prompt that signals students where to begin writing should blink on and off.

YES

Locate in column 21, line 12.

NO Appropriate for the target audience

NO Attracts rather than distracts students

NO Helps accomplish the gener..? ,..2orpose of the lesson and the specific goals ofthe instructional objective

NO Can be done on computers available to target audience

Can be transferred to a number of other computers

NO Should be field tested at a later time

Notes: Use a very light blue for the student response areas. I don't want it to distract attention from thedirections for the writing task. Field test effectiveness of colored response box with targetaudience.


122


Worksheet 20: Planning Functional Areas for * CAI Lesson

To complete this worksheet, you will need the latest draft of your screen-by-screen lesson script and a copyof Worksheet 15: Identifying Possible Screen Types. Make a copy of this form for each screen type youidentified on Worksheet 15. Determine the functional areas that will nexi to be reserved for each screentype and identify them as either instructions, directions, student responses, choice prompts, orientationinformation, or error messages.

Screen Type


123

Worksheet 21: Designing Screen Displays for a CAI Lesson

Using the notes you have made on Worksheet Xt Planning Functional Anis for a CAI Lesson, use

copies of this grid to des* a general prototype for nth screen type you lave identified,

Soren Description:

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

Notes:

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Column

30 601 2 3 , 4 5 6 7 8910

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 2 ° 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 94 0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 5° 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

11, 11111,41111111

125

;

111101101111110114111111111111111111011100

Thinking about Display Screens I 19

Worksheet 22: Thinking about Special Effects in a CAI Lesson

To complete this worksheet, you will need the latest draft, of the screen-by-screen script for you CAIlesson. For each screen of your tcript that requires a special effect, make a copy of this form.

After identifying the spet,ial effects to include on each screen in your CAI lesson, use the guidelines thatfollow to double-check your decisions for each szreen.

Special Effect 1: Line Numbers:

Explanation.

Special Effect 2: Line Numbers.

Explanation:

Special Effect 3: Line Numbers.

Explanation.

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120 Cynthia L Selfe

YES NO Appropriate for the target audience

YES NO Attracts rather than distracts students

YES NO Helps accomplish the general purpose of the lesson and the specific goals ofthe instructional objective

YES NO Can be done on computers available to target audience

YES NO Can be transferred to a number of other computers

YES NO Should be field tested at a later time

Notes:


7 FIELD TESTING A CAILESSON

When you have revised the screen-by-screen script ofyour lesson several times and have a programmedversion of the instruction running on a computer,your team is ready to begin a systematic program offield testing. No matter how hard an author works towrite and revise a CAI lesson and a team works torefine content, presentation, and pedagogy, manyproblems will remain undetected until the lesson isfield tested in realistic situations. Unfortunately, thetime allotted to field testing is oftcn minimal Teachersand authors want to get their lesson up and runningin the classroom, marketing managers want to selltheir product to software houses, and distributorswant to get their product to consumers.

In the team-oriented process described in this book,however, field testing figures centrally. It provides theimpetus for quality control and the directed revisionof your ilesson. Wc urge you to make time for fieldtesting for several reasons. First, a thorough field-testing effort will help you safeguard your own repu-tationafter all, your CAI lesson has your name onit, and any problems it may have will reflect on you.Second, field testing will ensure high quality instruc-tion for those students who use your lesson. Finally,field testing will contribute, in a general and impor-tant sense, to higher standards for CAI produced inthe discipline of writing instruction.

This chapter will answer some of the major ques-tions authors have about field testing.

I. What lesson components should be fieid tested?

2. When should field testing take place?

3. How should field testing be undertaken?

4. Who should be involved in field testing?

The worksheets at the end of the chapter will helpyour team design its field-testing effort.

What Lesson Components Shotdd Be Field Tested?

In the final analysis, it will be up to the compositionspecialistthe director of the design teamto deter-

mine how extensive the field-testing effort will be.Other team members, of course, will have suggestions,but this specialist may need to serve as the mainquality-control officer. Fortunately, any field testingthat the team undertakes will be useful; however, themore time put into testing and refining a CAI lesson,the better it will become as a piece of instruction.

Although each lesson demands a different programof field testing, them are some basic lesson com-ponents around which your team will want todesign specific field-testing questions, investigations,and situations.

Instructional Objectives

The field-testing program for every CAI lesson shouldinclude, at some point, a systematic evaluation ofinstructional objectives. This evaluation will help adesign team determine whether students can accom-plish the instructional objectives identified as part ofthe CAI lesson (worksheet 14). If the team has fol-lowed the promss outlined in this book, such anevaluation will be relatively straightforward. eachinstructional objective identified for the lesson willhave evaluation criteria attached to it. (See pages47-48 for a review of instructional objectives.)

To plan this component of a field-testing program,first update and revise the list of instructional objec-tives you compiled earlier. Make sure that it reflectsrevisions in the final screen-by-screen lesson script ofyour lesson o: revisions made in adapting the lessonfor programming purposes. Next, arrange for a sampleof students to use the lesson. Recording users' per-formance on each instructional objective will give yourteam an accurate picture of where the lesson succeedsor fails in the task of teaching. This kind of systematictesting of each instructional objective will also helpyou pinpoint where revision of the lesson is needed.

Lesson Adtroctiveness

Most teams vvill also want to find out how studentslike the CAI lesson when they use it No matter how

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122 Cynthia L Selfe

effective the lesson is in getting students to accom-plish instructional objectives, it must also be attrac-tive to them. Part of most field-testing efforts shouldbe devoted to fmding out how students rate thelesson's interest level, tone, persona, examples, andactivities. Your team might, for instance, want to askwhether students perceive themselves as being chal-lenged by the instruction; whether they think the writ-ing exercises boring, too lengthy, or less than creative;or whether they would recommend the program totheir friends.

Ease of Use

Field testing is also valuable in identifying ease-of-useproblems, those problems stemming from the struc-tural features of the lesson. For example, a team maywant to determine whether students can access thelesson by themselves, use menus and help screens towork their way through the instruction, or understanddirections in individual activities. Testing for ease ofuse might also involve checking the readability levelsof screen text or the hard-copy documentation thataccompanies a lesson, recordiug the time that it takesstudents to learn to use the commands associated witha lesson, or cataloging the questions students ask whenusing a lezson.

Classroom Fit

Field testing can also identify how teachers and stu-dents see a CAI lesson fitting into regular classroomroutine or activities. When fled testing a CAI lesson,a design team may want to ask teachers and studentswhen they think the lesson could be used most profit-ably (inside or outside the classroom, at the beginningor end of a term, during prewriting or revising efforts),where the lesson should be housed (writing lab, class-room, learning center), and who would find the lessonmost useful.

Content

N there is only one composition expert working on aCAI team and monitoring the content of a lesson, theteam may want to submit the content of the unit to areaoing by other writing specialists. Other scholarsRith expertise in the teaching of composition orrhetoric can provide fresh perspectives on the instruc-tion's content, the rhetorical theory (or theories) uponwhich it is based, and the pedagogy it represents.

Biases

Bias, in both the language and content in a CAIlesson, can affect learners' success. A field-testingprogram can investigate whether the language or theexamples in a CAI lesson are more accessible to cer-tain cultural, ethnic, or gender groups than others.For example, the use of gender-biased language orexamples may prove to offend teachers as well asstudents and may thus limit the usefulness of a CAIlesson with certain groups.

Swface Features

Field testing can also help design teams catch gram-mar, usage, and spelling mistakes. Some of these mis-takes escape detection in the screen-by-screen lessonscript and are transferred verbatim into the lesson'sprogram; others are introduced by the programmer inthe process of coding the lesson or by a secretaryinvolved in typing somr part of the lesson. In anycase, most field-testing trials serve a valuable proof-reading function.

After reading over these suggestions for field test-ing, you might want to think about identifying a field-testing program for your own CAI lesson. We suggesta four-step process for this project. As a first steptoward this goal, you will want to review the screen-by-screen script of your lesson, looking especially foractivities that are confusing, overly difficult, boring,or inappropriate for a target audience. Make a list ofthe instructional objectives connected with these activ-ities. Second, look for pans of the lesson that areunattractive or hard to use. List these lesson com-ponents for later reference. Third, list those questionsyou have about how the lesson will fit into your writ-ing program or classroom. Finally, identify any reser-vations or questions you might have about the lesson'scontent or biases. All of these activities will provideinformation that you can use later in designing a field-testing program to fit your lesson. The following listshows how Jean might have completed such a field-testing review for her lesson on freewriting.

Example of Identifying Field-Testing Questions

1. List the instructional objectives that would bene-fit from field testing. Choose activities that areconfusing, overly difficult, boring, inappropriate,or unfinished.I am not happy about part of the "Keeping aJournal" activity. My central objective is to get

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students to keep a journal on the computer fora weekmaking at least five entries and writingfor at least twenty minutes each entry. Arejournal writes best done on a computer or inthe privacy of a dorm room? Will students feelconstrained about writing very private, riskyexpressive discourse on the computers in a writ-ing lab? Test this.

2. List questions about the lesson's attractiveness.Consider such things as tone, the computer per-sona used in the instruction, screen-design tech-niques, examples, writing activities, organization,length, etc.

Test the following three components: I. persona(too cute?), 2. journal examples (too long? dis-tracting?), and 3. lesson length (too long for onesitting?).

3. List those questions you have about the lesson'sease of use.

Test these questions: Can a student in my classfollow the directions lave provided for turningon the computer and accessing the lesson? Is theinitial menu confusing? Are there additionalplaces where "help" screens are needed? Is thescreen text at an appropriate reading level?

4. List questions about how the lesson will fit intoa writing classroom or program.Check to see if the lesson could be used by astudent, without a tutor's aid, in our writinglab.

5. List reservations about the lesson's content.Should the lesson include a discussion of diaries?Does the discussion of freewriting as a strategyrepresent the most current information the profession has about writing, the writing process,and writing theory?

6. List questions about the biases reflected in thislesson and their impact on an audience. Con-sider cultural, economic, language, and genderbiases among others.None that I can see right now.

At the end of this chapter, we have included aform (Worksheet 22: Identifying Field-Testing Ques-tion-) that will help you think about the field testingneeded for your own CAI lesson. You can turn tothis worksheet now and complete the tasks it describesor finish reading the rest of this chapter first.

Field Testing a CAI Lesson 123

When Should Field Testing Take Place?

Some authors like to wait until they have a fairly"clean" version of a CAI lesson up and running ona computer before they begin field-ter:drag efforts.However, there are some very good arguments forintegrating field testing into the early stages of a CAIproject.

First, the process of writing CAI is like that ofwriting any other technical material destined for aspecific target audiencethe more feedbwk you getand the earlier you get it, the easier the later stages ofthe project can be. In the early stages of writing CAI,you might have only the barest outline of a lesson,some lists of activities you want to put on the com-puter, or a very rough draft of a script. However, acolleague, at your own institution or somewhere else,might be able to give these materials a quick reading(an early, informal field test) and provide a freshtheoretical perspective on the lesson, suggest addi-tional writing activities, or even refer you to similarCAI already on the market.

Second, getting early feedback on your lesson maysave money in the long run. As a project deveiops, itbecomes more of a team effort and, as a result, morecostly to change. If, for example, you decide late inthe development process that a certain writing activityhas to be modified, you are prescribing additionalwork not only for yourself as the author who mustcompose a new segment of the script, hut also forthe programmer, who must write new code, and forthe educational specialist, who must work with newinstructional objectives and evaluation techniques forthat activity. Beginning field-testing efforts early inthe design process--asking colleagues to read andrespond to drafts of a screen-by-screen script, gettingstudents to try out each writing activity as it is devel-oped by the design teamwill help you avoid largerand more costly changes at a later point in the process.

We sugge:4 thinking of field testing as a processparallel to that of writing and developing CAL Thus,field testing should be taking place all the time. In theearly stages of developing a lesson, authors can shareplans, outlines, or drafts of the script informally withcolleagues. As the lesson develops, try ideas, formatpresentations, or individual instructional activities onstudents in classes, other faculty who teach composi-tion, or team members. If you have a problem with aparticular section of a lesson, get three students to tryit out and see how they perform. It you wonder what

124 Cynthia L Selfe

kind of writing activity would be most effective forthe lesson's target audience, ask a few students tochoose among three screens featuring alternativechoices. During the later stages of development, plana formal and systematic field-testing effort. Wheneveryou field test, keep cazeful records of the results sothat you can use the data to shape later versions ofthe lesson.

After reading about the process of field testingCAI, you may want to design a schedule for testingyour own lessonbuikling in field tests at early stagesof the development process as well as a systematicfinal series of field tests. In figure 7.1, we show howJean, working on a specially designed schedulingsheet, might have scheduled the field testing for herlesson on freewriting.

As you can see, Jean's field-testing efforts parallelher team's development process. In fact, she plans tofield test certain components of her lesson as soon asshe completes the second draft of her screen-by-screenscript. At the end of this chapter, we hal.e provided aworksheet (Worksheet 24: Scheduling Field Testing)on which you can plan a field-testing schedule foryour own CAI lesson. You can turn to this worksheetnow or finish reading the rest of this chapter first.

How Should Field Testing Be Undertaken?

Field testing a CAI lesson is an art with which thecomposition specialist on a design team must becomefamiliar. Most teams will look to the compositionspecialist as project director and primary author, todecide which components of the lesson must be testedand then to design a method of testing them. If youfind yourself in the role of field-testing manager, becreative in designing testing situations; don't limityour approach to one method or idea.

Traditionally, field testing takes place in a labora-tory or classroom setting. Students come in, sit down,and run through the entire lesson from start to finishwhile an observer takes note of any problems theyhave. The notes are then handed to the author, anda second (and often final) draft of the lesson is pro-duced. Such a narrow approach to field testing, how-ever, provides revision information limited in bothscope and accuracy.

Instead of this one-shot, test-everything-at-oncestrategy, we suggest the following alternatives.

1. Break up initial field-testing effors so that theyfocus on only one or two lesson components at

Example of Sche-luling a Field-Testing Program

1/3 1/31 2/28 3/31 4/ 28

Start

#3]

Finish 2nd Draft

Field test activities w/students

Field test with collies: es

Finish 3rd Draft

Pro ramrnin

Field test #1

Field testV21

Field test


a time. Authors might, for instance, want tofocus each test on one or two central issues:for example, testing students' success on theinstructional objectives associated with a lessonor checking the lesson's ease of use. This strategyallows a team to identify more accurately whereand how students are having trouble with a les-son and saves time and effort by allowing thedesign team to concentrate on one componentof the lesson at a time.

2. Try a "multiple-offense approach" that employsseveral different field-testing methods to identifypotential rough spots. In the remainder of thissection, we have identified a number of field-testing methods: surveys, questionnaires, inter-views, pretests and posttests, among others.Encourage your team to combine these methodsin their field-testing efforts.

Consult this list when your team has identi-fied the field-testing program they would like toundertake. For each field test, choose the meth-ods best suited to providing data on the specificlesson components you want to examine. In onefield-testing situation, for example, you mightwant to concentrate on identifying places wherethe lesson's ease-of-use mechanisms (menus,directions, documentation, commands) breakdown, causing students to "get stuck." Consultthe list of field-testing methods to find out whichstrategy would provide the most effective wayof testing for such information.

Several techniques might be appropriate insuch a situation. You might, for example, askstudent users to "think aloud" during a fieldtest and audiotape their stream-of-consciousnessresponses. You could also videotape students asthey use a particular segment of the lesson orquery them about specific ease-of-use problemsin a questionnaire You could even instruct stu-dents to hit a certain key on the keyboald when-ever they become confused, a key that wouldrecord where in the lesson the collusion wasexperienced and present this data in a file desig-nated for your team's later use. Whatever tech-nique or combination of techniques you decideto use, make sure it is appropriate for investi-gating the lesson component on which you areConcentrating.

3. Be as realistic aL possible about field testing.Test lesson components on students and teacherssimilar to those in your target audience. If the


material is designed for a range of users, makesure the groups in your sample mirror those inthe target population. Match for experience, age,ability level, grade level, background, and otherconsiderations. Separate the field-testing datagathered from each of these groups so that thedesign team can ascertain whether the lesson ismore or kss effective for certain groups.

Also be as realistic as possible about the set-ting in which the field testing takes place. If thelesson is to be used in a particular course, awriting lab, or a classroom setting, test it in asimilar situation so that you can record theeffects of distractions, course content, room lay-outs, kibitzers, or extraneous noise.

Because every CAI lesson demands a different, indi-vidualized program of field testing, the methods youuse to gather data will vary widely. There are, how-ever, a few relatively simple methods that can beemployed individually and in combination to gatherdata fcr a systematic program of field testing. Wealso encourage you, however, to create home-grownmethods and instruments to fit the specific field-testingprogram you are planning.

Surveys and Questionnaires

These instruments can be used to gather data on anynumber of topics. On surveys or questionnaires, youcan ask student users to rate the interest level of thelesson, evaluate the attractiveness of the lesson's per-sona, indicate the difficulty of any particular activity,and discuss the specific problems they had when usingthe lesson. In figure 7.2, we provide a number ofsurvey and questionnaire items that could be suitablefor student users. Please note the range and variety ofthe items we have provided: items based on Likertscales or differential scales, circle-the-answer andcheck-the-answer formats, fill-in-the-blank or com-pletion questions, and short essay questions. Quiteprobably, you would not choose to employ ail ofthese different kinds of items on one survey or ques-tionnaire. We have given them to you here to indicatethe range and variety of techniques available.

Surveys and questionnaires can also be used togather information from teachers and admist:ators.These hidoviduals can be asked to identify possibleuses or coutexts for the lesson in their particular writ-ing progrem or classroom, to indicate the appropriate-ness of the lesson's content for their students, or tosuggest content revisions. In figure 7.3, we have listed

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126 Cynthia L Se Ire

Survey for Students

1. Rate this lesson's general interest level on the scale below.

not at all of mediuminteresting interest

1 2 3 4

highlyinteresting

5

2. In this lesson, you were asked to do quite a bit of writing. Please give us your response to thewriting by placing an "X" somewhere on the continuum below.

Writing tasks Writing taskstoo easy too difficult

3. Below, circle those activities that you enjoyed in this lesson.

freewriting nutshelling

automatic writing character sketches

brainstorming/listing review of lecture points

4. Below, check all the appropriate responses.

I would recommend this lesson to a classmate.

I would use it again for another writing assignment.

The lesson made me feel better about writing in general.

The lesson made me feel more confident about writing this particular assignment.

5. Fill in the blanks below with an appropriate word or phrase.

This lesson

In general, writing assignments

The writing assignments in this lesson

6. Which activity in this lesson was your least favorite?

Figure 7.2: Sample Survey and Questionnaire Items for Student Users

133


Survey for Teachers and Administrators

1. Below, please list the writing-intensive courses in which this lesson could be used.

2. Circle the items below which describe the ways in which you (or your writing program) coulduse this lesson.

writing lab class work

writing classroom supplement to textbook

homework replamment for textbook

3. Below, please identify any gaps you see in the content of the lesson as it now stands.

4. Which of the characteristics below did you like kast about this lesson? Please circle allappropriate items.

its length persona

review of lecture points appropriateness for students

writing assignments examples

5. If you could change any one thing in this lesson. what would it be?

Figure 7.3: Sample Survey and Questionnaire Items Appropriate for Teachers and Administrators

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128 Cynthia L Seffe

a number of survey items that are suitable for teachersand administrators. Again, we have included itemsthat take a variety of forms.

Interviews

Oral interviews with students, teachers, and admin-istrators who field test a CAI lesson can yield infor-mation that will prove helpful in revision efforts.Interview questions, which should be written down ina standard form, can be asked at any time during afield-testing program: after a user completes a par-ticular writing task ("What did you like or dislike themost about the last writing activity?"), after a usercompletes an entire section of the lesson ("Whatadditional invention activities would you like studentsto do in connection with this lesson on writingmemoranda?"), or after a user completes the entirelesson ("Did any part of this lesson seem too simplefor your students? Too difficult?").

Think-Aloud Protocols

71sers can be asked to "think out loud" as they workairough a lesson while a team member records theirefforts on videotape or audiotape. When transcribed,the videotapes and audiotapes provide valuable infor-mation on how individuals react to the lesson, wherethey get stuck, where they enjoy themselves, wherethey have questions, where they need help. Below isan excerpt from a teacher who is field testing a lessonfor a colleague.

Okay this thing should be easy. . . . so he says.[presses the "enter" key] Well, that doesn't workobviously. If I can't get it started, the kids certainlycan't. [text appears on screen] Oh . . . there it goes,not patient enough, I guess . . . should put some sortof "Wait here" sign on the screen for the kids orthey'll be pressing every button in sight.

Pretests and Posuests

Testing what students know before they use a lesson(or some component of a lesson) and comparing thiswith what they know after they use the lesson canprovide valuable data for a design team's revisingefforts. These pretests and posttests can be as specificor as general as you wish. You can, for example, givepretests and posttests for each separate instructionalobjective within your CAI lesson, or you can givemore general pretests and posttests for the lesson asa whole.

If you have followed the process we suggested foridentifying instructional objectives, designing thesepretests and posttests should prove a relatively simpietask. First, identify the instructional objectives thatyou want to field test. Second, using the evaluationcriteria you identified for each instructional objective,test students before they are exposed to your CAIinstruction. Third, ask students to work throughthose instructional activities for which you are testing.Fourth, using the same evaluation criteria, test thestudents after they have used your CAI lesson. Finally,compare the two performances and record the resultsin tabular form. In figure 7.4, you can see an exampleof such a table as Jean might have constructed itduring the field testing of her freewriting lesson.

The results of the pretests and posttests representedon this sample chart indicate that at least one instruc-tional activity in Jean's lesson, focused freewriting,might profit from further revision.

Observation

Simple observation of users as they work through aCAI lesson (or observation coupled with videotapingor audiotaping) can provide the design team with awealth of information about the lesson and its appro-priateness for the target population. You, or members

Examples of Pretest and Posttest Data for Instructional Objectives

InstructionalObjective

1.1 Brainstorminglist of topics

1.2 Fmewriting ontopic of choice

1.3 Focused journalwrite on topic

Evaluation AverageCriteria Pretest

list 10 6items

write for 3.65 mins. mins.

write for 3.95 mins. mins.

Figure 7.4: Sample of Pretest and Posttest Data

AveragePosttest

RevisionNeeded

17 no

5.3mins.

3.9mins.

no

yes

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of your team, can sit with users as they access and tryout the lesson, record their questions, comments,behaviors, body language, frustrations, problems, andsuggestions for improvement.

Who Should Be Involved in Field Testing?

Although you will pmbably be responsible for leadingthe field-testing effort, as the original author of thelesson and the composition specialist on your CAIteam, a number of other people will also be involved.To encourage you to think about field-testing sup-porters, we have identified a few of these individualsbelow and briefly described the roles they might play.It is important, however, not to let this list limit thepeople you involve in field testing. We urge you,rather, to identify the field-testing schedule that willbest fit your project and your schedule, and, onlythen, to decide which individuals will be needed tocarry out this schedule.

Team Members

In addition to the composition specialist, other mem-bers of a CAI team will play important roles before,during, and after a lesson is being field tested. Beforetesting begins, they will help identify those compo-nents of the lesson that might benefit from closeattention in a field-testing situation. The programmer,for example, might express a lingering dissatisfactionwith the way the lesson currently stores and transfersstudent writing input in a file system. He or she mightsuggest that one or more field-testing situations re-quire users (both teachers and students) to expresstheir reactions to the storage and filing system. Theeducational specialist on the CAI team might identifyvery different concerns: whether, for instance, studentusers become confused at certain points in the lessonor whether the documentation for teachers is adequate.

By asking every member of a design team to iden-tify potential trouble spots before testing begins, youcan design a thorough and informative program offield testing. Team members can also be of helpin planning, scheduling, and designing field-testingsessions; creating feedback forms (surveys, question-naires, check sheets, etc.); identifying appropriatesettings and subjects; and suggesting data-collectionmethods.

Team members can also be of help during andafter the process cf field testing. They can assist thecomposition specialist in conducting sessions with


teachers or students, take notes on users' verbalresponses to the lesson, videotape field-testing situa-tions, interview users, and record the location ofproblem areas. After field-testing sessions have beenconducted, team members can help make sense of thedata they have collected. They can compile comments,count responses and present them in tabular or chartform, compare the data from various user groups,and make specific suggestions for revision.

Students

As the target audience for the lesson, students willprovide most of the data collected during field-testingsituations. They can be asked to give their generalimpression of a lesson or to respond to more focusedquestions in field-testing interviews. Students can fillout questionnaires or check sheets, think "aloud"while s team member audiotapes their running com-mentary on the lesson, or simply respond naturallyto a lesson while a team member videotapes theirproblem-solving activities and body language.

As a group, students" performance on specificactivities within a lesson can provide a design teamwith valuable data on the success of various instruc-tional objectives. As individuals, students can providedata on the lesson's attractiveness, ease of use, ap-parent "friendliness," gaps, or biases.

Teachers

Whether a design team plans to market a CAI lessonwidely or simply distribute it, gratis, to a few col-leagues for use in their classes, field-testing data willneed to be collected from other teachers. Colleaguescan tell a design team how appropriate the lessonwould be for the courses and the specific studentpopulations they teach and what documentation theywould need for the lesson to get it up and running ona particular brand or model of computer. They candefine points of theoretical or pedagogical disagree-ment, identify gaps in the lesson's content, catch sur-face errors that have escaped earlier proofreadingefforts, and discuss ways in which they can see thelesson being used within their writing classroom orwriting program.

Administrators

Often, the decision to buy a particular piece off CAIsoftware is made by a colleague who administers awriting program, an English department, or a writing

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lab. By consulting with these individuals during fieldtesting, you can find out what things they considerattractive about your team's CAI lesson and whatthings they consider to be less than optimal. Question-naires, surveys, or interviews with administrators canprovide data on lesson content, pricing, technical sup-port, and documentation for a CAI lesson.

After reviewing the material we have just presentedon field-testing methods, you !night want to take sometime to design at least part of your own field-testingprogram. In figure 7.5, you can see how Jean mighthave designed a field test for a journal-writing activ-ity within her freewriting lesson. We suggest you fillout a similar worksheet for each field test you planto undertake.

As the example illustrates, Jean will survey a smallsample of her target population to find out how theyfeel about writing journal entries on the computer ina writing lab. She will complete this field test whileshe is testing the effectiveness of several other instruc-tional objectives in her lesson. At the end of this

chapter, on Worksheet 25: Designing Field Tests, wehave provided a worksheet, much like the one Jeanc mpleted, for designing the field tests you want to-arry out on your own CAI lesson.

Finally, you will want to plan a systematic methodof recording the results for each of the field tests.Field tests often produce so much data that you willhave to summarize the results of each test in order tomake them useful in your revision efforts. In figure7.6, you can see how Jean might have filled out asummarizing worksheet for the field test she identifiedin the last activity.

As you can see, Jean's field test provided valuableinformation for use in revising her lesson. She wantedto determine whether students were bothered by com-posing journal entries on a computer in the writinglab. Students who took the survey did not mentionbeing bothered by the electronic composing situation,but they did indicate that one journal-writing assign-ment out of five used for this activity was inappro-priate. Because of these comments, Jean revised the

Example of Designing Field Tests

Field-TestQuestion(s)

7 Field Test # 3

Are those writing activities connected with Instructional Objective4.5 (write at least five journal entries each week, spending at leastten minutes on each entry) problematic in the public setting of thewriting lab?

Field-TestSituation(s)

Observe whether students complete the journal writes according toObjective 4.5.

Have students complete a survey that asks whether their journal-writing activities were constrained by the writing-lab setting.

Field-TestSample(s),

A6 students (3 male and 3 female) randomly selected from myAdvanced Composition class.

Field-TestMethod(s)

Pretests and posttests based on the evaluative criteria associatedwith Instructional Objective 4.5 (i.e., do they complete theentries?).

Survey item asking students to describe how they feel about usingcomputers in a semi-public place to complete journal writes (i.e.,how do they feel about the entries?).

Notes Field test all three Instructional Objectivea I'm unsure about(4.3-4.5) during the same field-testing session, using the samesample.

As students finish the field-testing session, give them a short surveyand ask them questions about the writing strategies covered by thethree objectives.



Example of Summarizing Field-Test Data

Summary ofField-TestData

Sample: 6 students

Completed all journal entires: 5Completed 4 journal entries: 1

Didn't likc journal writing on computersLiked journal writing on computers:Didn't mind journal writing on computers

Negative remarks about journal-writing

Field Test # ____

in lab: 04

2

assignment #3: 4

SuggestedRevisions

Revise journal-writing assignment #3

Team Memberin Charge

Jean

RevisionsCompleted 4/30/86


assignment in question. At the end of this chapter, wcprovide Worksheet 26: Summarizing Field-Test Data,on which you can summarize the data you collectduring your own field tests.

Summary

The proce.ss of creating a CAI lesson has a greal dealin common with the process of writing. The 4Itimatesuccess of both are dependent on the author's willing-ness to revise and refine eariy versions of a product.The work you and your team have done thus farplanning the content of a CAI lesson, designing anappropriate pedagogical approach, writing an initialscreen-by-screen lesson script, creating a program, andgetting a version of the lesson running on a com-pteris only the beginning of a long process ofrevision.

From experience, we know that successful revisionsof a CAI lesson depend on a systematic and thoroughprogram of field testing. Only such a program can testthe lesson under realistic constraintswith real stu-dents, teachers, and administrators; in real classrooms;as a working part of a real writing program. In thischapter, we discussed some of the important questionsconnected with designing a field-testing program.

What lesson components should be field tested?

When should field testing take place?

How should field testing be undertaken?

Who should be involved in field testing?

At the end of this chapter we have provided anumber of worksheets related to designing a programof field testing. We encourage you to adapt them asnecessary for your own CAI lesson.

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Worksheet 23: Identifying Field-Testing Questions

Before beginning the tasks identified below, work through the latest version of your team's CAI lesson ona computer, then respond to the tasks we have provided below.

I. Now that you have worked through the lesson, you can identify those instructional activities whichneed revision. Choose those activities that seemed confusing, overly difficult, boring, inappropriate, orunfinished. List the instructional objectives that would benefit from field testing in the space whe haveprovided below.

2. In the space that follows, list questions that you have about the lesson's attractiveness. Considersuch things as the lesson's tone, the computer persona used in the instruction, screen designtechniques, examples, writing activities, organization, length, etc.

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3. In the space that follows, list those questions you have about the lesson's ease of use. Questions mayresemble some of the following: Can a student in my class follow the directions Pve provided forturning on the computer and accessing the lesson? Is the initial menu confusing? Are there additionalplaces where "help" screens are needed? Is the screen text at an appropriate reading level?

4. In the space that follows, list those questions you have about how the lesson will fit into a writingclassroom or program. You might, among other things, want to ask the following questions: Howwould a teacher use this lesson in a unit devoted to writing narratives? Would this lesson beappropriate as a homework assignment, or is it too long? Could the lesson be used by a student,without a tutor's aid, in our writing lab?

5. Use the following space to list any reservations you might have about the lesson's content. If possible,state these reservations in a question form, as in these examples:

Should the lesson include a discussion of

Is the concept of appropriate for my audience?

Have I discussed the concept of in a form myaudience can tnderstand?

Does the use of activities represent the most currentinformation the profession has about writing, the writing process, and writing theory?


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134 Cynthia L SOP

6. In the space that follows, list any questions you might have about the biases reflected in this lesson andtheir impact on an audience. Consider cultural, economic, language, and gender biases among others.

7. In the space that follows list any other questions you have about this lesson that may best te answi redin a field-testing situation.



Worksheet 24: Scheduling a Field-Testing Program

As the design team agrees on the field tests that should be completed in connection with your CAIlesson (Worksheet 25), schedule a field-testing program using this worksheet.

Field-Test Schedule Page

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Worksheet 25: Designing Field Tests

Complete this worksheet usiag the questions and concerns you identified on Worksheet 23: IdentifyingField-Testing Questions.

Designing Field Tests

Field-TestQuestion(s)

-

Field Test #

Field-TestSituation(s)

Field-TestSample(s)

Field-TestMethod(s)

Notes

143


Worksheet 26: Summarizing Field-Test Data

After completing each field test for your CAI lesson, fill out this summarizing worksheet.

Summarizing Field-Test Data

Summary ofField TestData

1

Test #IField

SuggestedRevisions

Team Memberin Charge

RevisionsCompleted

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8 SPREADING THE WORDABOUT CAI SOFTWARE

For some authors, the long process of designing andproducing a CAI lesson is complete when the firststudent sits down in front of a computer monitor andbegins to wmk through a finished instructional unit.For other authors, the lengthy job of completing alesson marks only the beginning of an even lonvicampaign to spread the word about CAI in generaland their own lesson in particular. Some authors wantto shark: their software with a few colleagues in theirown English departments; others want to describetheir lesson to large groups of teachers at professionalconferences; still others hope to sell their software topublishing firms that provide national distribution.

This chapter is directed toward authors who wantto reach a wider audience with their CAI lessons. Ourdiscussion will touch on four suggestions.

I. Demonstrate CAI software locally.2. Talk about CAI software at professional

meetings.

3. Write about CAI software in professionalpublications.

4. Explore the possibility of publishing CAIsoftware.

Demonstrate CAI Software Locally

One of the most effective ways of getting otherteachers interested in a completed CAI lesson is toundertake a series of local demonstrations. Authorscan demonstrate software for colleagues in their ownEnglish department, to teachers in other disciplineswho teach writing-intensive courses, and to facultyfrom other institutions. These demonstrations can begiven at faculty meetings held in the author's ownschool, presented at colloquia sponsored by localcolleges or universities, shown as a part of regionalcurriculum workshops, or done as a component ofsummer writing projects.

In fact, the only problem with giving demonstra-tions is that they are too popular. Composition

145

teachers of all sorts, working at all levels, are hungryfor CAI lessons that are pedagogically and theoreti-cally sound. Once an author demonstrates a successfulCAI lesson to one or two local groups, the computer-user grapevine is activated, and requests begin topile up.

To be effective, a demonstration requires practice,advanced planning, and organization. In the list below,we provide several things to think about during theplanning of a demonstration.

Involvement

The optimal demonstration involves hands-on experi-ence with a piece of CAI software. Some authorsprefer to let teachers work through the lesson them-selves while others feel that lessons are best demon-strated with students working and teachers watching.In either case, make sure that everyone in the audiencecan see what is going on. If more than a few peoplewill attend, provide several machines or use a projec-tion system that creates a display suitable for a largegroup. The more people actively engaged in a demon-stration, the more successful it is likely to be.

Time

Unless a CAI lesson is short, consider demonstratingonly part of it. Especially if the lesson involves lengthywriting activities, most teachers and students will notbe able to complete the entire unit of instructionduring a single sitting. For purposes of the demonstra-tion, choose one or two representative activities fromthe lesson that last a total of fifteen to twenty minutes.In the introduction, be sure to identify which activitiesyou have chosen for the demonstration, and discusshow these parts fit into the lesson as a whole.

Documentation

Work with your design team before the demonstrationto write some descriptive documentation for your CAI

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lesson. Interested individuals will approach you afterthe presentation and ask for such materials. As partof this documentation, think about including a briefdescription of the lesson and its purpose, a Est ofthe lesson's major instructional objectives, examplesof the writing activities it incorporates, student com-ments about the lesson, suggestions about how thelesson can be incorporated in a writing classroomor program, and technical specifications for the corn-puters on which the prugram can be run (models,memory constraints, programming language capabil-ities, graphics requirements, etc.). In addition, describehow interested parties can obtain a c v of the lessonand the cost of this service.

Questions

Save plenty of time for questions about the CAIlesson. During the first few demonstrations you give,record the queries and use them to shape your nextpresentation. Some authors prepare answers for a listof "frequently asked" questions about a CAI lessonand distribute them along with other documentation.

Equipment

If possible, use your own computer to demonstratea CAI lesson. This piece of equipment is familiar,and you know that the lesson will run on it with-out a hitch. If you must use other computers fora demonstrotion, make sure they can accommodateyour software and that you know how to work withthem. Double- and triple-check hardware-softwarecompatibility.

Practice

Computers are notorious for making teachers lookbad in demonstration situations. If possible, scheduleearly practice sessions in the same room and with thesame machines you will use during the demonstration.These dry runs will allow you time to track downextension cords, system disks, electrical power strips,and other necessities.

Talk about CAI at Professional Meetings

Professional conferences at the regional and nationallevel are devoting increasing amounts of program timeand exhibit space to teachers who are interested incomputer-assisted writing instruction. Because these

conferences attract a large number of teachers, theyare perfect places to talk about CAI software.

Among the larger gatherings that encourage anexchange of information on computer-assisted lan-guage instruction are the annual meetings of theNational Council of Teachers of English, the Con-ference on College Composition and Communication,the National Educational Computing Conference,and the International Reading Association. A hostof other conferences--regional, national, and interna-tionalalso provide forums for authors who want toshare their CAI lessons. They include meetings like:

Microcomputers and the Learning Process(Clarkson College)

Computers and Writing

Microcomputers and Basic Skills in College(CUNY)

Computers and the Humanities

Writing for the Computer Industry

International Conference on Computers in theHumanities

Most of these gatherings accept papers or presenta-tions about specific pieces of CAI software, and someprovide time for demonstrations.

If you are going to demonstrate your CAI softwareat one of these gatherings, be sure to read the advicein the previous section about demonstrations. If youare going to talk about your CAI software at aprofessional meeting without demonstrating it, youmight want to think about some of the followingconsiderations:

Overview

In an oral presentation, it is hard for an audience toget a sense of the whole lesson as you and your designteam created it. One way to overcome this difficulty isto show a visual map of the entire project. Figure 8.1,for instance, shows a visual map that Jean might havecreated for her freewriting lesson. If the audience cansee such a map early in your talk, they have a muchbetter chance of following the rest of your presenta-tion. Also useful for overview purposes is a one-pagedescription of the software's purpose, general philos-ophy, and hardware compatibility. The followingparagraphs are a one-page description that might havebeen written by Jean for her freewriting lesson.

Example of One-Page Software Description

Title: Freewriting LessonPurposeThis lesson was designed to be used in conjunctionwith any writing-;ntensive course that includes theuse of freewriting. It is designed to amomplishthree main purposes: (1) to review standard lecturepoints about freewriting; (2) to describe the strat-egies of focused, automatic, and timed freewriting;and (3) to get students to practice freewritingstrategies in a journal-writing setting.Primary Objectives

After going through the instruction provided inthis lesson, students will accomplish the followingobjectives: (1) write three practice freewrites, of atleast twenty lines each, employing focused, auto-matic, and timed freewriting; (2) create at least fivejournal writes, spending at least ten minutes oneach, using one of the three strategies of freewritingnamed above.General PhilosophyThis lesson is designed with three main assump-tions in mind: (1) writing is one way to solveproblems, (2) there are a number of different strat-egies for solving problems using writing, (3) free-writing strategies can be useful problem-solvingheuristics.

Spreading the Word about CAI Software 141

Hardware CompatibilityThe lesson will run on an IBM PC with 256K andDOS 3.0. Lesson disks are double-sided, double-density. The lesson code is written in UCSD Pascal.

Excerpts

One effective way to describe a piece of CAI softwarewithout demonstrating it is to show excerpts of atypical student's interaction with the program. Theseexcerpts can be typed on a handout for the audience,shown on an overhead transparency, or included onphotographic slides of actual instructional screens.The exchange that follows is a selection of excerptedstudent-computer dialogue from a CAI lesson onnarratives that exists as part of the WordsWork series.Note that in this excerpt, the author has attempted todifferentiate between the two parties involved in thedialogueprinting material produced by the computerin upper- and lower-case text while depicting thematerial produced by the student in upper case textonly. Whatever method you choose, make sure thatthe excerpts can be seen and read by every member ofthe audience.

Example of an Excerpt from CAI Software

Okay, Therese, you've done short journal writeson three topics that you think might be suitable

Step

Example of Vi-ual Overvhw of

Freewriting

a CAI Lesson

#3#1 Step #2 Step

Review of Lecture

Uses andcharacteristics of

freewriting

Strategies

Using focused,automatic, andtimed freewrites

Writing in Journals

Using freewritingfor journal entries

Practice #1 Practice #1 Practice #1

Practice #2 Practice #2 [ Fractice #2

Figure 8.1: Sample of Visual Overview

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142 Cynthia L. Sere

for your narrative assignmentrunning away fromhome, the time I tried to tip my baby brother outof his crib and roll him down the stairs, and thetime Don Bliss asked me out. With which of thesetopics do you want to continue? It might be theone you like best, the one about which you havethe most to say, or the one you think will interestyour audience the most. When I type *, you writein the topic you've chosen.

THE TIME DON BLISS ASKED ME OUTTherese, I think that's a great choice. But let's

try a focused journal write on that topic to makesure. I want you to take five minutes to tell me thestory by typing it in on my screen. Remember, thisis a freewrite, so you don't have to worry aboutgrammar and spelling.

I really want to know what the major events ofyour narrative are and how you feel about whathappened. Because this is your second journal writeon this topic, you can begin to remember somedetail, choose some location in which to set yourstory, and think of the point or message you aretrying to get across to your reader by telling thisstory.. I hope my directions are clear. Onward!!Remember, no more than five minutes!LIKE I SAID BEFORE, I GUESS I WANT TOTALK ABOUT THE TIME I THOUGHT DONBLISS ASKED ME OUT. THE PROBLEM WASTHAT HE WAS ASKING ME FOR A FRIENDBUT I THOUGHT HE WAS ASKING FOR HIM-SELF. THIS HAPPENED AT CHARLEVOISHIGH SCHOOL WHERE I WENT TO SCHOOL.I WAS ABOUT 16 AND SO WAS DON. HEWAS REALLY A HUNK BUT HE NEVER PAIDTOO MUCH ATTENTION TO ME AND I WASTOO SHY TO LET HIM KNOW HOW I FELT.I KEPT FANTASIZING ABOUT US BUTTHAT'S AS FAR AS IT WENT UNTIL ONEDAY AFTER CLASS WHEN HE ASKED MEIF I WAS GOING TO THE GAME AND I SAIDNO. OF COURSE I THOUGHT HE WANTEDTO TAKE ME BUT HE WAS ASKING FOR AFRIEND. I WAS SO STUPID THAT WHEN IFOUND OUT THE TRUTH I WAS TOO EM-BARRASSED TO LET ON WHAT I HADTHOUGHT. I WANT TO LET OTHER GIRLSKNOW THAT THEY HAVE TO BE HONESTOR THEY'LL END UP IN THE SAME SITUA-TION. ALSO MAYBE I WANT TO TALKABOUT HOW I THOUGHT DON BLISS WASSO GREAT UNTIL I LEARNED BETTER. YOU

CANTJUDGE A PERSON FROM HIS LOOKS.HE HAS TO BE HONEST ABOUT HIS FEEL-INGS TOO. IF EVERYONE WAS HONESTDATING WOULDNT BE SO HARD IN HIGHSCHOOL.

Theory and Philosophy

In most professional meetings, the audience will beinterested in knowing the theoretical and pedagogicalphilosophy that lies behind a piece of CAI software.Some authors prepare philosophical statements orbring copies of articles in professional publicationsthat address these concerns. In any case, you shouldbe prepared for questions on the theoretical founda-tions of your CAI software.

Availability

Come prepared to trade and sell your CAI. If yoursoftware is theoretically and pedagogically sound,teachers will want it. Before you come to a profes-sional meeting, discuss with your team the best wayof distributing your software. You might be contentto barter or trade for lessons that other teacherscreate, but set up contingency plans for selling yoursoftware to individuals as well. Decide how much thesoftware is going to cost and what the price includes(disk copying, compatibility support, continuing ad-vice on product use, etc.). Draw up a short statementdescribing the terms of sale, and have a lawyer lookat it.

Write about CAI Lessons in Professional Publications

With leaner budgets and increasing travel costs, it isnot always possible to talk about CAI projects inperson. Articles and reviews in professional journalsprovide one way of getting around this problem bydistributing information about CAI software t1/4., largeraudiences. Articles can serve not only to describe thepurpose and structure of CAI software, but also toreport empirical evidence of the lesson's effectivenesswith a specific audience.

Some of the journals that publish articles on CAIand CAI software reviews are included in the follow-ing list.

Byte

Collegiate Microcomputer

Computers and the Humanities

Computers and Composition

Creative Computing

Educational Technology

Journal of Computer-Based Instruction

Journal of Courseware Review

Perspectives in Computing

Writing Lab Newsletter

We suggest looking over back copies of these publi-cations and requesting editorial information beforewriting or submitting an article about a particularpiece of CAI software.

Information about software projects is also coveredin the newsletters and information sheets publishedby educational/computer organizations around thecountry. Most of the timely publications put out bythese groups offer software reviews and access to avaluable network of computer users across the coun-try. Often, readers can find CAI available for barteror for the price of copying. Four of the larger organi-zations and appropriate contact persons are listedbelow. Ask other computer users in your own schoolor department for organizations operating on a locallevel.

National Council of Teachers of EnglishAssembly on Computers in EnglishJack JobstMichigan Technological UniversityHoughton, MI 49931ConduitMolly HeplerOakdale CampusIowa City, IA 52240English Micro lab RegistryT. BarkerTexas Tech UniversityLubbock, TX 79409

Minnesota Educational Computing Consortium(MECC)

2520 Broadway DriveSt. Paul, MN 55113

When corresponding with these networking organiza-tions, both on the national and local levels, it is bestto include a stamped, self-addressed envelope forreplies. Many of these groups operate on a leanbudget that allows little room for unplanned mailingexpenses.

Spreading the Word about CAI Software 143

Explore the Possibility of Publishing CAI Software

If you want maximum exposure for a piece of CAIsoftware, exploring the possibility of distributing itthrough a publishing house or a software concernmight be appr mriate.

Most teachers have some contacts with representa-tives from the major educational publishing housesScott-Foresman; Houghton Mifflin; Little, Brown;Prentice-Hall; Wadsworth; Holt, Rinehart, and Win-ston; Allyn and Bacon; among others. All of thesefirms are testing the marketing waters in connectionwith CAI. Some have made preliminary explorationsof publishing possibilities. Other firms are alreadyinvolved. Houghton Mifflin, for example, publishesthe Dolphin series and Little, Brown now marketsGrammar Lab. There still exists among these firms,however, a general wariness about devoting resourcesto CAI projects. In general, this condition existsbz.cause traditional publishing concerns are set up tohandle books, not computer products. The firms arenot set up to handle research and development ofCAI projects, to provide service for such projects afterthey are marketed, or even to gauge the success ofthese products as marketing ventures.

If you decide to approach one or more of theselarge publishing firms with a CAI product, be preparedto provide a prospectus for the project that describesthe software's purpose, structure, packaging, organiza-tion and content, target audience, and competition.

Authors can also turn to software houses for pub-lishing opportunities. Increasing numbers of such con-cerns are now distributing educational software forthe writing classroom. Among them are:

Instructional/Communications Technology, Inc.

Krell Software Corp.Queue, Inc.Orange Cherry Media

American Educational SoftwareUnicorn Software Company

Micro Power & Light

Most of these companies list software in catalogsthat they distribute and some cross-list software indirectories put out by companies such as IBM, Apple,or Commodore. Software companies will also wantto see a prospectus for a CAI project. Because someof these companies produce software for limitedbrands of computers, be ready to provide technicalspecifications about hardware compatibility.

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Summary

CM software that is pedagogically and theoreticallysound may deserve distribution outside the author'sown classroom or educational institution. To spreadthe word about a CAI package to other colleagueswho use computers in their writing classrooms andprograms, we have suggested four activities in thischapter.

Demonstrate CAI software locally.

Talk about CAI software at professionalmeetings.

Write about CAI software in professionalpublications.

Explore the possibility of publishing CAIsoftware.

Activities like those we have listed above will haveadditional benefits as well. Through talking aboutCAI software to professional audiences, demonstrat-ing software to teachers, and writing about CAI in

professional publications, you will come in contactwith a great network of teachers who have interestssimilar to yours and who can support your efforts toincorporate computers into writing classrooms andprograms. These teachers will keep you informedabout new technological developments in computerhardware and software; new methodological develop-ments in writing-intensive, computer-assisted learningsituations; and the new theoretical, philosophical, andethical concerns that the introduction of computersmay inspire.

Tapping into this network can also increase profes-sional involvement at the local, regional, and nationallevels. Certainly, our profession's increasing use ofcomputers in composition courses opens up excitingnew vistas for research on writing and the teaching ofwriting. Similar opportunities exist for publishingabout computer-assisted writing instruction, for serv-ing on profession'il advisory councils which addressthe concerns of technology, and for establishing CAI-oriented programs at all levels.

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