Upload
dangtruc
View
217
Download
0
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
DEVELOPMENT OF AN ATMOSPHERIC COMBUSTOR TEST RIG FOR
FIRING ENVODIESEL BLENDS
NOOR EMILIA BINTI AHMAD SHAFIE
UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA
DEVELOPMENT OF AN ATMOSPHERIC COMBUSTOR TEST RIG FOR FIRING
ENVODIESEL BLENDS
NOOR EMILIA BINTI AHMAD SHAFIE
A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of the degree of
Master of Engineering (Mechanical)
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
SEPTEMBER 2012
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
In preparing this thesis, I have been in contact with many people, researchers,
academicians and practitioners. They have contributed towards my understanding
and thoughts. In particular, I wish to express my sincere appreciation to my main
thesis supervisor, Professor Dr. Mohammad Nazri Bin Mohd Jaafar for his
encouragement, guidance, critics and friendship. I am also very thankful to my co-
supervisor Associate Professor Ir. Yahaya Bin Ramli for the guidance, advices and
motivation. Besides that, I would like to express many thanks to MD Interactive
Company, AZMA Global Company and Halira Company for supplying and
fabricating the research equipment. My sincere appreciation also extends to all my
colleagues and others who have provided assistance at various occasions. Their
views and tips are useful indeed. A special thanks to Ministry of Science,
Technology and Innovation (project no: 03-01-06-KHAS01) for financial support of
this research. Lastly I would like to thank my family and husband for the support
towards the completing of my thesis.
v
ABSTRACT
Liquid fuel combustion contributed to air pollution and global warming
problems. Combustion using fossil fuel e.g. petroleum diesel produces high
concentration of emissions such as carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO),
nitrogen oxide (NOx) and sulphur dioxide (SO2). Palm biodiesel consists of palm
methyl ester and diesel has been used to reduce the emission value. However, the
production of biodiesel is expensive. Therefore, the direct blending method of palm
olein and diesel has been used to produce envodiesel without using the
transesterification process. The properties and characteristics of envodiesel have
been studied in order to determine the fuel performance during combustion. A 500
mm length and 152 mm diameter of combustor has been fabricated using stainless
steel tube for firing the envodiesel blends. Thermocouples type-K are placed axially
along the combustor length to measure the wall temperatures. Besides that, the gas
analyzer probe has been used to measure the emission gas during the testing. An
axial swirler of 45º angle with 8 blades, fuel injector system, electrode copper igniter
system, air blower and super heater are installed in the combustion system to burn
the envodiesel blends. As a result, envodiesel blends with 5% palm olein and 95%
diesel (B5) has higher wall temperature as compared to other blends. The result
shows the various percentages of envodiesel blends decrease the CO2, CO, NOx and
SO2 emission. The B25 has lowest of CO2, CO, NOx and SO2 values of 3%, 492
ppm, 8 ppm and 9 ppm respectively. It can be concluded the envodiesel blends have
lower emissions compared to diesel fuel.
vi
ABSTRAK
Pembakaran bahan api cecair menyumbang kepada masalah pencemaran
udara dan pemanasan global. Pembakaran yang menggunakan bahan api fosil seperti
minyak diesel telah menghasilkan kepekatan emisi yang tinggi seperti karbon
dioksida (CO2), karbon monoksida (CO), oksida nitrogen (NOx) dan sulfur dioksida
(SO2). Minyak sawit biodiesel yang mengandungi metil ester sawit dan diesel telah
digunakan untuk mengurangkan kadar pembebasan gas emisi. Walaubagaimanapun,
kos penghasilan minyak biodiesel adalah tinggi. Oleh itu, kaedah pengadunan
langsung telah digunakan untuk menghasilkan minyak sawit diesel (envodiesel)
tanpa melalui proses tindak balas pentransesteran. Ciri-ciri dan sifat minyak sawit
diesel telah dikaji bagi mengenalpasti potensi minyak ini dalam pembakaran. Kebuk
pembakaran sepanjang 500 mm telah dihasilkan menggunakan tiub keluli tahan karat
berdiameter 152 mm untuk membakar minyak sawit diesel. Pengganding-haba jenis-
K diletakkan secara memaksi di sepanjang kebuk pembakaran untuk merekodkan
suhu dinding. Selain itu, alat pengukuran emisi juga digunakan untuk mengukur
kadar pembebasan gas semasa eksperimen dijalankan. Pemusar udara aliran paksi
dengan sudut 45 darjah dan 8 bilah, muncung semburan bahan api, percikan api jenis
tembaga elektrod, alat pembekal udara dan pemanas udara telah dipasang pada alat
ujikaji pembakaran bagi membakar adunan minyak sawit diesel. Keputusan ujikaji
mendapati adunan 5% minyak sawit dan 95% minyak diesel mempunyai suhu
dinding kebuk pembakaran yang tinggi berbanding adunan minyak sawit diesel yang
lain. Keputusan menunjukkan minyak sawit diesel berbagai adunan telah
mengurangkan kadar pembebasan gas emisi. Minyak sawit diesel (B25)
mengurangkan kadar pembebasan gas emisi sebanyak 3%, 492 ppm, 8 ppm dan 9
ppm bagi gas karbon dioksida, karbon monoksida, oksida nitrogen dan sulfur
dioksida. Kesimpulannya minyak sawit diesel mempunyai kadar pembebasan gas
emisi yang rendah berbanding minyak diesel.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE
DECLARATION ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv
ABSTRACT v
ABSTRAK vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
LIST OF TABLES x
LIST OF FIGURES xi
LIST OF SYMBOLS xiv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xvi
LIST OF APPENDICES xvii
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Problem Statements 2
1.3 Objectives 3
1.4 Scopes 3
1.5 Thesis Outline 4
1.5 Flow of Research Methodology 5
viii
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction of Fossil Fuel 6
2.2 Introduction of Biodiesel 7
2.3 Introduction of Palm Oil Biodiesel 8
2.3.1 Production of Palm Oil Biodiesel 11
2.3.2 Properties and Characteristics of
Palm Oil Biodiesel 12
2.4 Production and Characteristics of Envodiesel 17
2.5 Introduction of Atmospheric Combustor Test Rig 19
2.6 Burner for Liquid Fuel Combustion 25
2.7 Development of Combustor Test Rig 29
3 EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS AND RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction 43
3.2 Experimental Apparatus 44
3.3 Combustor Test Rig Design Modification 48
3.3.1 Piping Selection of Combustor Test Rig 55
3.3.2 Air Fuel Ratio for Diesel and Envodiesel
Combustion 60
3.4 Fuel Preparation 66
3.5 Experimental Procedures 69
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Introduction 70
4.2 Fuel Pressure 71
4.3 Wall Temperature Profile at Different
Pre-Heated Air 72
4.4 Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Emission at Different
Pre-Heated Air 79
4.5 Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Emission at Different
Equivalent Ratios 80
ix
4.6 Carbon Monoxide (CO) Emission at Different
Pre-Heated Air 81
4.7 Carbon Monoxide (CO) Emission at Different
Equivalent Ratios 82
4.8 Nitrogen Oxide (NOx) Emission at Different
Pre-Heated Air 84
4.9 Nitrogen Oxide (NOx) Emission at Different
Equivalent Ratios 85
4.10 Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) Emission at Different
Pre-Heated Air 86
4.11 Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) Emission at Different
Equivalent Ratios 87
5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Conclusion 88
5.2 Recommendations 89
REFERENCES 90
Appendices A-I 96-105
x
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE
2.1 Vegetable oil production yield kg oil/hectare 9
2.2 Percentage of palm oil use in each sector 10
2.3 Properties of palm oil biodiesel (palm methyl ester) 12
2.4 Comparison of liquid fuel properties 13
2.5 Properties of envodiesel blends and diesel fuel 19
2.6 Sauter mean diameter using the experimental methods 22
2.7 Gas pressure on igniter energy release 24
2.8 Burners for liquid fuel and features 26
2.9 Advantages and disadvantages of developed test rig 41
3.1 Description of gas analyzer sensors 48
3.2 Test rig components and features 51
3.3 Piping dimension for each component test rig 58
3.4 Equivalent ratio of diesel fuel with different air flow rate 63
3.5 Equivalent ratio of diesel fuel with different fuel flow rate 63
3.6 Equivalent ratio of envodiesel blends with different air
flow rate 64
3.7 Equivalent ratio of envodiesel blends with different fuel
flow rate 64
3.8 Specific gravity of envodiesel blends 67
xi
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE
1.1 Flow of research methodology 5
2.1 Fresh fruit bunches and fruits palm 8
2.2 Production of palm oil plant 9
2.3 Flow of processing palm oil biodiesel 11
2.4 Axial swirler (a) Front view, (b) Side view 20
2.5 Flame length at different swirl number (a) 0.6325, (b) 0.9417 21
2.6 Spray angle using computational fluid dynamic method
(a) Diesel, (b) B5, (c) B10, (d) B15, (e) B20, (f) RBDPO 23
2.7 Wall temperature at different pre-heated air temperature 27
2.8 Emission from combustion of cotton seed oil biodiesel 28
2.9 A schematic of combustion in a furnace with high pre-heated air 29
2.10 A schematic of a lab scale controlled air incinerator combustor 30
2.11 A schematic of furnace test rig 31
2.12 A schematic of combustor test rig using Baltur burner 32
2.13 A schematic of non-pressurized combustion test rig 33
2.14 A schematic of combustion in a boiler test rig 34
2.15 A schematic of pressurized cyclone combustor test rig 35
2.16 A schematic of combustor test rig for boiler sector 37
2.17 A schematic of combustor test rig for furnace sector 39
2.18 A schematic of combustion in a boiler using
pulverization burner 40
3.1 Equipment (a) Blower model ASS-125A, (b) Air regulator 44
xii
3.2 Super heater model BET-060 45
3.3 Thermocouple type-K along combustor 46
3.4 Thermocouple reader (a) Front view, (b) Back view 46
3.5 Telegan gas monitoring, Tempest-100 47
3.6 Schematic of combustor test rig 49
3.7 Combustor test rig 50
3.8 Axial swirler clamps inside combustor 52
3.9 Axial swirler and fuel injector component 52
3.10 Fuel pump system 53
3.11 Ignition system 54
3.12 Pressure losses at different pipe diameter and length 57
3.13 Schematic of experimental setup 59
3.14 Air fuel ratio of diesel and envodiesel blends 65
3.15 Blending machine 66
3.16 Hydrometer 67
3.17 Specific gravity of envodiesel blends 68
4.1 Fuel pressure of diesel and envodiesel blends 71
4.2 Wall temperature profile at 323 K pre-heated air 72
4.3 Wall temperature profile at 373 K pre-heated air 73
4.4 Wall temperature profile at 423 K pre-heated air 74
4.5 Wall temperature profile at 473 K pre-heated air 75
4.6 Wall temperature profile at 523 K pre-heated air 76
4.7 Wall temperature profile at 573 K pre-heated air 78
4.8 CO2 emission at different pre-heated air of equivalent
ratio 0.4 79
4.9 CO2 emission at different equivalent ratios at 573 K of
pre-heated air 80
4.10 CO emission at different pre-heated air of equivalent
ratio 0.4 82
4.11 CO emission at different equivalent ratios at 573 K of
pre-heated air 83
4.12 NOx emission at different pre-heated air of equivalent
ratio 0.4 84
xiii
4.13 NOx emission at different equivalent ratios at 573 K of
pre-heated air 85
4.14 SO2 emission at different pre-heated air of equivalent
ratio 0.4 86
4.15 SO2 emission at different equivalent ratios at 573 K of
pre-heated air 87
xiv
LIST OF SYMBOLS
A - Pipe area
Act - Actual
A/F - Air fuel ratio
Cv - Calorific value
cst - Centistoke
d - Pipe diameter
f - Friction
g - Gravity
hf - Head loss
hr - Hour
J - Joule
K - Kelvin
kg - Kilogram
kV - Kilovolt
kW - Kilowatt
L - Liter
l - Pipe length
MJ - Megajoule
MPa - Megapascal
m - Meter
xv
mm - Milimeter
ṁa - Mass flowrate air
ṁf - Mass flowrate fuel
m3 - Metercube
m3/hr - Metercube per hour
N - Newton
P - Pressure
Pa - Pascal
ppm - Parts per million
Q - Flow rate
Re - Reynold number
Stoic - Stochiometric
s - Second
T - Temperature
V - Voltage
� - Pipe velocity
x/L - Combustor length
µ - Dynamic viscosity
p - Density
∆P - Pressure loss
ε - Roughness of the piping
Ø - Equivalent ratio
% - Percentage
µm - Micrometer
ƩK - Minor friction loss
xvi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ABBREVIATION FULL NAME
B0 - 100 % Diesel Fuel
B5 - 5 % Palm Olein with 95 % Diesel (Envodiesel)
B10 - 10 % Palm Olein with 90 % Diesel (Envodiesel)
B15 - 15 % Palm Olein with 85 % Diesel (Envodiesel)
B20 - 20 % Palm Olein with 80 % Diesel (Envodiesel)
B25 - 25 % Palm Olein with 75 % Diesel (Envodiesel)
C - Carbon
CO2 - Carbon Dioxide
CO - Carbon Monoxide
H - Hydrogen
HHV - High Heating Value
LHV - Low Heating Value
N - Nitrogen
NOx - Nitrogen Oxide
O - Oxygen
RBDPO - Refined, Bleached, Deadorized Palm Olein
SMD - Sauter Mean Diameter
SO2 - Sulphur Dioxide
xvii
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX TITLE PAGE
A1 Rear and front clamps of axial swirler 96
A2 Axial swirler with fuel injector 97
B Combustor test rig 98
C Piping flanges for axial swirler test rig 99
D Piping flanges for combustor test rig 100
E Plan layout and system description 101
F Dimension of combustor test rig 102
G Combustor test rig view 103
H Super heater layout 104
I Chemical properties of envodiesel blends 105
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
Petroleum oil and natural gas are fossil fuels that have been used to generate
energy for power plant, transportation, industrial and others. Petroleum oil e.g.
diesel fuel has been used in power plant because of its potential to generate high
power energy [1]. However, the price of fossil fuel is very high due to the demands
usage of this fuel. Combustion of fossil fuel tends to form pollutant gases. Fossil
fuel increases the carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxide
and other emissions when burned [2]. Therefore, biodiesel is a promising fuel
because of its ability to reduce emission during combustion. Palm methyl ester is
one of the biodiesels used in combustion that could replace the diesel fuel.
Transesterification is the method used to produce palm methyl ester [3]. However,
the transesterification method is costly. Because of that, direct blending method is
inexpensive method used to mix the vegetable oil with petroleum diesel. The fuel
produced from this method is called envodiesel. In this research, properties and
characteristics of envodiesel are investigated using a combustor test rig device in
order to reduce the emission and also to reduce the cost of fuel production.
2
1.2 Problem Statements
The diesel fuel is usually used in combustion to generate energy for industrial
transportation and others. Diesel fuel could generate high power energy and high
efficiency when burned [4]. Because of its potential to generate energy for every
application, diesel fuel becomes demanded source energy. However the combustion
of diesel fuel contributes to emission gases e.g. carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide,
nitrogen oxide, sulphur dioxide and others. Liberation of these gases has a great
potential of an air pollution, greenhouse effect and global warming in this country. If
the problem persists, the air quality in this country will be more contaminated with
harmful gases and may also cause health problems to human.
In Malaysia, there is million tons of palm oil produced per year for various
kinds of products [5]. Therefore, it has been chosen due to the availability of this oil
for used in combustion application. This fuel known as an envodiesel consists of
palm olein that produced from palm oil. Based on previous study, the envodiesel
blends have lower carbon content which reduced the emission gases during
combustion [6]. Besides that, palm oil is clean and biodegradable [7]. Thus, the
properties and characteristics of envodiesel were studied in order to determine the
fuel performance during combustion. The testing was conducted using the
atmospheric combustor test rig device.
3
1.3 Objectives
The objectives of the research are:
1. To determine the properties (calorific value and ultimate analysis) of
envodiesel blends.
2. To fabricate the atmospheric combustor test rig for firing envodiesel blends.
3. To analyze the behavior of wall temperature and emission at various pre-
heated air in order to identify the performance of envodiesel blends during
combustion.
1.4 Scopes
The scopes of the research are:
1. Preparation of the testing apparatus:
i. Air blower
ii. Super heater
iii. Thermocouple reader and sensor
iv. Gas analyzer
2. Fabricate the atmospheric combustor test rig laboratory scale. The
component of fabrication includes:
i. Air supply system
ii. Combustion chamber
iii. Igniter system
iv. Fuel injector system
v. Axial swirler
4
3. Blending of palm olein and diesel, as producing envodiesel blends using
direct blending in order to determine the properties at different percentages.
4. Testing the envodiesel blends using different pre-heated atmospheric air
temperature.
1.5 Thesis Outline
The thesis is divided into five chapters. Chapter 1 includes the problem
statement, objectives and scopes of this research.
Chapter 2 is the literature study of this research. This study focuses on the
physical and chemical properties of diesel, palm oil biodiesel and envodiesel blends.
The fuel properties are the parameters that affected the combustion characteristics
such as wall temperature profile and emission. Besides that, the standard combustor
test rig and burner system have been studied in order to burn envodiesel blends fuel.
Chapter 3 describes the experimental apparatus, modification of combustor
test rig design, fuel preparation and experimental procedures.
Chapter 4 comprises the combustor wall temperature and emission results
using different envodiesel blends. The wall temperature, carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide, nitrogen oxide and sulphur dioxide emission results are recorded using
thermocouple reader and gas analyzer during experiments. The testing is carried out
using 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% and 25% of envodiesel blends at various pre-heated air
temperatures.
5
Chapter 5 is the conclusion and recommendations of this research. This
chapter explains the overall results that have been obtained. The effectiveness of
envodiesel is concluded, while the potential of envodiesel in combustion elaborated
based on the wall temperature and emission results that obtained from standard
combustor test rig. Besides that, some recommendations have been explained in
order to improve this research.
1.6 Research Methodology
The flow of research methodology is shown in Figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1: Flow of research methodology
Design and fabrication of combustor test rig
Testing the envodiesel blends using combustor test rig
Preparation of the testing apparatus
Fuel preparation
Result and discussion
90
REFERENCES
1. A.Korre, Z.Nie, S.Durucan. Life Cycle of Fossil Fuel Power Generation with
Post Combustion CO2 Capture. International Journal of Greenhouse Gas
Control 2010;4:289-300
2. S.Mekhilef, S.Siga, R.Saidur. A Review on Palm Oil Biodiesel as a Source of
Renewable Fuel. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 2011;15:1937-
1949
3. N.Jawad, K.A.Syed, N.Farrukh. Palm Biodiesel an Alternative Green
Renewable Energy of the Future. International Conference on Construction and
Building Technology 2008;7:79-94
4. A.B.Syed, K.R.Gopal, S.Jebaraj. A Review on Biodiesel Production,
Combustion, Emissions and Performance. Renewable and Sustainable Energy
2009;13:1628-1634
5. M.E.Tat, J.V.Gerpen. The Specific Gravity of Biodiesel and its Blends with
Diesel Fuels. Journal of American Oil Chemists Society 2000;2:115-119
6. N.S.Poonam, S.Anoop. Production of Liquid Biofuels from Renewable
Resources. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 2011;37:52-68
7. K.K.Ming, D.Chandramohan. Malaysian Palm Oil Industry at Crossroad and
its Future Direction. Oil Palm Industry Economic Journal 2002;2:10-15
8. K.K.Bertine, E.D.Goldberg. Fossil Fuel Combustion and the Major
Sedimentary Cycle. Journal of Science 1997;173:233-235
9. A.Ertan, C.Mustafa. Determination of the Density and the Viscosities of
Biodiesel Diesel Fuel Blends. Renewable Energy 2008;33:2623-2630
10. K.T.Tan, K.T.Lee, A.R.Mohamed. Potential of Waste Cooking Oil for
Catalyst Free Biodiesel Production. Journal of Energy 2011;2:2085-2088
91
11. P.S.Nigam, A.Singh. Production of Liquid Biofuels from Renewable
Resources. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 2011;37:52-68
12. H.BH, L.LF, L.Chin. Production Biodiesel from Palm Oil. Fuel Processing
Technology 2009;90:606-610
13. K.Tan, T.Lee, R.Mohamed. Palm Oil Addressing Issue and Towards
Sustainable Development. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Review
2009;13:420-427
14. I.Lazada, J.Islas. Environmental and Economic Feasibility of Palm Oil
Biodiesel. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 2010;14:486-492
15. C.C.Enweremadu, H.L.Rutto. Combustion, Emission and Engine Performance
Characteristic of Used Cooking Oil Biodiesel. Renewable and Sustainable
Energy Reviews 2010;14:2863-2873
16. K.Sivaramakrishnan, P.Pravikumar. Determination of Higher Heating Value
of Biodiesel. International Journal of Engineering Science and Technology
2011;3:7981-7987
17. B.L.Bettis, C.O.Peterson, D.L.Auld, E.D.Peterson. Fuel Characteristics of
Vegetable Oil from Oil Seeds Crops in the Pacific Northwest. Journal of
Argonomy 1982;74:335-339
18. B.Bazooyar, A.Ghorbani, A.Shariati. Combustion Performance and Emission
of Petro Diesel and Biodiesel. Journal of Fuel 2011;90:3078-3092
19. A.Demirbas. Progress and Recent Trends in Biofuels. Progress in Energy and
Combustion Science 2007;33:1-18
20. M.Fangrui, H.Milford. Biodiesel Production. Bio Resource Technology
1999;70:1-15
21. V.G.Jon. Biodiesel Processing and Production. Fuel Processing Technology
2005;86:1097-1107
22. T.E.Sann, K.Palanisamy, M.Nazrain, F.N.Ani. Study of Carbon Dioxide
Emission during Combustion of Biodiesel. International Conference on
Energy and Environment 2006;21:123-130
23. G.Tashtoush, M.I.A.Widyan, A.O.A.Shyoukh. Combustion Performance and
Emission of Ethyl Ester of a Waste Vegetable Oil in a Water Cooled Furnace
2003;23:285-293
24. C.V.Sudir, N.Y.Sharma, P.Mohanan. Potential of Waste Cooking Oils as
Biodiesel Feedstock. Journal Enginnering Resources 2007;12:69-75
92
25. H.Wijaksana, G.B.W.Kusuma. An Experimental Study on Diesel Engine
Performances using Crude Palm Oil Biodiesel. International Conference on
Sustainable Energy and Environment 2006;6:34-42
26. P.R.Bhoi, S.A.Chanwila. Emission Characteristic and Axial Flame
Temperature Distribution of Producer Gas Fired Premixed Burner. Biomass
and Bioenergy 2009;33:467-477
27. I.B.Ozdemir, N.Peter. Characteristic of the Reaction Zone in a Combustor.
Experiment in Fluids 2001;30:683-695
28. S.Adachi, I.Atushi, H.Shigeru, Y.Hideshi, K.Shigehiko. Emissions in
Combustion of Lean Methane-Air and Biomass Air Mixtures Supported by
Primary Hot Burned Gas in a Multi Stage Combustor. Combustion Institute
2007;31:3131-3138
29. A.A.Aziz, M.F.Said, M.A.Awang, M.Said. The Effects of Neutralized Palm
Oil Methyl Ester Performance and Emission. International Conference on
Natural Resources Engineering Technology 2006;2:45-51
30. K.Shinomori, K.Katou, D.Shimokuri, S.Ishizuka. NOx Emission
Characteristic and Aerodynamic Structure of a Self-Recirculation Type Burner
for a Boiler 2011;33:2735-2742
31. K.S.Kumar, C.Anju. Preparation of Biodiesel from Crude Oil. Bio Resource
2005;84:335-340
32. S.M.Sapuan, H.H.Masjuki, A.Azlan. The Use of Palm Oil as Diesel Fuel
Substitute. Journal of Power and Energy 1996;210:47-53
33. L.Reinjnders, M.A.J. Huijbregts. Palm Oil and the Emission of Carbon-
Based Greenhouse Gases. Journal of Cleaner Production 2008;16:477-482
34. F. Di.Mare, W.P. Jones, K.R.Menzies. Large Eddy Simulation of a Model Gas
Turbine Combustor. Combustion and Flame 2004;137:278-294
35. S.B.Hosseini, K. Bashirnezhad, A.R.Moghiman, Y.Khazraii, N.Nikoofal.
Experimental Comparison of Combustion Characteristic and Pollutant
Emission of Gas oil and Biodiesel. World Academy of Science, Engineering
and Technology 2010;72:304-307
36. T.Behrendt, D.L.R.Cristoph Hassa. A Test Rig for Investigation of Combustor
Cooling Concepts under Realistics Operating Conditions. International
Congress of the Aeronautical Sciences 2006;2:32-40
93
37. A.M. Liaquat, M.A. Kalam, H.H. Masjuki, M.H. Jayed. Engine Performance
and Emissions Analysis using Envo Diesel and Coconut Biodiesel Blended
Fuel as Alternative Fuels 2011;6:168-172
38. S.Soosai, M.N.M.Jaafar. Performance of Various Biofuel Blends on Burner
System. Journal of Mechanical 2008;27:69-77
39. M.H.A.R.Mantari, M.N.M.Jaafar. Performance of Oil Burner System Utilizing
Various Palm Biodiesel Blends. International Journal of Mechanical and
Materials Engineering 2009;3:273-278
40. A.H.Lefebvre. Gas Turbine Combustion. United State of America: Hemisphere
Publishing Corporation, 1983
41. X.X.Dang, J.X.Zhao, H.H.Ji. Experimental Study of Effects of Geometric
Parameters on Combustion Performance Dual Stage Swirler Combustor
2007;10:1639-1645
42. A.E.Yehia, M.S Khalid, M.N.M.Jaafar. CFD Insight of the Flow Dynamics in a
Novel Swirler for Gas Turbine Combustors. International Communications in
Heat and Mass Transfer 2009;36:936-941
43. N.L.Ing, M.N.M.Jaafar, M.S.A.Ishak, M.A.A.Arizal. Spray Characteristic of
Palm Biofuel Blends. International Journal of Mechanical and Materials
Engineering 2010;2:214-221
44. Hashimoto, M.Dan, T.Asano, L.Arakawa. Proceedings of the Society of
Automotive Engineers. Society of Automotive Engineers 2002;1:86-97
45. J.B.Fenn. Lean Flammibility Limit and Minimum Spark Ignition Energy.
Industry Engineering Chemical 1951;12:2865-2869
46. V.Kermes, P.Belohradsky, J.Oral, P.Stehlik. Testing of Gas and Liquid Fuel
Burners for Power and Process Industries. Journal of Energy 2008;33:1551-
1561
47. C.D.Barnes, D.R.Garwood, T.J.Price. The Use of Biodiesel Blends in
Domestic Vaporising Oil Burners. Journal of Energy 2010;35:501-505
48. J.S.Jose, A.A.Kassir, J.A.Y.L.Sastre, J.Ganan. Analysis of Biodiesel
Combustion in a Boiler with a Pressure Operated Mechanical Pulverisation
Burner. Fuel Processing Technology 2011;92:271-277
49. A.Saez, A.F.Maradiaga, M.Toledo. Liquid Butane as an Alternative Fuel for
Diesel Oil Burners. Applied Thermal Engineering 2012;45:1-8
94
50. G.A.Holt, J.D.Hooker. Gaseous Emissions from Burning Diesel, Crude and
Prime Bleachable Summer Yellow Cottonseed Oil in a Burner for Drying
Seedcotton. Bio Resource Technology 2004;92:261-267
51. N.Shimo. Fundamental Research of Oil Combustion with Highly Preheated
Air. Advanced Technology and Research Institute 2000;1:1-8
52. P.Suvarnakuta1, S.Patumsawadand, S.Kerdsuwan. Effects of Highly Preheated
Combustion Air on Characteristics of Burner Operation and Fuel Consumption
in Controlled-Air Incinerator. Journal Science Technology 2008;1:125-129
53. R.Toriumi, M.Tamura, H.Tai. Optical Analysis of Highly Preheated Air
Combustion. Fundamental Technology Laboratory 2006;1:16-25
54. K.N.Hoon, S.Gan. Combustion Performance and Exhaust Emissions from the
Non-Pressurised Combustion of Palm Oil Biodiesel Blends. Journal of
Applied Thermal Engineering 2010;30:2476-2484
55. A.Macor, P.Pavanello. Performance and emissions of biodiesel in a boiler for
residential heating. Journal of Energy 2009;34:2025-2032
56. K.A.A.Attab, Z.A.Zainal. Design and Performance of a Pressurized Cyclone
Combustor (PCC) for High and Low Heating Value Gas Combustion. Journal
of Applied Energy 2011;88:1084-1095
57. N.Krishnamurthy, W.Blasiak, A.Lugnet. Development of High Temperature
Air and Oxy-Fuel Combustion Technologies for Minimized CO2 and NOx
Emissions in Industrial Heating. Sustainable Energy and Environment
2004;3:1-6
58. A.Ghorbani, B.Bazooyar, A.Shariati, S.M.Jokar, H.Ajami. A Comparative
Study of Combustion Performance and Emission of Biodiesel Blends and
Diesel in an Experimental Boiler. Journal of Applied Energy 2011;88:4725-
4732
59. Y.A.Cengel, J.M.Cimbala. Fluid Mechanics Fundamentals and Application.
United State of America: McGraw-Hills Science Engineering, 2006
60. A.S.P.Solomon, S.D.Rupprecht, S.D.Chen, G.M.Faeth. Flow and Atomization
in Flashing Injector. Atomization Spray Technology 1985;1:53-76
61. F.Z.Sierra, J.Kubiak, G.Gonzalez, G.Urquiza. Prediction of Temperature Front
in a Combustion Chamber. Applied Thermal Engineering 2005;25:1127-1140
62. J.Xuea, T.E. Grift, A.C. Hansena. Effect of Biodiesel on Engine Performances
and Emissions. Renewable and Sustainable Energy 2011;15:1098-1116
95
63. H.J.Tomczak, G.Benelli, L.Carrai, D.Cecchini. Investigation of a Gas Turbine
Combustion Systems Fired with Mixture of a Natural Gas and Hydrogen,
Combustion Journal 2002;2:2-19
64. S.Y.Jejurkar, D.P.Mishra. Flame Stability in a Hydrogen Air Premixed Flame
Annular Combustor. Hydrogen Energy 2011;10:1-13
65. G.B.Chen, Y.C.Chao, C.P.Chen. Enhancement of Hydrogen Reaction in a
Micro Channel by Catalyst Segmentation. International Journal Hydrogen
Energy 2008;33:2586-2595
66. S.K.Jha, S.Fernando, S.D.F.To. Flame Temperature Analysis of Biodiesel
Blends and Components. Journal of Fuel 2008;87:1982-1988
67. M.Azeman. Effect of Air-Preheating on Nox Emissions from a Gas Turbine
Combustor. Polymer and Gas Engineering 1994;8:50-61
68. S.A.Basha, R.Gopal, K.Jebaraj. A Review on Biodiesel Production,
Combustion, Emission and Performance. Renewable Sustainable Energy
2009;13:1628-1634
69. P.Benjumea, J.Agudelo, A.Agudelo. Basic Properties of Palm Oil Biodiesel-
Diesel Blends. Journal of Fuel 2008;87:2069-2075
70. C.Y.May, M.A.Ngan, K.Weng, Y.Basiron. An Option for Green House Gas
Mitigation in the Energy Sector. Journal of Oil Palm Research 2005;17:47-52