Groforw,,. Vol. ZJ. No. I, pp. h34Y. lYY3 lwllf%7lxs/Y3 $h.lXl+ll.*) Printed I” Great Bntain 0 IYY3 Pergamon Pras Lrd

Development Intervention and the Changing Status of Rural Women in

Sri Lanka

ANOJA WICKRAMASINGHE,* Peradeniya, Sri Lanka

Abstract: After one decade of implementing a strategy of integrated rural develop- ment in Sri Lanka, this is the first study to evaluate the impact of this state intervention on women at a national level. Examination of 753 women’s projects reveals that almost 85% of the projects are successful in terms of their income generation. To a woman in the rural sector achieving an income offers financial strength in both the domestic sphere and in society. Yet much of these earnings is spent on family welfare and very little is spent to meet their own needs. The training in leadership, managerial skills and social participation achieved through the program is a noteworthy feature. However, the broader objectives of sharing development benefits on equal terms with men have not been met because women have been identified as a separate group. This type of development effort results in relatively isolated women’s programs subordinate to mainstream development. Even the social status gained by women is restricted to their own activity groups where male leadership is absent. Under such circumstances, the need to integrate women into the mainstream of rural development is emphasized.

Introduction

Within the context of state intervention in develop-

ment, the advancement of the economic strength of

the most backward and poverty-stricken sectors has

been considered to be of prime importance. A target

group approach based on community participation

has been adopted which enables the formulation and

implementation of programs and projects which

closely address the most outstanding problems. In the

process of national intervention in economic restruc-

turing the need for avoiding polarization was well

understood by the policy planners. Motivating de-

serving sectors, delivering assets, incentives, services

and physical support within a theme of decentral-

ization has been well established in Sri Lanka, par-

ticularly since 1972, and was further advanced after

* Department of Geography. University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka.

1976 with the adoption of the ‘integrated rural devel-

opment’ strategy. Within this theme efforts have

been made especially to eliminate the continued

subordination and backwardness of women.

Even after decades of free education and the expan-

sion and extension of services to remotely located

areas, reaching the goal of equity was found to be

difficult. The social norm of giving priority to domes-

ticity is not the sole reason for binding women to their

domestic sphere. In fact many women take pride in

motherhood and household responsibility. However,

within the context of employment, fewer opportuni-

ties are available for women to engage in cash-

generating activities, and so they remain in sub-

ordination. In Sri Lanka this is not the result of their

staying at home, especially after marriage or having

children, but is largely due to the continuation of

subsistence sector agriculture, and lack of paid

employment opportunities, particularly in rural

areas.

63

64

As is stressed by the WORLD BANK (1975), rural

development is a strategy designed to improve the

economic and social life of a specific group of people,

namely the rural poor. This involves extending the

benefits of development to the poorest among those

who seek a livelihood in rural areas. Within the

context of Sri Lanka’s economy, women’s enrollment

in production activities is a prerequisite to achieving

the overall goal of eliminating poverty and improving

the lives of the rural poor. This general realization has

been much strengthened during the UN Women’s

Decade (1975-1985). Since then, as in many Third

World countries, attempts have been made to open

up opportunities for women to share the benefits of

development.

The institutional support provided through the Inte-

grated Rural Development Program (IRDP) has be-

come a key element in decentralized development. In

drawing up appropriate programs for individual dis-

tricts, the distribution of employment and services,

and the solving of problems in a way to suit the local

situation were given priority. The IRDP programs,

which were expanded widely around 1980 with assist-

ance given by NORAD (Norwegian Agency for

International Development), SIDA (Swedish Inter-

national Development Agency), IFAD (Inter-

national Fund for Agricultural Development) and

many governments like Japan, Finland, The Nether-

lands and Germany, have laid emphasis on the need

to improve the standard of living of the rural poor.

This study is an attempt to examine how the strategy

of the IRDP leads to economic restructuring of rural

areas and to identify the effectiveness of such an

effort in promoting women’s employment status,

productive roles and contribution to rural society.

For this purpose the IRDP of Kegalle District was

examined.

The Background

The need for promoting women’s enrollment in pro-

duction does not require specific justification mainly

because, as shown in the 1981 national statistics, the

proportion of women in the labor force is extremely

low at only 25.5%. Although this figure is mainly due

to the omission of women’s productive contribution

to subsistence agriculture from official statistics, it

also rcflccts male dominance of employment oppor-

Geoforum/Volume 24 Number l/l993

tunities in the formal sector of Sri Lanka (WICK-

RAMASINGHE, 1988a, b). The potential for im-

proving women’s productive capacity is particularly

strong in rural areas because they contain almost 78%

of the population of Sri Lanka.

IRDP projects are being implemented in I5 of the 24

administrative districts of Sri Lanka. They are seen as

the main strategy of the state for expanding cmploy-

ment for women. restructuring the economy and

changing the distribution of employment opportuni-

tics in rural areas. Although the adopted themes of

donor agencies vary, all put emphasis on women’s

participation in sector-al and area development, A

number of services such as rural credit, training and

education are also being provided in addition to basic

investments in women’s activities.

Among these programs, the Kegalle IRDP has

reached its second phase, and therefore is taken as a

suitable area to identify how the IRDP effort has

been able to promote the role of women in the

economic restructuring of rural areas. Kegalle Dis-

trict, in West Central Sri Lanka, produces graphite,

precious stones, rubber and agricultural products.

This region is one of the few farming areas in the

country where traditional transplanting which leads

to greater yields has taken hold. Prior to IFAD

intervention in 1986. funds had been allocated under

the financial assistance given by NORAD and the

decentralized budget (DCB) system. During the first

phase of the IRDP, 1986-1990, nearly 475 projects

were established in the areas which were not covered

under the NORAD and DCB programs. To what

extent these projects enable women to share in the

benefits of development opportunities and services,

and how this effort as a whole is able to achieve both

equity and the restructuring of the rural economy. is

not yet clear.

Employment Opportunities Provided through IRDP

The extent to which state assets are delivered to

sponsor women’s economic activities varies between

areas. Adhering to recommendations given at the

stage of implementing the first phase projects in 1986.

the IRDP women’s program has now been expanded

to three new parts of Kegalle District during the

second phase (Table I ).

Tab

le

1.

Div

isio

ns

of K

egal

le

Dis

tric

t in

whi

ch

IRD

P pr

ojec

ts

wer

e im

plem

ente

d*

Act

ivity

Ram

bukk

ana

Ara

naya

ka

War

kapo

la

Gal

igam

uwa

Deh

iow

ita

Yat

iyan

tota

T

otal

G

rand

I

II

I II

I

II

I II

I

II

I II

I

II

tota

l

Goa

t re

arin

g Po

ultr

y D

airy

Pi

gger

y Se

win

g/dr

essm

akin

g Po

ttery

R

etai

l tr

ade

Con

fect

ione

ry

Bat

ik

indu

stri

es

Mat

w

eavi

ng

Yog

hurt

m

akin

g Sm

all

indu

stri

es

Tea

bo

x m

akin

g D

ress

ing

up b

ride

/hai

r dr

essi

ng

Rub

ber-

base

d w

ork

Hom

e-ga

rden

ing

Tex

tile/

wea

ving

C

oir

indu

stry

O

ther

Pa

rboi

ling,

pr

oces

sing

ri

ce

Selli

ng

clot

hes

Tot

al

17

31

2 11

16

13

0

0 0

24

0 19

0

8 18

3

12

5 0

0 0

10

0 12

5

17

14

8 4

2 0

39

0 4

0 7

9 7

1 0

2 3

0 0

0 6

0 0

0 0

0 3

1 0

0 0

0 2

0 6

1.5

3 0

1 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

9 4

0 11

9

0 0

0 10

0

12

3 2

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 1

0 2

1 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

1 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

1 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

9 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

2 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 2

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 2

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 1

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 2

0 0

0 0

0 3

0 0

0 2

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 4

0 0

0 2

1 6

0 2

0 0

0 2

0 2

0 0

0 4

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 1

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 2

50

81

49

37

50

37

0 39

0

66

0 66

35

98

133

30

38

68

23

77

100

12

16

28

1 11

12

15

4

19

15

40

55

3 5

8 1

0 1

1 0

1 1

0 1

9 0

9 2

0 2

0 4

4 0

1 1

0 2

2 0

5 5

0 4

4 1

14

15

0 4

4 0

3 3

149

326

475

*I

=

pilo

t ph

ase

proj

ects

. II

=

seco

nd-p

hase

pr

ojec

ts.

66

As shown in Table 1, the projects introduced in the

first phase of the program consisted of about 14 types

of activities. Out of the 149 projects implemented

during the first phase between 1986 and 1990, 67%

involved four types of livestock production: goat

rearing, poultry and pig keeping. and dairying.

Another 20% of the projects focussed on craftwork,

especially pottery making, and 10% on retail sales.

During the second phase 70% of projects involved

livestock raising while the second most common type

of project was trading with 43, or 13% of the total.

In terms of the nature of projects introduced under

the IRDP, priority given for animal husbandry is a

well-marked feature. More than 55% of the project

assets are given to this sector. The IRDP effort as a

whole is an attempt to promote the well-being of the

poorest through self-employment activities, and thus

such enterprises remain in isolation. This situation is

not only associated with women’s projects alone. but

the livestock sector generally remains segregated

from the rest of the IRDP activities which deal with

minor irrigation, agricultural development and rural

infrastructure. The advancement of women’s contri-

bution and their participation in the overall economic

restructuring of rural areas is seldom taken into

consideration in the process of project implemen-

tation.

The establishment of home-based activities is another

prominent feature observed in Table 1. As in other

informal-sector activities, women’s contribution

towards strengthening the economy is seen as part

and parcel of domestic work. Similarly their partici-

pation in self-employment is neither consistent nor

continuous. Under the pressure of domestic work

worncn are unable to maintain the continuous work

pattern which is normal in non-home-based employ-

ment.

The Effect of Women’s Self-employment in Redistributing Employment Opportunities

The field investigation conducted in order to evaluate

the IRDP activities (WICKRAMASINGHE, 1990)

has enabled the examination of the effect of the self-

employment of women in redistributing jobs. On the

whole women’s self-employment has not been able to

make an impact on restructuring employment oppor-

Geoforum/Volume 24 Number l/1993

tunities. The whole set of activities remains an iso-

lated and additional component, while the trad-

itionally male-dominated formal sector is unchanged.

The program was not effective in changing the struc-

ture of the distribution of employment or the gender

disparity in labor force participation.

The main reason for this is the establishment of

home-based activities which do not greatly deviate

from the conventional roles of women. The work

involved in dealing with dairy, poultry and goat

rearing remains much the same. The difference noted

here is in the provision of financial assistance and

formal training for women. Placing women in ii

decision-making position in managing the introduced

activities is the main change seen in many situations.

The financial assistance given through the project for

pottery, brick making and coir industries are

examples of such a situation. Legal ownership of the

assets provided for the projects ha? enabled the

women to continue their activities with great enthusi-

asm

The changes brought to the subsistence sector, and

their continued dependency on this, is another aspect

which needs to he emphasized. Clearly. as self-

employment tends to generate only an irregular

income. women are not necessarily in ;I much

improved financial position. Yet. the possibility of

earning cash instead of contributing produce for

household consumption is the positive change xen.

What often happens is the lengthening of women’s

work time and the aggregating of responsibilities fol-

normal domestic work and household agricultural

activities. With the introduction of self-employment

women work longer hours. The minimum increase ol

work time varies from 4 to c7 hr a day depending on the

nature of the enterprise and management rcquire-

ments. This has led to an increase in the multiplicit!

and burden ol’ work and tirne prcssurc in the housc-

hold domain.

Impact of Women’s Self-employment in Strengthening the Household Economy

The greatest achievement of these projects is their

impact on the economic freedom and well-being of

rcspcctive families. Out of a total number of activities

established under the project almost 80% were suc-

GeoforumNolume 24 Number l/1993

Table 2. Comparison of enterprises with regard to the income category

67

Percentage of enterprises under each income category (monthly income in Rs.)

Enterprise 4OG700 701-1000 1001-1300 1301-1600 Above 1600

Poultry 62 28 5 2 3 Dairy 63 37 0 0 ? Goat rearing 78 22 0 0 0 Pig keeping 84 16 0 0 0 Retail trade 30 36 12 14 8 Brick making 19 81 0 0 0 Sewing/dressmaking 0 0 0 81 19 Coir industry 0 2 7 73 18 Confectionery 43 45 12 0 0 Tea box making 100 0 0 0 0 Pottery 40 60 0 0 0

cessful in giving some income to housewives. This

varies between Rs. 400 and 4000 per month (f8 and

BO). In this respect a well-marked disparity among

projects and enterprises was observed. The highest

income range is related to a few enterprises like the

retail trade, poultry raising and the coir industry.

However, almost 40% of the participants were able to

make a minimum income of almost Rs. 400, which is

accepted as a substantial contribution to a family.

About 37% of the participants were earning an

income of about Rs. 700-1000 per month. This

income has enabled them to rise above the poverty

line.

The data presented in Table 2 reveal a few main

factors. First, it can be seen that a majority of enter-

prises are in the low-income categories. These are

mainly activities conducted at household level to

which less time is devoted. In terms of time allocation

women in almost all animal husbandry spend a maxi-

mum of about 334 hr on these activities. This is not

due to the nature of such activities but mainly because

of the prior demands of work in the household includ-

ing agricultural work. Inefficiency of management is

often associated with a low level of income. Among

the participants, a majority of women, about 68% of

the participants, have a primary education only.

Level of education is not the main reason for a low

level of performance, as excellent achievements are

being make by some, even the illiterate few. This

investigation shows that satisfactory performance of

women’s self-employment is attributed to external

factors such as cooperation given by males, particu-

larly the husband, the unity of the family, managerial

capacity, the behavior and the attitude of the male

head and so on. However, it has been shown that,

with an investment of about Rs. 3000-5000, as was

done by the IRDP, an outstanding change can be

brought about in the family. Market-based regular

production such as dressmaking, coir work and retail

trade bring the highest return. Even with their low

level of education, women are able to become

efficient entrepreneurs given the opportunity. How-

ever, an improvement in the economic strength of a

family is the most observable achievement through

this effort.

The Effect of the Increase in Income on the

Households

More than cash-earning assessments, it was import-

ant to see the socio-economic implications of

women’s self-employment. Improvement of the liv-

ing conditions of the household, especially of families

burdened with a series of financial hardships, was

practically difficult because much of the income was

spent in meeting their basic needs. Almost all the

women engaged in these activities have spent their

earnings on the children’s education and in promot-

ing the standard of their housing. Women in the

upper income earning category have saved about

10% of their earnings. The improved condition of

housing in terms of stable roofing and flooring in

particular is notable.

There is a directly significant impact on the economic

strength of both the domestic and social domains.

Yet, as many of these activities are combined with

domestic work, as in the subsistence agriculture sec-

68

tor no recognition is given. The amount of contri-

bution made by women in the form of time, labor and

input is minimal for mothers with infants and young

children. Similarly, the cash earned daily is spent on

their daily survival and so investment of earnings to

expand enterprises is low. The convenience of home-

based work has led to it being taken up by 60% of the

project participants. Yet, retaining the projects as

individual enterprises is an obstacle in developing an

(organizational structure which would enahlc the

sharing of experience and the regular pr~)ducti~~n of

high-quality goods.

The Economic Strength Gained by Women

through Their Participation in the Project

Strengthening of women’s economic status is a land-

mark in changing the pattern of assigning women to

conventional roles. The most conspicuous picture

with regard to women, p~~rticularly in the rural sector.

is the production of goods for household subsistence

and services for the well-being of a family. However.

the transition of the subsistence economy to a cash-

oriented system has made her dependent on ‘cash’

earned by the males. The income-gcncr;lting oppor-

tunities of women enable them to hrcak through

stereotyped sex roles and to achieve the economic

strength needed to make purchasing decisions.

Pursuits of wage work mcans much to women in the

poorest sector. Even a cash income of about Rs. 40%

500 through home-based work is taken up by many of

the women because getting paid work is difficult and

not regular. Even if women get some outside casual

work which is often not more than for a few days a

month, their daily wage is less than Rs. 30. Under

such situations earning some cash while attending to

all other normal work means much to them.

The ways in which women spend their earnings is

taken as one of the fcaturcs expressing their conctrn

over their family and its requjreincI~ts. Spending their

earnings on food. clothin, (7 and cclucation ttt’ children

is common to 112% of the \vomcn participants. Spcnrt-

ing on housing is of secondary imporfancc and this is

limited to about 26” ,& of the participants. Thus it can

hc SCCII that under many circumstances stren#hcning

women’s employment nmins improving the living

standard of a family. In situations xhcre the earnings

~~(~f~~rllm/Volurne 24 Number l/19%

of a single person are not adequate due to the large

number of dependents, women’s earnings are essen-

tial for a reasonable standard of living or at least to

overcome poverty.

Impact of Employment in Changing Women’s Status

Within the context of the society, eradic~~ti~~n of

poverty and backwardness means an advancement in

women’s status. Women in the poorest sector are the

ones who are either illiterate or have :I low standard

of education. and have very limited resources. skills

and assets to promote their living standard. Poor

family status, their lack of wealth and relatively low

personal skills remain as obstacles to their equity in

society.

In terms of self-~lchievement the ~~pp~~rt~l[lities

opened up for the most backward as a result of the

distribution of assets has enabled them to become

self-employed. They have also shared in the benefits

of related development extension services. The voca-

tional training given to them, the awareness created

by having access to services like credit, the leadership

given within women’s organizations, and the links

developed between individual women, have removed

;I number of obstacles. One of the great achievcmonts

that can bc recognized over the 4-year period is the

~ldv~~rlcctnent in their ability to cxprcss ideas through

discussions and dialogue.

As project participants are women, thcrc is no mile

rcprcscntation and so women arc bound tc.) take

leadership in controlling assets. Howcvcr, thcrc is no

drastic change in the social status achicvecl in the

society in rclatitrn to economic strength. Yet, in time

to conic. with the promotion of both human and

physical I-csowxcs such achicvcmcnts coulJ he cspectcd. Ht~xwt’~-. under present circl~~~lst~~~~ccs. it

is rather ~~ifficillt to expect ii siI~~st~lilti~i1 impact be-

C;ICM the incomc carned by wotnc~~ is mostly spent on

meeting the basic neccis of famiiics and to ovcrcomc

hardship. Within the household domain 3 significant

cl1ang is seen with their increasing economic

strength becnusc of their ability to tahc dccisionh with

contidcnce in household niattcrs and in finances. In

terms ol‘xharing the bcnofits of the scrviccs which arc

Geoforum/Volume 24 Number l/1993

meant for the rural poor, women have advanced by

learning formal procedures.

Discussion

Promotion of self-employment for women, on the

one hand, is a prerequisite for better living, by

strengthening their economic role and making use of

underutilized women’s labor and skills. On the other

hand, establishment of income-generating activities

has had a limited impact on changing the overall

economy.

The adoption of a strategic approach to promote

women’s enrollment in productive work to change

the conventional pattern of male-dominated employ-

ment is needed. Yet, this cannot be achieved by

providing a separate set of domestic-based work for

women. Lessening of dependency by women on sub-

sistence sector activities is one of the achievements.

In addition, the role of women as cheap labor on a

comparatively low salary for equal work can be elimi-

nated through this effort. In this context, the pros-

pects for introducing off-farm employment are to be

taken as a possible solution to the restructuring of the

economy.

Even with the introduction of employment, there is

not much change in terms of the sharing with their

partners of the conventional roles played by women.

Their service as mother and wife remains the same

and thus self-employment responsibilities are an

addition to normal work. Therefore, a maximum

contribution and participation in the process of econ-

omic restructuring cannot be achieved. If women are

69

to undertake productive roles to the same extent as

their male partners, some simultaneous adjustment is

needed within their households.

Four years of experience with these entrepreneurs is

insufficient to make an impact on the economy. One

of the reasons for this is that within a period of 4 years

the IRDP was able to establish only a few projects.

The next reason is that no institutional support is

given to formulate and establish an organizational

structure for women to expand this sector as a means

of restructuring the economy. Unless such effort is

made there is a tendency for the mushrooming of

activities through the IRDP intervention to decline.

However, the proven fact here is the positive impact

of women’s enrollment in productive work, and

thereby their income, on strengthening the house-

hold economy and thus society at large.

References

WICKRAMASINGHE, A. (1989a) Status of women in rural Sri Lanka. Women in Development (WID), Cana- dian International Development Agency, 12, Amara- sekara Mawatha. Colombo 5, Sri Lanka.

WICKRAMASINGHE, A. (1989b) Women’s role in rural household and agriculture in Sri Lanka, Paper presented at the workshop on ‘Gender and Development’ held 16- 21 April 1989, by the Commonwealth Geographical Bureau, Department of Geography, University of New- castle upon Tyne.

WICKRAMASINGHE, A. (1990) Evaluation of the women’s income generating activities under the inte- grated rural development project in the Kegalle District, Integrated Rural Development Project, Kegalle/ Ministry of Policy Planning, Sri Lanka, p, 66.

WORLD BANK (1975) Rural Development: Sector Policy Paper. World Bank, Washington. DC.