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Developing through the Lifespan

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Development Development involves the processes and stages of growth from conception across the life span. It encompasses changes in physical, cognitive, and social behaviors.

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Developing through the Lifespan Development Development involves the processes andstages of growth from conception across thelife span. It encompasses changes in physical,cognitive, and social behaviors. Studying Development Longitudinal Studies: follow the same group of peopleover a period of time from months to many years toevaluate changes in those individuals over time. Costly to conduct Take a long time to produce results Typically lose participants over time which mayprevent generalization of results Cross-Sectional Studies: assess the of developmentalchanges with respect to a particular factors byevaluating different age groups of people at the sametime. Cohort: group of people in one age group Cohort effect: differences in the experiences of eachage group as a result of growing up in differenthistorical times. Studying Development (contd)
The cohort effect can render a cross-sectionalstudy invalid if one age group is significantlydifferent in their experiences from other agegroups. Cohort-Sequence Studies: used to minimize themajor drawbacks of longitudinal & cross-sectionalstudies. In such studies, groups are assessed at least twotimes over a span of months or years (instead ofjust once). Results from one cohort are compares withother cohorts of the same age to evaluate theirsimilarity in an effort to separate age-relatedchanges from cohort effects. Studying Development (contd)
Retrospective (Biographic) studies: case studiesthat investigate development in one person at atime. Typically the researcher interviews a persontoward the older end of the age span beingstudied. The researcher reconstructs changes that haveoccurred during the subjects life through self- reports and examination of available data. Very detailed, but may not be correct asmemory is often inaccurate and may not begeneralized to a larger population. Fertilization The egg is fertilized by a single sperm toform a zygote. The two nuclei fuse to form thecharacteristic species number ofchromosomes. Prenatal Development Embryo: from two weeks after fertilizationthrough the second month. Placenta: made of both maternal and fetal tissue;transfer of nutrients, oxygen to the fetus, carbondioxide, urea, and other wastes from the fetus tothe mother for removal. Prenatal Development (contd)
Fetus: from 9 weeks to birth By the sixth month, organs such as the stomach arefunctional to allow a premature born fetus achance of survival. Environmental Birth Defects
Teratogens: chemicals and viruses that can reachthe embryo/fetus during development and causeharm Although the placenta screens out manypotentially harmful substances, some teratogensdo pass to the fetus. Examples include alcohol, drugs, tobaccoingredients, mercury, lead, and other poisons,bacteria and viruses. The specific nature of the defect depends onwhich structures are developing at the time ofexposure. Most birth defects develop during the embryonicperiod and are usually more severe than problemsthat develop later. Environmental Birth Defects (contd)
The critical period for development of eyes, ears,arms, legs, and the heart is during the first trimester. The critical period for the reproduction systemdevelopment is during the 1st & 2nd trimesters andfor the nervous system, is all three trimesters. Maternal smoking exposes the fetus to nicotine andlowered oxygen levels which can lead to low birthweight, small head size, underdevelopedlungs,premature delivery, & stillbirth. Malnutrition and even certain nutrients taken inlarge amounts can harm the developing fetus. Vitamin A in large amounts can cause heart,nervous system, and facial defects. Environmental Birth Defects (contd)
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) represents a clusterof abnormalities that occur in infants of motherswho drink alcohol during pregnancy. Children with FAS have low intelligence, smallhead size with flat faces, misshapen eyes, flatnoses, and thin upper lips. Severe mental retardation generally results fromalcohol exposure during the first trimester. Heroin and cocaine maternal abusers most oftengive birth to infants addicted to these drugs. These babies often suffer from withdrawalsymptoms and may be distractible and unable toconcentrate as the mature. Behavior of the Neonate
At birth neonates (newborns) are equipped with basicreflexes that increase their chances of survival.Thelack of some reflexes can indicate possible brain damage. Rooting Reflex: infants response, when touched onthe cheek, to turn toward the touch, open his/hermouth, and search for the nipple. Sucking: automatic response of drawing in anything atthe mouth Swallowing: contraction of throat muscles thatenables food to pass to the esophagus withoutchoking. Grasping Reflex: when infants close their fingerstightly around an object put into their hands. Moro (startle) Reflex: loud noises cause infants toarch their backs, fling their limbs out, and quicklyretract them Behavior of Neonates (contd)
As an infant matures, developing voluntary controlover behaviors, many of these reflexes disappear. Neonates are also born preferring sights and soundsthat facilitate social responsiveness. Newborns respond to the human face, voice, & touchand show a preference for the mothers voice & odor. Their vision is best for objects about the distance ofa caretakers face & they can track objects with theireyes a few days after birth. When shown these two stimuli with the same elements, infants stared about twice as long at the facelike image. Understanding Infant Thinking
Habituation: a decreasein responding withrepeated presentationof a stimulus. Researchers usedhabituation studies todetermine if infants canperceive differences instimuli. For example,researchers showed 4month infants a seriesof images of cats ordogs and then wereshown a dog hybrid orcat hybrid image. They found that infants stared longer at these hybrid images suggesting that like adults, infants first focus on the face, not the body. Infancy & Childhood Maturation: biological growth processes that enableorderly changes in behavior, relative uninfluenced byexperience. Brain Development At birth the neural networks have a wild growthspurt. From the ages 3-6, the brains neural network isgrown most rapidly in the frontal lobes, enablingrational planning Infancy & Childhood (contd)
Motor Development Genes play a major role in motor development inthe first year of life. Rapid development of the neural networks in thecerebellum creates an infants readiness to walk. Babies generally roll over before they sit, unsupportedand usually crawl before they walk. Infancy & Childhood (contd)
Maturation and Infant Memory Infant Amnesia: inability to recall events before theage of 3. Results from a change in the way the brain organizesmemories starting at the age of 3 or 4. As the brain cortex matures, toddlers gain a sense ofself and their long-term storage increases. Young childrens preverbal memories are not easilytransformed into language. However, given certain cues, we unconsciously remember certain things from our earliest years. Infancy & Childhood (contd)
The last parts of the brain to develop are theassociation areas of the cerebral cortex. As this happens the childs cognitive abilities increasedramatically. Jean Piaget famous developmental psychologist Piaget began his work in Paris in 1920 Through his work, he became convinced that thechilds mind is NOT a miniature model of an adults His core idea was that children are active thinkers,constantly trying to construct more advancedunderstandings of the world. As children do this, their maturing brains buildschemas concepts or framework that organizes andinterprets information. Infancy & Childhood (contd)
By the time we are adults, we have built countlessschemas (mental molds) that range form cats anddogs to the concept of love. When we do not have a schema for an image itbecomes impossible to properly conceptualize itsuch as the devils tuning fork below: Infancy & Childhood (contd)
Piaget proposed two processes to explain how weuse and adjust our schemas: Assimilation: interpreting new experiences interms of our current schemas. Accommodation: adapting ones current schemasto incorporate new information. Piaget: Cognitive Development
Cognition: all the mental activities associate withthinking, knowing, remembering, andcommunicating. Sensorimotor Stage (birth to age 2) Very young babies live in the present what is out ofsight is out of mind. Experience the world mostly in terms of theirsensory impressions and motor activities. By 8 months, babies develop object permanence: theawareness that objects continue to exist when notperceived. Piaget: Cognitive Development
Some researchers believe that Piaget & hisfollowers underestimated childrens competenceduring the sensorimotor stage. Infants appear to have a greater intuitive grasp ofthe simple laws of physics that Piaget realized. Babies also appear to have a head for numbers. Piaget: Cognitive Development
Preoperational Stage (2 to 6-7 years) Children learn language Do not comprehend the mental elements ofcognitive logic. Lack conservation: the principle that properties suchas mass, volume, & number remain the same despitechanges in the forms of objects. When asked which one has more liquid the childpicked the taller container shows a lack ofunderstanding of conservation. Piaget: Cognitive Development
Preschoolers are egocentric & have difficulty withanother persons views. Egocentrism is consistent with animism: the beliefthat all things are living as well as artificalism: thatall objects are made by people. Parents who abuse their children usually do notunderstand preschoolers greater sense ofegocentrism Preschoolers lack theory of the mind:peoples ideasabout their own and others mental states such asfeelings, perceptions, & thoughts and the behaviorthese might predict. They also lack an understanding of symbolism,usetrial & error to figure things out, demonstrate magicalthinking (something happens because the child wishesit to happen) and pretend play. Piaget: Cognitive Development
Concrete Operational Stage (ages 7-12) Develop simple concepts & master conservation. Recognizes mathematical transformations(reversibility) Develop the skills to think logically about concreteevents. Formal Operational Stage (age 12-adulthood) Develop the ability to think logically about abstractconcepts. As children approach adolescence, they startthinking hypothetically (if this then that) Have the potential to develop moral reasoning Reflections on Piagets Theory
Current researchers agree with Piagets sequence ofcognitive development steps and milestones. They fault his work for not acknowledging thatchildren go through these stages at different rates andoften more quickly than he predicted. They also fault Piaget for not understanding thatchange is more gradual and continuous. Critics also believe that formal logic plays a smallerpart in cognitive development than Piaget believed. Autism Autism is adevelopmental disorderthat generally appearsin the first 3 years oflife & is marked bydeficientcommunication, socialinteraction, andunderstanding othersstates of mind. Autism (contd) Autism is a continuum or spectrum disorder.
Autistic children also have difficulty reflecting ontheir own mental states, and are less likely to usethe personal pronouns,I or me. Aspergers Syndrome: considered a highfunctioning form of autism characterized by fulllanguage development, normal intelligence, oftenwith exceptional skill or talent in a specific area,with deficiencies in social and communication skillsresulting in an inability to form normal peerrelationships. Current research indicate that genetic andenvironmental factors are responsible for the onsetof this disorder. Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development
Developed by Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky. Emphasized the role of the environment (nurture)and gradual growth (continuity) in cognitivedevelopment. (opposite to Piaget) Internalization: believed that development proceedsmainly from observing the interactions of othersand through their own interactions with theenvironment. Vygotsky asserted that mentors (parents, teachers,and other students) play a significant role incognitive development. Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development (contd)
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD):keyconcept that a range exists where the child cansolve the a problem alone with difficulty (upperlevel) and the lower level where the child solves theproblem with assistance from a mentor. When the child attains the goal by solving theproblem alone, this goal becomes the lower limitfor the next ZPD. Social Development Stranger Anxiety: the fear of strangers that infantscommonly display from about 8 months of age. Attachment: an emotional tie with anotherindividual based on body contact & familiarity Demonstrated in young children by their seekingcloseness with their caregiver(s) and exhibitingdistress on separation. Body Contact: Harry and Margaret Harlow (1950s) Used rhesus infant monkeys to research infantattachment. When raised with two artificial mothers a wiremother with food and a cloth mother withoutnourishment, the infant monkeys spent most of theirtime with the cloth mother, only going to the wiremother for food. harlows' experiments Social Development (contd)
Familiarity Critical Period: optimum period shortly afterbirth when an organisms exposure to certainstimuli or experiences produces properdevelopment Imprinting: the process by which certain animalsform attachments during a critical period earlyin life Common among ducklings, goslings, andchicks. Usually the first thing after hatching a fowl sees isits mother. From then on, the infant fowl follows itsmother only. Konrad Lorenz & his work with ducklings was keyto understanding critical periods and imprinting. imprinting Social Development (contd)
Attachment Differences Mary Ainsworth Secure Attachment: babies & mothers are in astrange room the baby plays & explorescomfortably in the moms absence, are distressedwhen she leaves and seek contact when shereturns. Insecure Attachment:babies explore less when inthe moms presence and may cling to her, cryloudly when mom leaves, and remain upset or actindifferent when mom returns. Other studies suggest that sensitive responsiveparents tend to have securely attached children. attachment style Social Development (contd)
Temperament may play a part in parentalresponsiveness,but parental sensitivity is learned &does increase infant attachment to and extent. The fathers love and the mothers love is a predictor ofa childs health and well-being. Adult relationships tend to reflect insecure or secureattachments styles of early childhood. Deprivation of Attachment Babies reared in institutions without the stimulation &attention of a regular caregiver or locked away at homeunder conditions of extreme neglect or abuse are oftenwithdrawn, frightened, and even speechless. If prolonged, childhood trauma places a child at risk forphysical, psychological & social problems and may alterthe brains production of serotonin. Social Development (contd)
Children who are prevented or disrupted fromforming attachment bonds by the age of 2 are at riskfor attachment problems. Although quality day care in stimulating, responsiveand safe environments does not appear to harmchildrens language & thinking skills, some studies have linked extensive time in daycare with increased aggressiveness and defiance. Social Development (contd)
Self-Concept Self-concept is a sense of ones identity andpersonal worth. Starts to emerge around 6 months; by months the children begin to recognize themselvesin the mirror By school age, they can describe many of theirtraits. By 8 to 10 years, their self-images are stable. Parenting Styles Authoritarian parents have strict rules & usepunishment for wrongdoings. Permissive parents have few guidelines & tend to bemore responsive than demanding. Uninvolved parents make few demands, show lowresponsiveness, and communicate little with theirchildren. Authoritative parents set limits, but explain thereason for rules with their children & makeexceptions when appropriate. Correlates with social competence (does notestablish cause and effect) May be due to the interaction of temperament(genes), parenting style, or a third outside factor. Life between childhood (puberty to independence)
Adolescence Life between childhood and adulthood (puberty to independence) Physical Development Puberty: period of sexual maturation; individualbecomes capable or reproducing. Primary Sex Characteristics: reproductive organs testes, ovaries, and external genetalia develop rapidlyat this time. Secondary Sex Characteristics: Females: estrogen influences development widerhips, secondary hair, breasts Males: testosterone influences the deepening voice,broader shoulders, secondary hair Menarche: the first menstrual period Spermarche: the first ejaculation (usually occurs as anocturnal emission). Physical Development (contd)
Sequence of physical changes during adolescenceare more predictable than the timing. Others reactions to early or late maturation caninfluence adolescents adjustments to changes. The brain undergoes significant development atthis time The frontal lobe matures & there is selective pruningof unused neurons and their connections. Until the frontal lobe is fully developed,adolescents typified rash and impulsive decisionsare generally under the control of the amygdala. Cognitive Development
During the early years, adolescents are self-focusedand believe their private experiences are unique. Most adolescents achieve Piagets formaloperational stage of thinking and start usingabstract logic. Their ability to reason hypothetically & deduce consequences enables teens to detect inconsistences & hypocrisy, which can lead to conflicts at home & school. Kohlberg: Moral Development Morality Social intuitionist view or morality believes thatmoral feelings precede moral thinking andjudgments. Moral Action perspective focuses on socialinfluences on decisions to do the right thing. Individualistic societies are more likely todemonstrate Kohlbergs postconventional morality Those who learn to delay gratification nowenable bigger rewards later. Carol Gilligan Found that women rarely reach the higheststages of morality they think more about theethic of caring than that of justice. She asserted that women are not morallyinferior, just morally different. Forming an Identity Identity: ones sense of self
According to Erikson, the teens task is to solidify asense of self by testing and integrating various roles. In Western cultures, teens usually try out differentselves in different situations Erikson noted that some teens forge their identitiesearly by adopting their parents values &expectations (often seen less individualistic cultures). Fewer teens reject values of parents and society &take on the identify of their peers. Self-esteem increases with identity achievement. Erikson also believed that having a clear identity wasa precondition for developing intimacy. Parents & Peer Influence
As teens in Western cultures form their ownidentities, they begin to separate themselves fromtheir parents. Parent-adolescent conflicts become temporarilymore intense during early adolescence butprogressively less frequent with age. During this time peer acceptance is paramount. Parents continue to influence their teens in areas such as religiosity, & college & career choices. Emerging Adulthood Emerging adulthood (extended adolescence) is thetime from 18-to the mid 20s. No longer, adolescents, these young people have notyet taken on adult-level responsibilities nor aretotally independent. During this time, many young people attend collegeor work, but continue to be dependent on parents. Today, the average age of first marriage now extendsinto the mid 20s for both men and women. Adulthood From the late 20s to the end of life Physical Changes Middle Adulthood
Muscular strength, reaction time, sensory abilities, &cardiac output begin to decline in the late 20s. Menopause: ending of the menstrual cycle, usuallybeginning with a few years of 50. Reduction in estrogen, some women experience hotflashes, but incidence of depression no differentfrom non-menopausal women. Men do NOT undergo a similar drop in hormones orfertility. Men do experience a more gradual decline in spermcount, testosterone level, speed of erection, &ejaculation. If testosterone levels plummet too fast and far,symptoms may include depression, irritability,insomnia, impotence or weakness can be treatedwith testosterone replacement therapy. Physical Changes (contd)
Later Life Worldwide the life expectancy has increased from 49to 67 in the last 100 years, and exceeds 80 years insome developed countries. Women outlive men at most ages past early infancy. After the age of 70, hearing, distance perception, ,smell, muscle strength, reaction time, & stamina alldecrease. As the immune system weakens, the elderly becomemore susceptible to diseases such as cancer &pneumonia, but have less short term illnesses becauseof a build-up of antibodies. Neural processes slow, especially for complex tasks. By age 80, the brain shrinks by about 5%. Physical Changes (contd)
Physical exercise can stimulate development of somenew brain cells and connections. Although dementia is NOT a normal part of aging,the incidence of dementia doubles every five yearsfrom the early 60s on. Alzheimers disease: a progressive & irreversibledisorder characterized by the gradual deteriorationof memory, reasoning, language, & finally physicalfunctioning. Underlying the symptoms of Alzheimers is a lossof brain cells & deterioration of neurons thatproduce acetylcholine. Deprived of Ach, memory & thinking suffer. Cognition The ability to recall new information declines duringearly & middle adulthood, but the ability torecognize new information does not. Older adults recall more meaningful informationmore easily, but may take longer to produce thewords describing what they know. Prospective memory (remember to) remainsstrong if cues are available, buy without cues, time based & habitual tasks are vulnerable to memory loss. Aging & Intelligence Cross-Sectional Studies
Researchers find that older adults give fewer correct answers than younger adults on IQ tests. Failed to consider generational differences in education & life experience. Longitudinal Studies Researchers found thatuntil late in life, intelligence remains stable. Did not take into account dropouts from study who may have been less intelligent than survivors or in poor heath, leaving an above average group of participants later in life. Aging & Intelligence (contd)
Whether intelligence increases or decreases reallydepends on the type of intellectual performancebeing measured. Crystallized Intelligence: ones accumulatedknowledge & verbal skills tends to increase with age. Fluid Intelligence: ones ability to reason speedily &abstractly tends to decrease during late adulthood. These cognitive differences explain whymathematicians & scientists produce much of theirmost creative work in the 20s and 30s. Those in literature, history, & philosophy tend toproduce their best work in their 40s and beyond. Social Development Midlife Transition (Crisis): a time of great struggle,regret, or even a feeling of being struck-down in life. Research indicates that unhappiness, jobdissatisfaction, divorce, anxiety, and/or suicide do NOTsurge during the 40s ages of life. Social Clock: the cultural prescription of the righttime to leave home, get a job, marry, & have childrenvaries from culture to culture as well as era to era. Love & work are the defining themes of adult life. Evolutionary psychologists believe that commitmenthad survival value for our ancestors. Parents who stayed together, cooperated & raisedchildren to a child-bearing age had a greater chanceof passing their genes to future generations. Social Development (contd)
The likelihood of divorce has doubled over the last40 years. This is partly due to womens economicindependence & to mens & womens expectations ofacceptable qualities in a life partner. Cohabitation before marriage is correlated with higherrates of divorce & marital dysfunction. Most people expect to marry & are generallyhappier than their single counterparts. Children are welcome additions into the family unit,but can cause strain on finances and emotionalresources. Work satisfaction correlates with life satisfaction. Well-being & feelings of satisfaction are stable acrossthe life span. Social Development (contd)
There is no normal reaction of series of grief stepsafter the death of a loved one. Grief for a loved one is most severe when thedeath is sudden or before its expected time. People in old age who achieve a sense of integritymay meet death by affirming that their own lifewas meaningful & worthwhile. Researcher Elisabeth Kubler-Ross studies ofdeath & dying suggest that terminally illpatients pass through 5 stages of coping: denial,anger, bargaining, depression and acceptance. Other research indicates that not all patientspass through all the stages nor do theynecessarily go through the stages in the orderKubler-Ross suggests.